MATERIALS AND MAN’S NEEDS

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE SURVEY OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

VOLUME I

THE HISTORY, SCOPE, AND NATURE OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
WASHINGTON, D.C.
1975

MATERIALS AND MAN’S NEEDS

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE SURVEY OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

VOLUME I

THE HISTORY, SCOPE, AND NATURE OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

WASHINGTON, D.C.

1975

NOTICE

MATERIALS AND MAN’S NEEDS

SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE SURVEY OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING (COSMAT)

The content of this Supplementary Report is part of the basis for the Summary Report of the NAS Committee on the Survey of Materials Science and Engineering. In contrast to the Summary Report, however, the views expressed here are those of the various contributors and do not necessarily represent a consensus of COSMAT.

Frontispiece: A schematic representation of the materials cycle, portraying its global nature and principal stages.

PREFACE

The Summary Report of the Committee on the Survey of Materials Science and Engineering (COSMAT) was published in the Spring of 1974. It was based on informational inputs generated by numerous committees, panels, and individuals. That background information has now been organized into this Supplementary Report, Volumes I to IV.

In assembling this extensive resource, a complete editorial function was not attempted. Thus, occasional redundancies and overlaps as well as some unevenness in style and coverage will be noted. There will also be found views, and perhaps contradictions, that did not make their way into the Summary Report, inasmuch as the latter reflects a consensus of COSMAT. Nevertheless, we believe that it will prove useful to the science and engineering communities, as well as to others concerned with the broader implications of technology, to have available the rich store of information that was collected by COSMAT.

We have organized the present Supplementary Report as follows:

Volume I—The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering, containing Chapters 1, 2, and 3, is concerned mainly with tracing the history and evolution of materials technology, and of materials science and engineering in particular; also with describing the dimensions of the present role of materials in society; and with a study of the way in which materials science and engineering operates as a multidisciplinary field.

Volume II—The Needs, Priorities, and Opportunities for Materials Research begins, in Chapter 4, with a discussion of how materials research is related to various national goals or “areas of impact.” In Chapter 5, the results of a comprehensive survey of materials research priorities are presented, both for applied research related to these areas of impact and for basic research. Chapter 6 provides a description of several of the more prominent materials research opportunities, again both basic and applied.

Volume III—The Institutional Framework for Materials Science and Engineering (Chapter 7) describes the industrial, governmental, academic, and professional activities in materials science and engineering in the U.S. In the industrial section, emphasis is given to illustrative descriptions of materials technologies and to the roles of materials scientists and engineers in various types of industry. The governmental section describes the ways in which the federal government is involved with the performance and support of materials science and engineering. The academic section contains detailed qualitative and quantitative information on the status and trends in university education and research both in “materials-designated” and “materials-related” departments and in materials research centers. In the professional section, consideration is given to the characteristics and numbers of materials scientists and engineers, as well as to their professional activities and opportunities.

Volume IV—Materials Technology Abroad (Chapter 8) deals with many facets of materials technology, as practiced in other countries. In collecting this information, it was often difficult, or even impossible, to delineate policies and practices specific to the materials field from those pertinent to science and technology in general, In such cases, the broader situation has been reviewed on the assumption that its applicability to the materials sphere is implicit. Volume IV surveys national policies and administrative structures for science and technology, education, R & D, institutions, technology-enhancement programs, technical achievements, and international cooperation. Much of the content revolves around the general theme of technological innovation.

It is surely obvious from the magnitude of this Supplementary Report that COSMAT is enormously indebted to a wide diversity of committees and individual contributors, whose inputs and insights have proved so valuable. The COSMAT Panels, Committees, and Consultants are listed in the Summary Report. They and other individual contributors are also referred to in this Supplementary Report.

COSMAT is deeply grateful to Marguerite Meyer, Beverly Masaitis, and Judy Trimble for their indefatigable efforts in the typing and assembling of these four volumes; theirs was a prodigious task, indeed. We are also most indebted to Amahl Shakhashiri for her careful editing of these volumes.

And once again, COSMAT wishes to acknowledge the support of the National Science Foundation and the Advanced Research Projects Agency in this undertaking, carried out under the aegis of the Committee on Science and Public Policy of the National Academy of Sciences.

Morris Cohen, Chairman

William O.Baker, Vice Chairman

Committee on the Survey of Materials Science and Engineering

September 1975

COMMITTEE ON THE SURVEY OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING (COSMAT)

*Morris Cohen (Chairman)

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

*William O.Baker (Vice Chairman)

Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.

Donald J.Blickwede

Bethlehem Steel Corporation

Raymond F.Boyer

Dow Chemical Company

*Paul F.Chenea

General Motors Corporation

Preston E.Cloud

University of California, Santa Barbara

*Daniel C.Drucker

University of Illinois

Julius J.Harwood

Ford Motor Company

I.Grant Hedrick

Grumman Aerospace Corporation

Walter R.Hibbard, Jr.

Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corporation

*John D.Hoffman

National Bureau of Standards

Melvin Kranzberg

Georgia Institute of Technology

*Hans H.Landsberg

Resources for the Future, Inc.

Humboldt W.Leverenz

RCA Laboratories, Inc.

Donald J.Lyman

University of Utah

Roger S.Porter

University of Massachusetts

Rustum Roy

Pennsylvania State University

*Roland W.Schmitt

General Electric Company

Abe Silverstein

Republic Steel Corporation

Lawrence H.Van Vlack

The University of Michigan

Ex Officio Members

*Harvey Brooks (as former Chairman, Committee on Science and Public Policy, NAS)

Harvard University

*N.Bruce Hannay (as Chairman, National Materials Advisory Board, National Research Council, NAS-NAE)

Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.

*Ernst Weber (as Chairman, Division of Engineering, National Research Council, NAS-NAE)

National Academy of Sciences

*	Members of the Executive Board

Survey Directors

Alan G.Chynoweth

Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.

S.Victor Radcliffe

Case Western Reserve University

MATERIALS AND MAN’S NEEDS

Supplementary Report of the Committee on the Survey of Materials Science and Engineering

Volume I	The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering
	Chapter 1;	Materials and Society
	Chapter 2:	The Contemporary Materials Scene
	Chapter 3;	Materials Science and Engineering as a Multi-discipline
Volume II	The Needs, Priorities, and Opportunities for Materials Research
	Chapter 4;	National Objectives and the Role of Materials Science and Engineering
	Chapter 5:	Priorities in Materials Research
	Chapter 6:	Opportunities in Materials Research
Volume III	The Institutional Framework for Materials Science and Engineering
	Chapter 7:	Industrial, Governmental, Academic, and Professional Activities in Materials Science and Engineering
Volume IV	Materials Technology Abroad
	Chapter 8:	Aspects of Materials Technology Abroad

TABLE OF CONTENTS FOR VOLUME I

Chapter Number

Page Number

1 MATERIALS AND SOCIETY
	INTRODUCTION	1–1
	IMPORTANCE OF MATERIALS TO MAN	1–4
	MATERIALS IN THE EVOLUTION OF MAN AND IN PREHISTORY	1–7
	BRONZE AND IRON AGES	1–12
	MATERIALS IN CLASSICAL CIVILIZATION	1–16
	MEDIEVAL MATERIALS	1–18
	THE START OF A SCIENTIFIC MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY BASED ON CHEMISTRY	1–25
	THE NEW SCIENCE OF MATERIALS BASED ON STRUCTURE	1–34
	THE NEW SCIENCE OF MATERIALS AND ITS RELATION TO PHYSICS	1–38
	ENGINEERING ATTITUDES TOWARD MATERIALS IN THE 19th CENTURY	1–42
	THE TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTION OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY	1–45
	RECOGNITION OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING AS A COHERENT FIELD	1–48
	GOVERNMENT SUPPORT OF MATERIALS RESEARCH	1–50
	PERSPECTIVES ON MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING	1–56
2 THE CONTEMPORARY MATERIALS SCENE
	THE NATURE OF MATERIALS	2–1
	THE NATURE OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING	2–2
	MATERIALS IN THE U.S. ECONOMY	2–3
	THE MATERIALS CYCLE AND THE ROLE OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING	2–14
	INNOVATION IN THE MATERIALS FIELD	2–17
	The Materials Revolution	2–17
	The Systems Approach	2–18
	Science-Intensive and Experience-Based Technologies	2–19
	Pace of Innovation	2–19
	Disciplinary to Interdisciplinary	2–20
	MATERIALS IN A CHANGING CONTEXT	2–21
	Changing National Priorities	2–22
	Materials Resources	2–23
	Energy, Environment	2–26
	The U.S. Trade Balance	2–26
	Technology Assessment	2–27
	The Federal Approach to Materials	2–27
	NATIONAL AND INSTITUTIONAL CAPABILITY	2–29
	Manpower	2–30
	Trends in Basic and Applied Research	2–32
	Government Support of Materials Science and Engineering	2–32
	Universities	2–44
	Materials Degrees	2–45
	Research Funding	2–45
	Industrial Research and Development	2–48
	OPPORTUNITIES FOR MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING	2–56
APPENDIX 2A	PROFILE OF MANPOWER IN MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING	2–58
	Method of Analysis	2–58
	The Engineers Register	2–59
	The Science Register	2–73
	Total Number of Materials Scientists and Engineers	2–83
	Attachment 2A.1 Specialty Areas in the 1969 National Engineers Register with MSE Score Greater than 45	2–85
	Attachment 2A.2 Specialty Areas from the 1968 National Register of Scientific and Technical Personnel with MSE Score Greater Than 45	2–88
3 MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING AS A MULTI DISCIPLINE
	MATERIALS, THE MATERIALS CYCLE, AND THE ROLE OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING	3–1
	INNOVATION IN MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING	3–2
	CHANGING CHARACTER OF MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY	3–4
	Science-Intensive and Experience-Based Technologies	3–4
	Relative Pace of Innovation	3–6
	Disciplinarity, Interdisciplinarity, and Multidisciplinarity	3–7
	DEFINITION OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING	3–8
	SOME ASPECTS OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING	3–8
	Materials	3–8
	Disciplines	3–9
	Activities and Style	3–9
	Relevance	3–10
	ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING	3–10
	Some Past Achievements	3–10
	Heatshield Design Problems	3–15
	Transistors	3–15
	Razor Blades	3–15
	Synthetic Fibers	3–16
	Textured Materials	3–16
	Integrated Circuits	3–17
	Aluminum Conductors	3–17
	Polymer-Modified Concrete	3–17
	TV Phosphors	3–18
	Ceramic Oxides	3.18
	Problems and Failures	3–18
	CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING	3–20
	General	3–20
	Nature of Materials Research	3–21
	Nature of Materials Development, Design, and Engineering	3–24
	Systems Approach to Materials Development	3–25
	Technological Systems of Materials	3–25
	Materials Cycle	3–26
	Methodology	3–26
	Contemporary Expansions of the Systems Approach	3–28
	Multidisciplinary and Interdisciplinary Activities	3–28
	COUPLING WITHIN THE FIELD OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING	3–29
	Loosely-Coupled Multidisciplinary Activities, Tightly-Coupled Interdisciplinary Activities	3–30
	Factors Aiding Interdisciplinary Coupling in Materials Science and Engineering	3–31
	Basic Theme and Concepts	3–32
	Materials Preparation	3–32
	Experimental Techniques and Instrumentation	3–33
	Computers	3–33
	Importance of Purpose	3–33
	Institutional Aspects of Coupling	3–35
	Departmental Composition	3–35
	Geographical Barriers	3–35
	Size of Organization	3–35
	Member-of-the-Club Principle	3–36
	Some Human Aspects of Coupling	3–37
	Key Individual	3–37
	Personal Satisfaction	3–37
	Nature of Groupings	3–38
	Supervision of Group	3–38
	Coupling Through Mobility of Personnel	3–39
	Roadblocks to Effective Coupling	3–40
	IMPLICATIONS OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING FOR UNIVERSITIES	3–40
	Education in Materials Science and Engineering	3–40
	University Research in Materials Science and Engineering	3–44
	Funding and Reward Mechanisms	3–46
	OUTPUTS OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING	3–46
	NEW OPPORTUNITIES FOR MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING	3–48
	Changing Nature of Materials Science and Engineering	3–48
	Changing Industrial Scene for Materials Science and Engineering	3–49
	Changing Societal Goals for Support-Base for Materials Science and Engineering	3–51
	Opportunities for Materials Science and Engineering in Some Areas of Concern to Society	3–57
	Resources, Substitutes, and Synthesis	3–56
	Materials for Housing and Urban Renewal	3–57
	Environmental Quality	3–57
	Materials Science and Engineering in Medicine and Biology	3–57
	Energy	3–58
	Diffusion of Materials Science and Engineering into Low-Technology Industries	3–58
	MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING AND THE BROADER SCENE	3–59
	CASE STUDIES OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING	3–60
	Appendix 3A Heatshield Design Problems	3–60
	Appendix 3B Discovery of the Transistor	3–67
	Appendix 3C The Development of Coated Stainless Razor Blades	3–72
	Appendix 3D Synthetic Fibers	3–74
	Appendix 3E Textured Materials	3–79
	Appendix 3F Integrated Circuits	3–81
	Appendix 3G Aluminum Conductor Telephone Cables	3–86
	Appendix 3H Polymer Latex-Modified Portland Cement	3–88
	Appendix 3I Phosphors for TV	3–91
	Appendix 3J Sintering of Ceramic Oxides, e.g. Lucalox	3–96
	Appendix 3K Interdisciplinary Research—An Exploration of Public Policy Issues	3–97

LIST OF FIGURES FOR VOLUME I

Figure Number

Page Number

CHAPTER 1. MATERIALS AND SOCIETY

CHAPTER 2. THE CONTEMPORARY MATERIALS SCENE
2.1	Steel Mill Products, Physical Output, Actual and Deflated Average Unit Costs and Cost Proportions, 1899-1939.	2-10
2.2	Supply-Demand Relationship for Copper in 1969	2-12
2.3	Factors Involved in the Flow of Materials	2-16
2.4	Materials Utilization Shows Social and Technical Pressures on the Materials Scientist and Engineer	2-25
2.5	Research and Development Spending in the United States, 1953-72	2-34
2.6	Conduct of Federal Research and Development	2-35
2.7	Trends in Federal Basic and Applied Research	2-36
2.8	Direct Government Funding for Materials Research and Development	2-37
2.9	Percentage of Register Respondents in MSE vs. MSE Cutoff Score	2-60

CHAPTER 3. MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING AS A MULTIDISCIPLINE
3.1	Change with Time of Coupling Between Science and Engineering in the Materials Field	3-23
3.2	Example of Systems Engineering Applied to MSE Taken from OECD Report on “Problems and Prospects of Fundamental Research in Selected Scientific Fields—Materials.”	3-27
3.3	Key Integrated-Circuit Developments, 1958-1971	3-85

LIST OF TABLES FOR VOLUME I

Table Number

Page Number

CHAPTER 1. MATERIALS AND SOCIETY

CHAPTER 2. THE CONTEMPORARY MATERIALS SCENE
2.1	Consumption of Selected Basic Materials in the U.S.	2-4
2.2	Distribution of National Income of the United States by Industry Category, 1965	2-5
2.3	Distribution of National Income of the United States within Selected Industry Categories, 1965	2-7
2.4	Selected Industry Components of the Gross National Product, 1971	2-8
2.5	U.S. Trade Balances in Illustrative Product Categories	2-28
2.6	Estimates of Manpower in Principal Disciplinary Sectors of Materials Science and Engineering	2-31
2.7	Distribution of Materials Scientists and Engineers by Category of Activity	2-33
2.8	Distribution of Federal Materials R&D Effort by Class of Materials	2-38
2.9	Distribution of Federal Materials R&D Effort by Research Activity	2-38
2.10	Distribution of Federal Materials R&D Effort by Performing Organization	2-38
2.11	Distribution of Federal Materials R&D Effort by Supporting Agency	2-39
2.12	Distribution of Federal Materials R&D Effort by Agency and Material for FY 1967 and 1971	2-40
2.13	Direct Federal Funding of Materials Research and Development by Agency, Type of Research, and Performer for FY 1971	2-42
2.14	Direct Federal Funding of Materials Research and Development by Agency and Field of Materials for FY 1971	2-43
2.15	Distribution by Field of Science of Federal R&D Support to Universities for FY 1970	2-47
2.16	Distribution of Federal Agency Support for “Metallurgy and Materials” R&D at Universities for FY 1970	2-49
2.17	Proportion of Federal Agency Materials R&D Funds Allocated to Universities for FY 1970	2-50
2.18	Comparison of Federal Materials R&D Support at Universities Between “Materials Departments” and “Other Departments” for FY 1970	2-51
2.19	Industrial Research and Development (Includes federally-funded industrial R&D)	2-52
2.20	Industrial Research and Development as Percent of Sales	2-53
2.21	Federally-Financed Industrial Research and Development	2-54
2.22	Company-Funded Industrial Research and Development	2-55
2.23	Comparison of Materials Engineers with All Engineers	2-62
2.24	Society Membership	2-63
2.25	Percentage of Ph.D.’s Among Materials Engineers by Product Group	2-65
2.26	Principal Functions of Materials Engineering	2-66
2.27	Materials Engineers Receiving Government Support	2-67
2.28	Product or Service Related to Employment	2-69
2.29	Leading Employment Specialties of MaterialsEngineers (%)	2-70
2.30	Leading Employment Specialties of Materials Engineers (Ph.D., %)	2-70
2.31	Some “Agreed” Areas of Technology and Science (MSE ≥ 75) in Materials Engineering	2-71
2.32	Characteristics of Materials Engineers in Sixteen “Agreed” Areas of Technology and Science in Materials Engineering	2-72
2.33	Numbers of Materials Scientists, By Discipline	2-74
2.34	Leading Major Subjects of Highest Degree Among Materials Scientists	2-74
2.35	Leading Professional Identifications of Materials Scientists	2-75
2.36	Number of Materials Scientists with Selected Professional Identification	2-77
2.37	Criteria for Inclusion in the Science Register	2-78
2.38	Employment of Materials Scientists by Institution and Work Activity, 1968	2-80
2.39	Median Basic Annual Salary of Materials Scientists by Age and Type of Employer, 1968	2-81
2.40	Number of Materials Scientists in Specialty Areas from 1964 to 1970	2-82
2.41	Estimated Total Number of Materials Scientists and Engineers in the United States	2-84
2A.1	Specialty Areas in the 1969 National Engineers Register with MSE Score Greater Than 45	2-85
2A.2	Specialty Areas in the 1968 National Register of Scientific and Technical Personnel with MSE Score Greater Than 45	2-88

CHAPTER 3. MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING AS A MULTIDISCIPLINE
3.1	Some Achievements in Materials Science and Engineering	3-11
3.2	Comparative Characteristics and Attributes of Some Disciplines Involved in MSE	3-42
3.3	Federal Funds for Total Research in Metallurgy and Materials Engineering in FY 1966 through 1971 (Est.)	3-53
3.4	Typical Reentry Environment Parameters for Reentry Vehicles Entering the Earth’s Atmosphere	3-62