| |||||||||||||||
Items in cart [0]
| [ Top of Page ] [ Home ] [ Contact Us ] [ Help ] [ The National Academies Home ] | ||
|
|||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||
Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole.
Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter.
Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines.
OCR for page R1
Climbing
ache pacifier
An Update on
the Status of
Doctoral Women
Jell ll~l~W HI IN
Engineers
Committee on the Ec~ucation arch
Employment of Women in Science
anc~ Engineering
Office of Scientific anc~
Engineering Personnel
National Research Council
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C. 1983
OCR for page R2
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by
the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are
drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the
National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The
members of the Committee responsible for the report were chosen for
their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors
according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting
of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of
Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was established by the National
Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science
and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and
of advising the federal government. The Council operates in accordance
with general policies determined by the Academy under the authority of
its congressional charter of 1863, which establishes the Academy as a
private, nonprofit, self-governing membership corporation. The Council
has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy
of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in the conduct of
their services to the government, the public, and the scientific and
engineering communities. It is administered jointly by both Academies
and the Institute of Medicine. The National Academy of Engineering and
the Institute of Medicine were established in 1964 and 1970, respec-
tively, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 83-60184
International Standard Book Number 0-309-03341-1
Available from:
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
National Academy of Sciences
2101 Constitution Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20418
Printed in the United States of America
OCR for page R3
COMMITTEE ON THE EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT
OF WOMEN IN SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
Lilli S. HORNIG, Chair
.
Executive Director, Higher
Education Resource Services
Wellesley College
M. Elizabeth TIDBALL,
Vice-Chair
Professor of Physiology
George Washington University
Medical Center
John A. ARMSTRONG
Manager of Materials and
Technology Department
IBM Corporation
Esther M. CONWELL
Principal Scientist
Xerox Corporation
Eleanor I. FRANKLIN
Professor of Physiology
Edward. University
College of Medicine
Gertrude S GOLDHABER
S.en~or Physicist
Brookhaven National
Laboratories
Nancy C. AHERN, Staff Officer
it,
. . .
111
Dudley R. HERSCHBACH
Professor of Chemistry
Harvard University
Shirley A. JACKSON
Theoretical Physicist
Bell Laboratories
Vera KISTIAKOWSKY
Professor of Physics
Massachusetts Institute
of Technology
Barbara F. RESKIN
Associate Professor of
Sociology
Indiana University
David Z. ROBINSON
Vice President
Carnegie Corporation of
New York
Elizabeth L. SCOTT
Professor of Statistics
University of California,
Berkeley
M. Lucius WALKER, Jr.
Dean, School of Engineering
Howard University
OCR for page R4
OCR for page R5
PREFACE
This is the fourth report of the Committee on the Education and
Employment of Women in Science and Engineering and its second publica-
tion to address specifically the status of women scientists and engineers
in academic institutions. The present report updates an earlier study,
Climbing the Academic Ladder: Doctoral Women Scientists in Academe, and
.
examines any changes in the status of women faculty between 1977 and
1981. Drawing on more limited data, it also considers their situation
in industry.
The Committee believed that another look at the situation, after
four years, was needed for several reasons. The supply of doctoral
women scientists and engineers grew sharply in the late 1970s. At the
the numbers of women leaving graduate school had
same time that
the numbers of positions in colleges and uni
women are affected disPro~ortionatelv by
increased significantly,
varsities had not. Whether ~
the relative scarcity of academic jobs needed to be examined. It was
also of interest to determine whether the gains in the presence of
women on science and engineering faculties noted during the mid-1970s
had been sustained. The Committee wished to examine the extent to
which salary differentials observed in earlier studies had narrowed or
perhaps disappeared for men and women with recent doctorates. Finally,
the status of doctoral women scientists and engineers in industry
needed to be reviewed.
Data for the report were obtained primarily
Doctorate Recipients and Survey of Earned Doctorates conducted by the
National Research Council under contract with four federal agencies.
from the Survey of
Financial support for this study was provided by the Ford Founda-
tion and is most gratefully acknowledged. Mariam Chamberlain and
Gladys Chang Hardy, who served successively as the Foundation's staff
officers, were especially helpful. The IBM Corporation generously
awarded a supplemental grant for an analysis of women scientists in
industry which appears in Chapter 5 of this report. A. N. Scallon's
assistance at IBM is noted with thanks.
v
OCR for page R6
Since its inception the Committee has been chaired by Lilli S.
Hornig, Executive Director, Higher Education Resource Services,
Wellesley College. For this and each of the Committee's previous
reports, Nancy C. Ahern served as staff officer. Judith F. Vassalotti
as secretary to the Committee typed the text of this report and prepared
the numerous tables and figures. William C. Kelly, formerly Executive
Director of the CHR and now Executive Director of the Office of Scientific
and Engineering Personnel, has contributed advice, editorial comments,
and much time and wisdom to each of the Committee reports. We take
this opportunity to express particular thanks to him.
V1
OCR for page R7
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION .
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS . .
CHAPTER 1 FACTORS AFFECTING THE SUPPLY OF DOCTORAL
WOMEN SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS
Historical patterns and their reflections
Scientific ability . . . . . . . . . . .
Trends in math and science preparation in
Trends in graduate education
CHAPTER 2 THE SUPPLY OF WOMEN DOCTORATES
Minority women in science . .
Institutional origins . . . . .
Age at Ph.D. . ~ . . . . . . . .
Graduate school support patterns
Predoctoral employment . . . .
Marital status . . . . . . . .
Plans after the Ph.D. . . . .
Labor force participation . . .
CHAPTER 3 POSTDOCTORAL TRAINING
Reason for taking a postdoctoral appointment
Marital status and postdoctoral patterns
Host institutions . . . .
Postdoctoral stipends . . .
CHAPTER 4 WOMEN SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS IN ACADEME
Academic vs. nonacademic employment . . .
Full-time and part-time employment . .
Numbers of women faculty . . . . . . . .
Sex distribution of faculty appointments
Off-ladder positions . . . . . . . . .
Hiring and promotion of junior faculty
Tenure decisions . . .
. . .
X111
XV
1. 1
1.1
1.3
1.5
1.7
2.1
2.2
2.2
2.3
2.9
2.10
2.10
2.11
2.14
. . . . .
. 1
3.2
3.6
3.6
3.10
4.1
4.1
4.?
4.5
4.5
4.8
4.8
4.14
OCR for page R8
Administrative positions
Faculty salaries ~
Geographic mobility
Conclusion .
CHAPIER 5 DOCTORAL WOMEN IN INDUSTRY
Increase in employment of female Ph. D.s .
Growth of Ph.D. personnel
Job choices for recent women doctorates .
byte of position held
Salaries
CONCLUSIONS . .
RECOMMENDATIONS
APPENDICES s .
REFERENCES
4.17
4.21
4.24
4.24
c
r ~
~ . ~
5.1
5.1
5.3
5.3
5.5
. . .
V111
OCR for page R9
LIST OF TABLES
page
1.1 Growth in baccalaureate degrees to women in science and
engineering fields, 1960-1980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6
1.1A Trends in proportions of baccalaureate degrees
earned by women in selected humanities fields
and education, 1960-1980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8
1.2 Persistence and attrition of women from the science
and engineering educational ladder . .
1.3 Parity trends for Ph.D.s by broad field, 1970 and 1980
2.1 Number of science and engineering doctorates awarded
by sex and field, 1970-1981 . . . . .
. 1.12
2.1A Number of science and engineering doctorates awarded
in 1980 by sex, racial-ethnic group, and field . . . . 2.6
2.2 Percent of science and engineering doctorates awarded
to men and women from highly rated departments, for
selected fields, 1970-1980 . . . .
2.3
Percent of 1977 and 1981 science and engineering Ph.D.s
who were married at receipt of the doctorate,
by field and sex e · ~ · ~ · - · · · · ~ ~ · · ~ · ~ ~
2.4 Employment prospects at time of receipt of the doctorate
by field and sex, 1980 science and engineering Ph.D.s .
2.5 Percent of 1980 science and engineering doctorates
planning academic and industrial employment following
receipt of the Ph.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Number and percent of women doctoral scientists and
engineers in the labor force by field, 1981 .
1X
.7
2.10
2~12
OCR for page R10
Number and percent of 1980 science and engineering
doctorates planning postdoctoral appointments by
field and sex ~ · ~ · ~ · ~ · · · e - ~ ~
3~2 Reason for taking a postdoctoral appointment r 1980
doctorates in selected science fields by sex . . .
3.3
3.4
Status of postdoctoral appointment at time of receipt
of PA n he Fi ~1 H end ~x. 1980 science and
engineering Ph.D.s . . .
3.4 Percent of 1972 Ph.D. recipients who held long-term
postdoctoral appointments by sex and marital status
3.5
Geographic limitations as a factor in taking a
postdoctoral appointment, by sex and marital status,
1978 science and engineering Ph.D.s . . . . . . .
3.6 Host institutions for 1980 Ph.D.s with definite
postdoctoral appointments, by sex and field . .
Full-time and part-time employment of doctoral scientists
and engineers in academe by field and sex, 1981 .
4.2 Increase in doctoral scientists and engineers in faculty
positions by R&D expenditures of institution and sex,
1977-1981 . . . . . . . .
3.7
4.3 Number and percent of women doctoral scientists and
engineers in faculty positions at 50 leading institutions
by field, rank, and sex, 1977 and 1981 . . .
4.4 Number and percent of doctoral scientists and engineers
in academe at rank of instructor/lecturer, by field
and sex, 1977-1981 . . . . . . . . . ~ ~ . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 4.9
4.10
4.5 Number and percent of women doctoral scientists and
engineers in selected positions in academic institutions
by R&D expenditures of institution, 1977-1981 . . . . . . 4.11
Percent women among doctoral scientists and engineers in
junior faculty positions by field, 1981 . . .
4.6A Percent of assistant professorships that are off-ladder
positions, for male and female doctoral scientists
and engineers, 1981 . .
4.12
x
OCR for page R11
4.7
4.8
4.10
Tenure status of science and engineering faculty at 4-year
colleges and universities by rank and sex, 1977 and 1981 4.16
Elapsed time from Ph.D. to tenure for doctoral scientists
and engineers in faculty positions by R&D expenditures of
institution, field, and sex, 1981 . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9 Number of doctoral scientists and engineers in academic
administration, by R&D expenditures of institution,
Ph.D. cohort, and sex, 1981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Median annual salaries of doctoral scientists and
engineers in faculty positions at 4-year colleges and
universities by field of employment, rank, and
sex, 1981 · ~ ~ · ~ · ~ · ~ ~ ~ · e · ~ · ~ · ~ ·
Percent doctoral women employed in industry and
percent available, 1981 .
5.2 Percent of Ph.D. graduates planning industrial employment
following receipt of doctorate by sex for selected fields
5.3 Percent of doctoral scientists and engineers in industry
whose primary work activity is management, 1973, 1977,
and 1981 . . .
4.19
4 20
4.22
5.2
OCR for page R12
LI ST OF FI CURES
2.1 Percent of science and engineering doctorates granted
to women by field and decade, 1920-1979 . . .
2.2 Median age at Ph.D. by field and sex, 1981 science
and engineering doctorates
page
3.1 Percent of new Ph.D.s planning postdocs, 1972-1980
3.2 Postdoctoral stipends in two fields by sex, 1981
4.1 Percent distribution of doctoral scientists and
engineers by employment sector and sex, 1981
4.2 Faculty rank distribution of doctoral scientists and
engineers by R&D expenditures of institution and
4.3 Promotions of doctoral scientists and engineers in
junior faculty positions between 1977 and 1981
4.4 Tenure status of associate professors by sex, for
selected fields of science and engineering, 1981
5.1
Primary work activities of doctoral scientists and
engineers in industry, 1981 . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Median salaries of doctoral scientists and engineers
in industry by cohort and sex, 1981
. . . . 4.18
5.4
OCR for page R13
INTRODUCTION
The Committee's first report, Climbing the Academic Ladder: Doc-
toral Women Scientists in Academe (1979), explored the status of women in
faculty, postdoctoral, and advisory posts. Women scientists were found
to be concentrated in the lower ranks and in off-ladder positions, were
typically paid less than their male colleagues at the same rank, and
were less likely to be awarded tenure. A subsequent report, Career
~lltrom=.~ i n ~ Matched Sample of Men and Women Ph.D.s: An Analytical
Report (1981), indicated that these differences remain even when men and
women are closely matched by education, experience, and type of employ-
ment. The latter study also revealed that the disparities in pay and
advancement are not explained by what are traditionally considered im-
portant factors--the perceived greater restraints on career mobility or
greater likelihood that women have in the past interrupted their careers
for child-rearing.
Since 1977--the survey year on which the first report was based--
an additional 13,000 doctoral women scientists and engineers have
joined the labor force, bringing their number to 41,000 of a total
of 341,000 for both sexes. The characteristics of the new entrants
and their effect on the overall status of women in academe and in-
dustry are examined in the following analyses.
Data sources
The primary data on which this report is based are a pair of
surveys conducted by the National Research Council. Copies of the
questionnaires are provided in Appendices A and B.
The annual Survey of Earned Doctorates is a virtually 100 percent
survey of individuals receiving doctorates from U.S. institutions. With
the assistance of graduate deans, information is collected at the time
of receipt of the Ph.D. concerning educational background and postdoc-
toral plans. These data are analyzed in Chapter 2, "Supply of Women
Doctorates."
.
.
X111
OCR for page R14
The follow-on Survey of Doctorate Recipients collects subsequent
employment data from a sample of 65,391 scientists, engineers, and hu-
manists who earned Ph.D.s during the period 1938-1980. The survey has
been conducted biennially since 1973; this report relies chiefly on the
1981 survey results. Responses from individuals in the sample are
weighted to yield population estimates. The estimates are in turn sub-
ject to possible error due to sampling variability and possible non-
sampling errors such as nonresponse bias.
Organization of the report
We will first look at the number of women in the science/engineering
pipeline and recent trends in the proportion of college women planning
careers as scientists. In Chapter 2, the characteristics of new
doctorate recipients are described. Chapter 3 presents data on patterns
of postdoctoral appointments for recent Ph.D.s. The comparative status
of men and women faculty, including their rank, tenure, and salary
profiles, is discussed in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 briefly examines the
employment patterns of doctoral women in industry and whether the
picture has changed since 1977. Finally, we summarize the evidence
related to the status of women scientists and propose recommendations
for improving their situation.
x~ v
OCR for page R15
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
~ Jo _' ~ ~ women have increased steeply,
especially in those fields in which women have been most under-
represented--engineering and computer sciences. (Table 1.1)
Undergraduate science enrollments for
· The persistence rate or probability of women going on to graduate
school is low, relative to men, in mathematics and chemistry.
(Table 1.2)
.
The numbers of women earning Ph.D.s in science and engineering have
increased steadily since 1970 while the numbers of men have declined.
The decade of the 1970s was the first in which the percent of doc-
torates granted to women matched or exceeded the levels of the
1920s. (Figure 2.1 and Table 2.1)
· In the 5-year period 1976-1980 similar proportions of men and women
doctorates had received their training at highly rated departments.
The sex differences were small except in mathematics where women
were less likely to have received their degrees from prestigious
institutions. (Table 2.2)
· Except in computer sciences and physics, 15-20 percent more women
than men were still seeking jobs. In general, a somewhat higher
proportion of the male Ph.D. recipients reported having definite
jobs at the time of graduation except in computer sciences.
(Table 2.4)
Women constituted 12 percent of all doctoral scientists and engineers
in the labor force in 1981. (Table 2.6)
· Similar proportions of recent men and women Ph.D.s planned post-
doctoral study. (Table 3.1)
About one-fifth
meets--for more
in the life
(Table 3.4)
of all postdoctorate have held long-term appoint-
than 36 months. The holding ~
sciences, especially for married
xv
_
pattern is most prevalent
women and single men.
OCR for page R16
Married women report that geographic limitations played an important
role in their decision to take a postdoctoral appointment.
(Table 3.5)
As of 1981, there were approximately 13,500 doctoral women on U.S.
science and engineering faculties, accounting for 10.9 percent of
the total. Their representation is up from 9.3 percent in 1977.
(Table 4.2)
In the major research universities, women held 24 percent of the
assistant professorships, but only 3 percent of the full professor-
ships as of 1981. (Table 4.3)
Women scientists are still twice or three times as likely as men to
hold nonfaculty (instructor/lecturer) appointments. In most fields,
the disparity has increased since 1977. However, relatively few
(3,percent) of all doctoral women in academe hold such positions.
(Table 4.4)
In general, recent women Ph.D.s are found in junior faculty positions
in proportions exceeding their availability in the doctoral pool.
(Table 4.6)
Promotions of junior faculty between 1977 and 1981 show wide sex
differences: in the group of top 50 institutions (ranked by R&D
expenditures), for example' three-fourths of the men, but only
one-half of the women were promoted from assistant professor to a
higher rank in those years. (Figure 4.3)
· Overall, the proportion of women scientists who are tenured continues
to be lower than for men. The sex differential in tenure for as-
sociate professors, however, has narrowed since 1977, and, at the
assistant professor rank, a slightly higher percent of the women
have tenure. (Table 4.7)
.
The median "time to tenure," for science and engineering faculty who
did achieve tenure, was 5.9 years for women and 6.1 years for men.
In the physical sciences, however, awarding of tenure lagged for
female faculty. (Table 4.8)
· After controlling for rank, salary differences for men and women
persist in most fields. The sex differences continue to be largest
in chemistry and the medical sciences. (Table 4.10)
The number of doctoral women scientists and engineers in industry
doubled between 1977 and 1981. Still, women account for only
5 percent of all Ph.D.-level industrial personnel. (Table 5.1)
New women Ph.D.s now plan industrial employment at about the some
rate as men. (Table 5.2)
xv
OCR for page R17
Women scientists and engineers continue to be less
managerial jobs in industry. (gable 5.3)
likely to hold
Median salaries in industry are typically lower for female scientists,
even among the recent Ph.D.s. For those 1-2 years past the
doctorate' the salary gap amounts to $2~400. (Figure 5.2)
xvii
OCR for page R18