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Nutrient Requirements of Fish
Committee on Animal Nutrition
Board on Agriculture
National Research Council
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C.
1993
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NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
2101 Constitution Avenue, NW Washington, D.C. 20418
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Robert M. White is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. Robert M. White are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
This study was supported by the Agricultural Research Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, under Agreement No. 59-32U4-5-6, and by the Center for Veterinary Medicine, Food and Drug Administration of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, under Cooperative Agreement No. FD-U-000006-10. Additional support was provided by the American Feed Industry Association. Dissemination of the report was supported in part by the W. K. Kellogg Foundation.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Nutrient requirements of fish / Committee on Animal Nutrition, Board on Agriculture, National Research Council.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index.
ISBN 0-309-04891-5
1. Fishes—Nutrition—Requirements. 2. Fishes—Feeding and feeds. I. National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Animal Nutrition.
SH156.N86 1993
639.3—dc20 93-39031
CIP
Copyright 1993 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the view of the organizations or agencies that provided support for this project.
Printed in the United States of America
First Printing, December 1993
Second Printing, April 1999
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SUBCOMMITTEE ON FISH NUTRITION
RICHARD T. LOVELL, Chair,
Auburn University
C. YOUNG CHO,
University of Guelph and Fisheries Branch, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Canada
COLIN B. COWEY,
University of Guelph, Canada
KONRAD DABROWSKI,
The Ohio State University
STEVEN HUGHES,
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Monell Chemical Senses Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
SANTOSH LALL,
Nova Scotia Department of Fisheries and Ocean, Canada
TAKESHI MURAI,
National Institute of Fisheries Science, Tokyo, Japan
ROBERT P. WILSON,
Mississippi State University
COMMITTEE ON ANIMAL NUTRITION
HAROLD F. HINTZ, Chair,
Cornell University
DONALD C. BEITZ,
Iowa State University
GARY L. CROMWELL,
University of Kentucky
ROGER W. HEMKEN,
University of Kentucky
LAURIE M. LAWRENCE,
University of Kentucky
LARRY P. MILLIGAN,
University of Guelph, Canada
JERRY L. SELL,
Iowa State University
OLAV T. OFTEDAL,
National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C.
ROBERT P. WILSON,
Mississippi State University
Staff
MARY I. POOS, Project Director
BARBARA J. RICE, Editor
JANET OVERTON, Editor
DENNIS BLACKWELL, Project Assistant
KAMAR PATEL, Senior Project Assistant*
BOARD ON AGRICULTURE
THEODORE L. HULLAR, Chair,
University of California, Davis
PHILIP H. ABELSON,
American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C.
JOHN M. ANTLE,
Montana State University
DALE E. BAUMAN,
Cornell University
WILLIAM B. DELAUDER,
Delaware State University
SUSAN K. HARLANDER,
Land O'Lakes, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota
PAUL W. JOHNSON, Natural Resources Consultant,
Decorah, Iowa
T. KENT KIRK,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Madison, Wisconsin
JAMES R. MOSELEY,
Jim Moseley Farms, Inc., Clark Hills, Indiana, and Purdue University
DONALD R. NIELSEN,
University of California, Davis
NORMAN R. SCOTT,
Cornell University
GEORGE E. SEIDEL, JR.,
Colorado State University
PATRICIA B. SWAN,
Iowa State University
JOHN R. WELSER,
The Upjohn Company, Kalamazoo, Michigan
FREDERIC WINTHROP, JR., The Trustees of Reservations,
Beverly, Massachusetts
Staff
SUSAN OFFUTT, Executive Director
JAMES E. TAVARES, Associate Executive Director
CARLA CARLSON, Director of Communications
JANET OVERTON, Editor
*
Through February 1992
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Preface
The Subcommittee on Fish Nutrition was appointed in 1989 under the auspices of the Board on Agriculture's Committee on Animal Nutrition (CAN) to update and revise the 1981 edition of Nutrient Requirements of Coldwater Fishes and the 1983 edition of Nutrient Requirements of Warmwater Fishes and Shellfishes. New research indicates that similarities in the nutrition and feeding of cold-water and warm-water species do not warrant separate reports. Therefore, this edition combines all species of finish having commercial significance. (See Appendix Table A-1 for a list of fish discussed in this report.) It aims to expand knowledge on the nutrient requirements of finfish, diet formulations and preparation, and feeding practices.
The origins of CAN can be traced to the earliest days of the National Research Council, which was established in 1916 as the operating arm of the National Academy of Sciences. One of the major activities of the committee has been the development of nutrient requirement standards for domestic animals, including standards for laboratory animals. In 1943, the first appointments were made for subcommittees on the nutrition of poultry and swine. Since then, subcommittees have also been formed on the nutrient requirements of dairy cattle, beef cattle, sheep, horses, foxes and mink, dogs, cats, rabbits, laboratory animals, goats, nonhuman primates, warm-water fish and shellfish, and coldwater fish. These reports have been revised from time to time as new information on quantitative nutrient requirements has become available.
The Overview of this report is followed by eight chapters. Chapter 1 presents dietary requirements necessary for the normal health, growth, and reproduction of fish. Chapter 2 discusses materials in feedstuffs, other than nutrients, that may affect physical, palatability, or nutritional properties of the feed or metabolism of the fish. Chapter 3 covers antinutrients and adventitious toxins that may be present in feedstuffs and the varying susceptibilities of different fish to them.
Chapters 4, 5, and 6 focus on the nutrient availability of feedstuffs for various species as well as the formulation and feeding of commercial diets that are nutritionally balanced mixtures of feed ingredients with desired physical properties. Feeding practices for larval fish and various fish species are detailed.
Chapter 7 is a table of minimum nutrient requirements for maximum performance of five fish. These values represent minimum requirements for young, rapidly growing fish under optimal growing conditions. The values have not been increased to include a margin of safety commonly added in practice to compensate for ingredient variation, processing and storage losses, and variation in requirements caused by environmental effects. Therefore, those given here should be adjusted for practical allowances in feed formulation. Also, if the requirements are not given for a particular species, those established for a related species can often be discreetly substituted. As more information becomes available on nutrient requirements, the recommended allowances for specific needs will be refined.
Chapter 8 provides tables of feed ingredient composition for defining and formulating fish feeds for research and commercial practices. The nutrient composition data represent chemical analyses with no correction for availability to the animal. Therefore, the level of the feed ingredient, when used in diet formulation, must be adjusted to allow for availability to the fish.
Aquatic crustaceans (arthropods with mandibles, antennae, legs, or leg like appendages on the abdomen and thorax, and no wings) are not included in this edition because of the lack of published research data on their nutrient requirements. However, crustacean aquaculture is a viable commercial enterprise worldwide, and this subcommittee recognizes
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the need for nutritional information for these species.
Most of the data presented in this report are for small fish, and it is recognized that nutrient requirements change as fish size increases. Also, environment influences nutrient requirements; therefore, future research should address effects of temperature, disease, and various other stresses on the nutritional needs of fish. More research is also needed on the nutrient requirements that have a large impact on feed costs, such as amino acids and energy-protein ratios, to refine or support existing values that in many cases are based on a single set of experimental conditions.
Richard T. Lovell, Chair
Subcommittee on Fish Nutrition
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Contents
OVERVIEW
1
1.
DIETARY REQUIREMENTS
3
Energy
3
Protein and Amino Acids
6
Lipids
13
Carbohydrates
15
Minerals
16
Vitamins
21
2.
OTHER DIETARY COMPONENTS
33
Water
33
Fiber
33
Hormones
34
Antibiotics
34
Antioxidants
34
Pigments
35
Pellet Binders
36
Feeding Stimulants
36
3.
ANTINUTRIENTS AND ADVENTITIOUS TOXINS
38
Antinutrients Present in Feedstuffs
38
Natural Contaminants of Feedstuffs
40
Heavy Metals
41
Pesticides
42
4.
DIGESTIBILITY AND ABSORPTION
43
Methods of Digestibility Determination
43
Factors Affecting Digestibility
44
Nutrient Digestibility
44
5.
DIET FORMULATION AND PROCESSING
49
Use of Nutrient Requirement Data
49
Formulating Fish Diets
49
Commercial Diet Ingredients
50
Quality of Ingredients
50
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Feed Processing
51
Natural Ingredient Reference Diets
52
Purified Research Diets
52
6.
FEEDING PRACTICES
55
Feeding Larval Fish
55
Channel Catfish
56
Tilapia
57
Striped Bass and Hybrid Bass
58
Rainbow Trout
58
Pacific Salmon
60
Atlantic Salmon
60
7.
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS TABLE
62
8.
COMPOSITION OF FEED INGREDIENTS
64
REFERENCES
72
APPENDIX
95
AUTHORS
103
INDEX
105
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Tables and Figure
TABLES
1-1
Optimum Protein: Energy Ratio for Different Fish
5
1-2
Estimated Dietary Protein Requirement for Maximal Growth of Some Species of Juvenile Fish
7
1-3
Amino Acid Requirements of Juvenile Chinook Salmon
7
1-4
Amino Acid Requirements of Juvenile Common Carp
8
1-5
Amino Acid Requirements of Juvenile Channel Catfish
8
1-6
Amino Acid Requirements of Juvenile Japanese Eel
9
1-7
Amino Acid Requirements of Juvenile Nile Tilapia
9
1-8
Amino Acid Requirements of Juvenile Rainbow Trout
10
1-9
Amino Acid Requirements of Juvenile Coho Salmon
10
1-10
Amino Acid Requirements of Juvenile Chum Salmon
11
1-11
Amino Acid Requirements of Juvenile Mossambique Tilapia
11
1-12
Amino Acid Requirements of Juvenile Gilthead Sea Bream
12
1-13
Amino Acid Requirements of Juvenile Lake Trout
12
1-14
Essential Fatty Acid Requirement of Fish
14
1-15
Vitamin Requirements for Growing Fish Determined with Chemically Defined Diets in a Controlled Environment
23
2-1
Astaxanthin Content of Selected Natural Materials Used for Pigmentation of Salmonids
35
2-2
Xanthophyll Content of Selected Plant Materials
36
4-1
Apparent Digestibility of Protein, Fat, and Carbohydrate in Selected Diet Ingredients for Chinook Salmon, Rainbow Trout, Channel Catfish, and Blue Tilapia
45
4-2
True Amino Acid Availability and Protein Digestibility Values for Certain Feed Ingredients for Atlantic Salmon and Channel Catfish
46
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4-3
Net Absorption of Phosphorus from Various Sources by Channel Catfish, Common Carp, and Rainbow Trout
47
5-1
Suggested Quality Standards of fishmeal and Fish Oil for Salmonid Diets
51
5-2
Examples of Natural Ingredient Reference Diets for Salmonids and Channel Catfish
53
5-3
Examples of Purified Reference Diets
54
6-1
Example of Daily Feeding Allowances for Channel Catfish Fed Once Daily from April until October in Ponds in the Southern United States
57
6-2
Example of Daily Feeding Allowances and Frequencies for Various Sizes of Tilapias at 28°C
58
6-3
Example of Daily Feeding Guide for Rainbow Trout Calculated from Energy Requirements of Fish of Various Sizes
59
7-1
Nutrient Requirements for Channel Catfish, Rainbow Trout, Pacific Salmon, Common Carp, and Tilapia as Percentages of Diet, Milligrams per Kilogram of Diet, or International Units (IU) per Kilogram of Diet
63
8-1
Proximate Composition and Digestible and Metabolizable Energy Values for Natural and Chemically Defined Ingredients Commonly Used in Fish Feeds
65
8-2
Amino Acid Composition of Ingredients Commonly Used in Fish Feeds
67
8-3
Mineral Composition of Ingredients Commonly Used in Fish Feeds
68
8-4
Vitamin Composition of Ingredients Commonly Used in Fish Feeds
69
8-5
Fatty Acid Composition of Common Animal Fats, Fish Oils, and Vegetable Oils
70
FIGURE
1-1
Schematic presentation of the fate of dietary energy
3
APPENDIX TABLES
A-1
Common and Scientific Names of Species Discussed in This Report
97
A-2
Amino Acid and Mineral Deficiency Signs Reported in Fish
98
A-3
Major Vitamin Deficiency Signs Reported in Fish
100
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Nutrient Requirements of Fish
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