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Noninvasive Characterization of the Shallow Subsurface
for Environmental and Engineering Applications
Board on Earth Sciences and Resources
Water Science and Technology Boarcl
Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources
National Research Council
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C.
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NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS · 2101 Constitution Avenue, NW · Washington, DC 20418
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Govern-
ing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the
councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering,
and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the
report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate
balance.
Support for this study was through endowment funds of the National Academy of
Sciences.
International Standard Book Number 0-309-06359-0
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 00-101785
Copies of this report are available from the National Academy Press; 2101 Constitu-
tion Avenue, N.W., Lockbox 285, Washington, DC 20055; (800) 624-6242 or (202)
334-3313 (in the Washington metropolitan area); Internet http://www.nap.edu.
Copyright 2000 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
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National Acaclemy of Sciences
National Acaclemy of Engineering
Institute of Meclicine
National Research Council
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of
distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the
furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the
authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate
that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr.
Bruce M. Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the
National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is
autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the
National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government.
The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meet-
ing national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior
achievements of engineers. Dr. William A. Wulf is president of the National Academy of
Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences
to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination
of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the respon-
sibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an
adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical
care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medi-
c~ne.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in
1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's
purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in
accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the
principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National
Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the
scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Acad-
emies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. William A. Wulf are
chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
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COMMITTEE FOR NONINVASIVE CHARACTERIZATION OF THE
SHALLOW SUBSURFACE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL AND
ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS
PHILLIP R. ROMIG, Chair, Colorado School of Mines, Golden
MIRIAM BALTUCK, National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
Washington, D.C.
DWAIN K. BUTLER, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg, Mississippi
STEPHEN H. DANBOM, Conoco, Inc., Houston, Texas
WILLIAM C. GHIORSE, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
JANET S. HERMAN, University of Virginia, Charlottesville
ROSEMARY KNIGHT, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver
ANNE S. MELTZER, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
JAMES W. MERGER, HSI GeoTrans, Inc., Sterling, Virginia
JAMES K. MITCHELL, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg
F. DALE MORGAN, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
GARY R. OLHOEFT, Colorado School of Mines, Golden
KARSTEN PRUESS, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley,
California
BRIAN R. SPIES, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Organisation, Sydney, Australia
DON W. STEEPLES, University of Kansas, Lawrence
BEN K. STERNBERG, University of Arizona, Tucson
KENNETH WATSON, U.S. Geological Survey, Lakewood, Colorado
WILFORD R. GARDNER, University of California, Berkeley (retired); WSTB
Liaison Representative
SUSAN M. LANDON, Thomasson Partners Associates, Denver, Colorado;
BESR Liaison Representative
NRC Staff
THOMAS M. USSELMAN, Study Director (from June 1996)
INA B. ALTERMAN, Study Director (through May 1996)
GARY D. KRAUSS, Staff Officer (through June 1997)
VERNA J. BOWN, Administrative Assistant
~v
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BOARD ON EARTH SCIENCES AND RESOURCES
J. FREEMAN GILBERT, Chair, University of California, San Diego
JOHN J. AMORUSO, Amoruso Petroleum Company, Houston, Texas
PAUL B. BARTON, JR., U.S. Geological Survey (Emeritus), Reston. Virginia
KENNETH I. DAUGHERTY, Geospatial Concepts, Inc., Falls Church,
Virginia
BARBARA L. DUTROW, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge
RICHARD S. FISKE, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
JAMES M. FUNK, Shell Continental Companies, Houston, Texas
WILLIAM L. GRAF, Arizona State University, Tempe
RAYMOND JEANLOZ, University of California, Berkeley
SUSAN M. KIDWELL, University of Chicago, Illinois
SUSAN KIEFFER, Kieffer & Woo, Inc., Palgrave, Ontario, Canada
PAMELA LUTTRELL, Mobil, Dallas, Texas
ALEXANDRA NAVROTSKY, University of California at Davis
DIANNE R. NIELSON, Utah Department of Environmental Quality, Salt Lake
City
JONATHAN G. PRICE, Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, Reno
EDWARD M. STOLPER, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena
JOHN R.G. TOWNSHEND, University of Maryland, College Park
MILTON H. WARD, Cyprus Amax Minerals Company, Engelwood, Colorado
NRC Staff
ANTHONY R. DE SOUZA, Director
TAMARA L. DICKINSON, Senior Program Officer
ELLEN S. KAPPEL, Senior Program Officer
ANNE M. LINN, Senior Program Officer
THOMAS M. USSELMAN, Senior Program Officer
JENNIFER T. ESTEP, Administrative Associate
VERNA J. B OWEN, Administrative Assistant
JUDITH L. ESTEP, Administrative Assistant
REBECCA E. SHAPACK, Project Assistant
v
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WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY BOARD
HENRY J. VAUX, JR., Chair, University of California, Riverside
CAROL A. JOHNSTON, Vice Chair, University of Minnesota, Duluth
RICHELLE ALLEN-KING, Washington State University, Pullman
JOHN S. BOYER, University of Delaware, Lewes
JOHN BRISCOE, The World Bank, Washington, D.C.
DENISE FORT, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque
EVILLE GORHAM, University of Minnesota, St. Paul
CHARLES D. D. HOWARD, Charles Howard & Associates, Ltd., Victoria,
British Columbia, Canada
WILLIAM A. JURY, University of California, Riverside
WILLIAM M. LEWIS, JR., University of Colorado, Boulder
GARY S. LOGSDON, Black and Veatch, Cincinnati, Ohio
RICHARD LUTHY, Carnegie-Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
JOHN W. MORRIS, J.W. Morris Ltd., Arlington, Virginia
CHARLES R. O'MELIA, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
PHILIP A. PALMER, DuPont Engineering, Wilmington, Delaware
REBECCA T. PARKIN, The George Washington University Medical Center,
Washington, D.C.
JOAN B. ROSE, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg
ERIC F. WOOD, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
NRC Staff
STEPHEN D. PARKER, Director
LAURA EHLERS, Senior Staff Officer
CHRIS ELFRING, Senior Staff Officer (part time)
JEFFREY JACOBS, Staff Officer
WILLIAM LOGAN, Staff Officer
JEANNE AQUILINO, Administrative Associate
MARK GIBSON, Research Associate
PATRICIA JONES, Staff Associate (part time)
ANITA A. HALL, Administrative Assistant
ELLEN DE GUZMAN, Senior Project Assistant
ANIKE JOHNSON, Project Assistant
vim
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COMMISSION ON GEOSCIENCES, ENVIRONMENT, AND
RESOURCES
GEORGE M. HORNBERGER, Chair, University of Virginia, Charlottesville
RICHARD A. CONWAY, Union Carbide Corporation (Retired), S. Charleston,
West Virginia
THOMAS E. GRAEDEL, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
THOMAS J. GRAFF, Environmental Defense Fund, Oakland, California
EUGENIA KALNAY, University of Maryland, College Park
DEBRA S. KNOPMAN, Progressive Policy Institute, Washington, D.C.
KAI N. LEE, Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts
RICHARD A. MESERVE, Covington & Burling, Washington, D.C.
J. BRAD. MOONEY, JR., J. Brad Mooney Associates, Ltd., Arlington,
Virginia
HUGH C. MORRIS, E1 Dorado Gold Corporation, Vancouver, British
Columbia
H. RONALD PULLIAM, University of Georgia, Athens
MILTON RUSSELL, Joint Institute for Energy and Environment and
University of Tennessee (Emeritus), Knoxville
THOMAS C. SCHELLING, University of Maryland, College Park
ANDREW R. SOLOW, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole,
Massachusetts
VICTORIA J. TSCHINKEL, Landers and Parsons, Tallahassee, Florida
E-AN ZEN, University of Maryland, College Park
MARY LOU ZOBACK, U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California
NRC Staff
ROBERT M. HAMILTON, Executive Director
GREGORY H. SYMMES, Associate Executive Director
JEANETTE SPOON, Administrative and Financial Officer
DAVID FEARY, Scientific Reports Officer
SANDI FITZPATRICK, Administrative Associate
MARQUITA SMITH, Administrative Assistant/Technology Analyst
. .
vat
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Acknowledgments
This report has been reviewed by individuals chosen for their diverse per-
spectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the
NRC' s Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to
provide candid and critical comments that will assist the authors and the NRC in
making their published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report
meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the
study charge. The content of the review comments and draft manuscript remain
confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank
the following individuals for their participation in the review of this report:
Richard Benson
President
Technos, Inc.
Miami, Florida
Robert Glaccum
Geosphere, Inc.
Midland, Michigan
Sidney Green
President
TerraTek, Inc.
Salt Lake City, Utah
Six
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x
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
F. Peter Haeni
U.S. Geological Survey
Storrs, Connecticut
William J. Hinze
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
William G. Howard, Jr.
Independent Consultant
Scottsdale, Arizona
Debra S. Knopman
Progressive Policy Institute
Washington, D.C.
Walter W. Kovalick, Jr.
Director, Technology Innovation Office
Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C.
Yoram Rubin
Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of California, Berkeley
Kenneth H. Stokoe
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Texas, Austin
While the individuals listed above have provided many constructive com-
ments and suggestions, responsibility for the final content of this report rests
solely with the authoring committee and the NRC.
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Preface
Earth science is at an unprecedented turning point at the start of the twenty-
first century. The focus of the science is shifting increasingly toward the natural
and built environment. Earth scientists are being called on by society to apply
their knowledge and expertise to environmental and engineering problems, a tril-
lion-dollar challenge for the United States and other industrialized nations.
As noted in two National Research Council (NRC) reports (Solid-Earth Sci-
ences and Society, 1993; Opportunities in the Hydrologic Sciences, 1991), earth
scientists have considerable expertise that can be brought to bear on environ-
mental problems. This near-surface environment, especially within the top 30
m,~ supports human infrastructure; yields much of the water, energy, and mineral
resources; and is the repository for most municipal and industrial wastes. It is the
region most susceptible to contamination and modification from human activity.
Tools to characterize the near-surface environment include invasive techniques,
such as drilling and trenching, and a variety of noninvasive methods employing
electromagnetic or acoustical energy sources (e.g., ground penetrating radar and
seismic reflection) and chemical probes (e.g., soil-gas monitors). In polluted areas,
invasive techniques pose a risk to workers and the environment because they can
promote the spread of contaminants. Invasive techniques provide the most direct
access to the subsurface, but they are generally expensive and provide informa-
tion at points in a three-dimensional subsurface. Noninvasive techniques, on the
iThirty meters is only an approximate number; many applications will need characterization at a
much shallower depth, whereas others will extend the depth of interest. It follows that different tech-
niques have optimal depth ranges for their results, which also depend on the composition and struc-
ture of the near surface
x
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PREFACE
other hand, hold the promise for rapid and inexpensive characterization. Many
can image, in three dimensions, large volumes of the subsurface, albeit at lower
resolution than invasively characterized points. Advances in understanding and
application of noninvasive techniques could potentially save billions of dollars
through improved performance in environmental and engineering applications.
Considerable progress has been made over the past decade in the area of
near-surface geophysical exploration. Some of this progress has occurred as a
result of adaptations of techniques developed for petroleum and mineral explora-
tion, and some has resulted from advances in instrumentation, electronics, and
computer processing. Many of the advances have been driven by societal needs,
such as the need to assess polluted sites that threaten groundwater supplies, the
preservation of buried antiquities, and the need for reliability and cost-effective-
ness in geotechnical engineering.
The National Research Council established the committee in August of 1995
and assigned it the specific tasks of (1) assessing current capabilities for charac-
terizing the near-surface environment using noninvasive technologies; (2) identi-
fying weak links in current capabilities; and (3) recommending research and de-
velopment to fill these gaps. This report evaluates the state of the science, the
state of the practice, and the potential for new and improved methods for non-
invasive characterization of the near surface.
In assessing current capabilities and recommending research and develop-
ment strategies, the committee has taken a broad, long-term view that considers
new techniques and technologies, including ideas for truly revolutionary ad-
vances; new methods of processing data; and new theories and methods for relat-
ing indirect measurements to physical, chemical, and biological properties of the
subsurface. The committee based its review and evaluation on existing published
literature and discussions with experts in the field. The committee restricted itself
to considering applications from land even though many of the same methods
could be applied and deployed from a waterborne platform or from an ice surface
to look at shallow subsurface materials beneath lakes and other water bodies.
The Committee on Noninvasive Characterization of the Shallow Subsurface
for Environmental and Engineering Applications consisted of 18 earth and physi-
cal scientists and engineers with expertise in shallow, general, and applied geo-
physics, geotechnical engineering, soil physics, microbiology, geochemistry,
hydrogeology, and remote sensing. The committee met six times during the study.
In order to receive input from a broader audience, three of the meetings were held
in concert with meetings of professional societies, including the Society of Ex-
ploration Geophysicists, the Environmental and Engineering Geophysical Soci-
ety, and the American Geophysical Union.
This report should be useful in identifying significant new areas for research in
the earth and environmental sciences to be pursued in universities and national
laboratories during the next decade. The report should be of interest to policy mak
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PREFAC
.E
. . .
XIll
ers in deciding where research dollars should be invested; to program managers,
who fund R&D on subsurface characterization; to scientists and engineers at aca-
demic institutions, national laboratories, and private industry who develop these
new technologies; and to scientists and engineers within government and industry,
who need this new technology for engineering and environmental applications.
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Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION
Purpose of This Report, 8
What Is Noninvasive, 9
Near-Surface Applications of Noninvasive Techniques, 10
Using the Tools and Techniques, 14
References, 16
WHY CHARACTERIZE THE SUBSURFACE?
Natural Resources, 18
Groundwater Contamination and Remediation, 19
Land Mines and Unexploded Ordnance, 21
Civil Infrastructure, 24
Hazards, 25
Archaeology, 25
Basic Science, 27
References, 29
3 WHAT IS CHARACTERIZED?
Properties and Processes, 31
Examples of Characterization, 33
Geological Characterization, 33
Fluids, 40
xv
6
18
31
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X~7t1
Vie
i
Biology, 45
Buried Objects, 45
References, 49
4 METHODS OF CHARACTERIZATION
Potential Field Methods, 54
Gravity Measurements, 54
Magnetic Measurements, 56
Electrical and Electromagnetic Methods, 57
Field Electrical Measurements, 59
Low Frequency Electromagnetic Field Measurements, 63
Applicability of Electrical and Electromagnetics Methods, 65
Potential Improvements of Electrical and EM Capabilities, 66
Ground Penetrating Radar, 67
Applications of Ground Penetrating Radar, 68
Opportunities for Improvement of GPR, 73
Seismic Methods, 74
Applications of Near-Surface Seismology, 78
Improving Near-Surface Seismic Methods, 84
Remote Sensing, 86
Aerial Photography, 86
Multispectral Scanners, 87
Imaging Spectroscopy, 87
Research Instruments, 88
Geochemical Methods, 89
Volatile Gas Emission, 89
Water Composition, 90
Composition of the Solid Phase, 90
Radioactive Methods, 91
Geobiological Methods, 91
References, 92
5 INTERPRETATION
Review of Existing Data, 97
Data Integration, 98
Modeling, 101
Visualization, 103
Recommendation, 105
References, 106
6 NONTECHNICAL ISSUES
Incentives, 107
Operational Concerns, 109
CONTENTS
52
97
107
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CONTENTS
Regulations, 110
Standardized Practices, 111
Health and Safety, 1 13
Institutional Barriers, 114
Information and Communication, 115
References, 119
7 REALIZING FUTURE CAPABILITIES
Automation of Techniques, 122
Monitoring Temporal Variations, 124
Properties and Processes, 125
Opportunities for Innovative Measurements, 127
References, 129
. .
XVII
120
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