MATERIALS AND MAN’S NEEDS

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE SURVEY OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

VOLUME IV

ASPECTS OF MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY ABROAD

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
WASHINGTON, D.C.
1975

MATERIALS AND MAN’S NEEDS

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE SURVEY OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

VOLUME IV

ASPECTS OF MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY ABROAD

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

WASHINGTON, D.C.

1975

NOTICE

MATERIALS AND MAN’S NEEDS

SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE SURVEY OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING (COSMAT)

The content of this Supplementary Report is part of the basis for the Summary Report of the NAS Committee on the Survey of Materials Science and Engineering. In contrast to the Summary Report, however, the views expressed here are those of the various contributors and do no necessarily represent a consensus of COSMAT.

Frontispiece: A schematic representation of the materials cycle, portraying its global nature and principal stages.

PREFACE

The Summary Report of the Committee on the Survey of Materials Science and Engineering (COSMAT) was published in the Spring of 1974. It was based on informational inputs generated by numerous committees, panels, and individuals. That background information has now been organized into this Supplementary Report, Volumes I to IV.

In assembling this extensive resource, a complete editorial function was not attempted. Thus, occasional redundancies and overlaps as well as some unevenness in style and coverage will be noted. There will also be found views, and perhaps contradictions, that did not make their way into the Summary Report, inasmuch as the latter reflects a consensus of COSMAT. Nevertheless, we believe that it will prove useful to the science and engineering communities, as well as to others concerned with the broader implications of technology, to have available the rich store of information that was collected by COSMAT.

We have organized the present Supplementary Report as follows:

Volume I—The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering, containing Chapters 1, 2, and 3, is concerned mainly with tracing the history and evolution of materials technology, and of materials science and engineering in particular; also with describing the dimensions of the present role of materials in society; and with a study of the way in which materials science and engineering operates as a multidisciplinary field.

Volume II—The Needs, Priorities, and Opportunities for Materials Research begins, in Chapter 4, with a discussion of how materials research is related to various national goals or “areas of impact.” In Chapter 5, the results of a comprehensive survey of materials research priorities are presented, both for applied research related to these areas of impact and for basic research. Chapter 6 provides a description of several of the more prominent materials research opportunities, again both basic and applied.

Volume III—The Institutional Framework for Materials Science and Engineering (Chapter 7) describes the industrial, governmental, academic, and professional activities in materials science and engineering in the U.S. In the industrial section, emphasis is given to illustrative descriptions of materials technologies and to the roles of materials scientists and engineers in various types of industry. The governmental section describes the ways in which the federal government is involved with the performance and support of materials science and engineering. The academic section contains detailed qualitative and quantitative information on the status and trends in university education and research both in “materials-designated” and “materials-related” departments and in materials research centers. In the professional section, consideration is given to the characteristics and numbers of materials scientists and engineers, as well as to their professional activities and opportunities.

Volume IV—Materials Technology Abroad (Chapter 8) deals with many facets of materials technology, as practiced in other countries. In collecting this information, it was often difficult, or even impossible, to delineate policies and practices specific to the materials field from those pertinent to science and technology in general. In such cases, the broader situation has been reviewed on the assumption that its applicability to the materials sphere is implicit. Volume IV surveys national policies and administrative structures for science and technology, education, R & D, institutions, technology-enhancement programs, technical achievements, and international cooperation. Much of the content revolves around the general theme of technological innovation.

It is surely obvious from the magnitude of this Supplementary Report that COSMAT is enormously indebted to a wide diversity of committees and individual contributors, whose inputs and insights have proved so valuable. The COSMAT Panels, Committees, and Consultants are listed in the Summary Report. They and other individual contributors are also referred to in this Supplementary Report.

COSMAT is deeply grateful to Marguerite Meyer, Beverly Masaitis, and Judy Trimble for their indefatigable efforts in the typing and assembling of these four volumes; theirs was a prodigious task, indeed. We are also most indebted to Amahl Shakhashiri for her careful editing of these volumes.

And once again, COSMAT wishes to acknowledge the support of the National Science Foundation and the Advanced Research Projects Agency in this undertaking, carried out under the aegis of the Committee on Science and Public Policy of the National Academy of Sciences.

Morris Cohen, Chairman

William O.Baker, Vice Chairman

Committee on the Survey of Materials Science and Engineering

September 1975

COMMITTEE ON THE SURVEY OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING (COSMAT)

*Morris Cohen (Chairman)

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

*William O.Baker (Vice Chairman)

Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.

Donald J.Blickwede

Bethlehem Steel Corporation

Raymond F.Boyer

Dow Chemical Company

*Paul F.Chenea

General Motors Corporation

Preston E.Cloud

University of California, Santa Barbara

*Daniel C.Drucker

University of Illinois

Julius J.Harwood

Ford Motor Company

I.Grant Hedrick

Grumann Aerospace Corporation

Walter R.Hibbard, Jr.

Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corporation

*John D.Hoffman

National Bureau of Standards

Melvin Kranzberg

Georgia Institute of Technology

*Hans H.Landsberg

Resources for the Future, Inc.

Humboldt W.Leverenz

RCA Laboratories, Inc.

Donald J.Lyman

University of Utah

Roger S.Porter

University of Massachusetts

Rustum Roy

Pennsylvania State University

*Roland W.Schmitt

General Electric Company

Abe Silverstein

Republic Steel Corporation

Lawrence H.Van Vlack

The University of Michigan

Ex Officio Members

*Harvey Brooks (as former Chairman, Committee on Science and Public Policy, NAS)

Harvard University

*N.Bruce Hannay (as Chairman, National Materials Advisory Board, National Research Council, NAS-NAE)

Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.

*Ernst Weber (as Chairman, Division of Engineering, National Research Council, NAS-NAE)

National Academy of Sciences

*	Members of the Executive Board

Survey Directors

Alan G.Chynoweth

Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.

S.Victor Radcliffe

Case Western Reserve University

MATERIALS AND MAN’S NEEDS

Supplementary Report of the Committee on the Survey of Materials Science and Engineering

Volume I	The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering
	Chapter 1:	Materials and Society
	Chapter 2:	The Contemporary Materials Scene
	Chapter 3:	Materials Science and Engineering as a Multidiscipline
Volume II	The Needs, Priorities, and Opportunities for Materials Research
	Chapter 4:	National Objectives and the Role of Materials Science and Engineering
	Chapter 5:	Priorities in Materials Research
	Chapter 6:	Opportunities in Materials Research
Volume III	The Institutional Framework for Materials Science and Engineering
	Chapter 7:	Industrial, Governmental, Academic, and Professional Activities in Materials Science and Engineering
Volume IV	Materials Technology Abroad
	Chapter 8:	Aspects of Materials Technology Abroad

TABLE OF CONTENTS FOR VOLUME IV

Chapter Number

Page Number

8	ASPECTS OF MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY ABROAD
	INTRODUCTION	8–1
	On Making International Comparisons	8–1
	Some Historical Perspectives	8–2
	Time Factors in the Diffusion of Technology	8–3
	NATIONAL POLICIES FOR SCIENCE AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY	8–7
	Introduction	8–7
	National Goals	8–8
	National Strategies and Tactics in the Materials Field	8–11
	Some Examples of National Policies in Science and Engineering	8–19
	United Kingdom	8–20
	France	8–22
	U.S.S.R.	8–22
	Science and the Acceleration of Technical Progress, Pravda, March 31, 1970, p. 6	8–24
	The Scope of Research	8–24
	Avoid Lost Time	8–25
	In Cooperation with Engineers	8–26
	From Department to Shop	8–27
	Japan	8–28
	Global Technological Policy of Japan	8–29
	Some Particular Aspects of National Technological Policy	8–30
	Japan’s Science Policy for the Seventies	8–31
	The Implications of National Goals for Research Strategies	8–33
	NATIONAL ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURES FOR RESEARCH	8–34
	General Outlines of Administrative Structures	8–34
	United Kingdom	8–35
	Germany	8–35
	France	8–36
	U.S.S.R.	8–36
	Czechoslovakia	8–37
	Japan	8–40
	Other Countries	8–42
	Centralized or Decentralized Administration?	8–42
	Discussion of Administrative Structures in the U.S.S.R. and the U.K.	8–43
	U.S.S.R.	8–43
	U.K.—The Rothschild-Dainton Debate	8–46
	CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR THE ADMINISTRATION OF MATERIALS RESEARCH IN THE U.S.	8–51
	EDUCATION	8–53
	Statistical Information on Scientists and Engineers	8–53
	Curricula and Interdisciplinary Education for the Materials Field	8–57
	An Interdisciplinary University	8–57
	United Kingdom	8–59
	Japan	8–62
	Education in Materials Science and Engineering	8–64
	Solid-State Physics in Japan	8–67
	France	8–67
	U.S.S.R.	8–67
	RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT	8–69
	Statistical Information	8–69
	Japan	8–87
	Promotion of Basic Science	8–87
	Promotion of R&D for National Projects	8–89
	Organizational Measures for Implementing R&D Programs	8–90
	National Research and Development Program	8–90
	Recent Trends in Japanese Technology Emphasis	8–94
	Recent Trends in Research and Development Expenditures in Japan	8–100
	Industrial R&D in Japan	8–109
	U.S.S.R.	8–114
	Technical Manpower	8–114
	Some Aspects of Institutional Research	8–115
	Metallurgy	8–116
	Solid-State Physics	8–118
	Germany	8–121
	Support Structure for Research	8–121
	Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft	8–122
	Metallurgical Research in German Industry	8–128
	United Kingdom	8–129
	Department of Trade and Industry	8–129
	Department of Education and Science	8–130
	Ministry of Defense	8–131
	Science Research Council	8–131
	Scandinavia	8–137
	Denmark	8–137
	Finland	8–137
	Norway	8–141
	Sweden	8–142
	RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTES: INSTITUTIONAL COUPLING	8–144
	General Remarks	8–144
	Large Government-Funded Institutes for Initiating Major Civilian Technologies	8–145
	Government Research and Development Institutes for Technologies where the Government is the Principal Customer	8–146
	Government-Funded Institutes Directed at Civilian Industries	8–146
	Jointly- or Industrially-Supported Research Associations	8–149
	Institutes and Research Programs Associated with Universities	8–156
	Research Institutions in Smaller Industrialized Countries	8–156
	United Kingdom	8–157
	Government Research Establishment—Harwell, A Case History	8–157
	Germany	8–159
	Max Planck Institutes	8–159
	U.S.S.R.	8–160
	Coupling Science and Technology	8–160
	Scandinavia	8–165
	Cooperative Research in the Materials Field—Internationally and Nationally	8–165
	Norway	8–166
	Finland	8–166
	Denmark	8–166
	Sweden	8–166
	The Size of Industrial Research and Development Organizations	8–167
	TECHNOLOGY ENHANCEMENT PROGRAMS	8–170
	General	8–170
	Some Specific Mechanisms for Technology Enhancement in Various Countries	8–171
	Canada	8–172
	National Research Council	8–172
	Industrial Research Assistance Program	8–172
	Canadian Patents and Developments Ltd.	8–172
	Program for the Advancement of Industrial Technology	8–172
	Industrial R&D Incentives Act	8–172
	France	8–172
	Concerted Actions Program	8–173
	Aid-to-Development Program	8–173
	Letter of Agreement	8–173
	Agence Nationale de Valorisation de la Recherche	8–173
	Germany	8–174
	Privately-Operated Organizations	8–174
	Federal Support for Research and Development	8–174
	Japan	8–174
	Research and Development Corporation of Japan	8–175
	National Research and Development Program	8–175
	Joint Government-Private Sector Technology Projects	8–175
	United Kingdom	8–176
	Preproduction Order Support Program	8–176
	Investment Grant Program	8–176
	Financial Support for R&D in Industry	8–176
	Grant Program to Research Associations	8–177
	Launching Aid	8–177
	Programs of Assistance to Computer Electronics, and Telecommunications Industries	8–177
	National Research and Development Corporation	8–177
	Some Broad-Gauge Factors and Policies Affecting Technology Enhancement	8–178
	Miscellaneous Lending Agencies	8–178
	Tax Exemptions and Incentives for R&D	8–178
	Government Procurement	8–178
	Patent Policies and Rewards	8–178
	Governmental Ownership	8–179
	Policies Towards Consortia and Mergers	8–179
	Government-Industry Partnerships	8–179
	National Spirit	8–179
	RESULTS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICIES	8–180
	Economic Comparisons	8–180
	International Trade	8–186
	Patterns of Industrial Competitiveness and Technology Diffusion	8–202
	Technical Achievements	8–205
	A European Success in High Technology—Civilian Nuclear Technology	8–206
	A European Failure in High Technology—Electronics	8–208
	Metallurgical Technology	8–208
	General Remarks	8–208
	Some Important Metallurgical Discoveries	8–209
	Remarks on Nonferrous Metals Technology	8–212
	Other Recent Progress Abroad in Metallurgical Process Technology	8–216
	Ceramics and Glass	8–220
	Float Glass	8–221
	Plastics Technology	8–221
	General Remarks	8–221
	Specific Examples	8–222
	Some Important Chemical Discoveries	8–225
	Materials Science and Engineering in Electronics	8–226
	Introduction—U.S. Leadership	8–226
	Evolution of Electronics	8–234
	Governmental Markets and Support of Electronics	8–234
	Stimuli for Innovation—Organizational Purposes and Long-Term Goals	8–238
	Structure of the Electronics Industry	8–239
	Other Factors Affecting Pace of Innovation	8–240
	European Reaction to U.S. Dominance in Electronics	8–241
	Electronic Materials in the U.S.S.R.	8–244
	PATENTS AND PUBLICATIONS AROUND THE WORLD	8–245
	INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION	8–253
	Philosophical Background	8–253
	More Tangible Incentives for International Cooperation	8–255
	International Science Policy	8–256
	Themes for Cooperation in the Materials Field	8–257
	Organizations and Institutions	8–260
	United Nations	8–261
	Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development	8–262
	North Atlantic Treaty Organization	8–262
	European Economic Community	8–262
	European Center for Nuclear Research	8–263
	Scientific Societies	8–264
	U.S.—U.S.S.R. Cooperation	8–264
	Some Further Possibilities	8–264
	Cooperation with Developing Countries	8–264
	Interactions with LDC’s Particularly Concerning Materials	8–268
	Technological Interactions with LDC’s—Example of India	8–270
	Korean Institute for Science and Technology—Example of U.S. Aid	8–272
	MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS	8–273
	Types of Multinational Corporations	8–273
	Statements For and Against MC’s	8–274
	Labor, Management and Government Attitudes	8–275
	Host Country Attitudes	8–276
	Prospects for Multinational Corporations	8–277
	Research, Development, and Flow of Technical Information in a High-Technology Multinational Corporation	8–277
	Technology Diffusion via High-Technology Multinational Corporations in the Electronics Field	8–279
	Technology Transfer via Vertically-Integrated, Multinational Corporations to Developing Countries	8–281
	Role of Research and Development	8–282
	Some Concluding Remarks Concerning Multinational Corporations	8–284
	TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION IN THE INTERNATIONAL SPHERE	8–284
	International Comparisons of Technological Prowess	8–284
	Some General Characteristics of the Innovative System	8–287
	Essential Components	8–287
	Technology-Push versus Demand-Pull	8–287
	Differences Amongst Industries	8–287
	Industrial Structures	8–288
	Size of Markets	8–288
	Management of Innovation	8–288
	Role of Fundamental Research	8–289
	Governmental Role in Creating a Climate Favorable to Technological Innovation	8–289
	A Study of Success and Failure in Innovation	8–290
	Fundamental Features of the Approach	8–290
	Nationality of Innovating Organizations	8–291
	Pairs Used	8–292
	Summary of Main Findings	8–293
	A British View of U.S. Technological Leads and Lags	8–294
	A U.S. View of U.S. Technological Leads and Lags	8–295

LIST OF FIGURES FOR VOLUME IV

Figure Number

Page Number

	CHAPTER 8. ASPECTS OF MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY ABROAD
8.1	Distribution of University-Level Education Enrollments by Field of Study in 1955 and 1965	8-56
8.2	Government Funds for Research and Development Other Than Space, Nuclear, and Defense Research and Development (in millions of U.S. $)	8-77
8.3	U.S. Trade Balance in Iron and Steel, 1925-70.	8-203
8.4	Structure of the Electronics Industry	8-235
8.5	Number of Articles Published Annually in Materials Science and Engineering Between 1945 and 1970, by Country	8-251
8.6	Number of Articles Published Annually in Materials Science and Engineering Between 1945 and 1970, by Performing Sector	8-252

LIST OF TABLES FOR VOLUME IV

Table Number

Page Number

	CHAPTER 8. ASPECTS OF MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY ABROAD
8.1	Take-Over Times (ΔT) and Substitution Mid-Points, T_o	8-5
8.2	Average Imitation Lags Following Important Innovations	8-6
8.3	Some Salient National Goals (1950-1970)	8-10
8.4	Definition of the Role of Materials, by Countries	8-12
8.5	Techniques for Implementing National Goals for Materials (Subjective Views)	8-16
8.6	Comparison of Pluralistic and Centralized Model of Research Programming	8-44
8.7	Educational Data	8-54
8.8	Number of Advanced Degrees per Year in Departments of Metallurgy, Metallurgical Engineering, and Materials Science in Japan (1970)	8-65
8.9	Fields of Specialization in Higher Education in France	8-68
8.10	National Research and Development Expenditures (1963-1964)	8-70
8.11	National Expenditures on Research and Development as Percentage of GNP	8-71
8.12	Number of Qualified Scientists and Engineers on Research and Development Per 10,000 of Population	8-73
8.13	Total Qualified Scientists and Engineers in Research and Development (1963-1964)	8-74
8.14	Research and Development Expenditures in Industry by Source of Support (1963-1964)	8-75
8.15	Gross National Expenditures on Research and Development (1963-1964)	8-76
8.16	Structure of R&D Expenditures in Manufacturing Industries (As percentage of total R&D expenditures in manufacturing industries)	8-78
8 .17	Research and Development Expenditures in IndustrialSector (1963-1964)	8-80
8.18	Percentage of Funds for Industrial Research and Development Coming from Industry (1963-1964)	8-81
8.19	Percentage of Funds for Industrial Research and Development Coming from Government (1963-1964)	8-82
8.20	Qualified Scientists and Engineers Working on Research and Development in Industrial Sector (Numbers in full-time equivalents)	8-83
8.21	Total Western Europe Research and Development Effort in Certain Industries vs. U.S. (1963-1964) (U.S.=100)	8-84
8-22	Distribution and Trend of Governmental R&D Expenditures (1961-1969)	8-85
8.23	Highly-Qualified Manpower as Percentage of Industrial Sector (1963/1964)	8-86
8.24	Data on Basic Research (B.R.) (1963/1964)	8-88
8.25	National Research and Development Program in Japan	8-92
8.26	Main Products of Japanese Technology	8-95
8.27	Merits and Dermerits of New Processes or Techniques in Japan	8-97
8.28	Positive and Negative Effects of Main Products in Japan	8-98
8.29	New Processes or Products and Their Effect in Mitigating or Eliminating Negative Effects	8-99
8.30	Private Industry’s Expenditures for Development of Pollution Control Technology in Japan (1969)	8-101
8.31	Principal Technical Methods for Pollution Control	8-102
8.32	Research and Development Budgets by Ministry in Japan (1971-1972)	8-105
8.33	Trend of R&D Budgets in Japan by Allocated Areas (1968 to 1972)	8-106
8.34	Ratios of Public vs. Private R&D Disbursements, 1965 Through 1971	8-107
8.35	Industrial Research and Development Expenditures in Japan (1965, 1970, and 1971)	8-108
8.36	Ratios of Industrial Research and Development Expenditures to Sales by Industry (%)	8-110
8.37	Industrial Research and Development Expenditures by Three Areas in Japan	8-111
8.38	Allocation of Industrial Research and Development Expenditures by Industry and by Three Research Areas in Japan (1971)	8-112
8.39	Research and Development Expenditures by Governmental Agencies in the U.K. (1971-1972)	8-132
8.40	Analysis of Support Given Through the Science Research Council in the U.K.	8-138
8.41	U.K. Science Research Council Program Analysis (1970-1971)	8-140
8.42	Government Research Institutes in Japan (1971-1972)—Those that bear some relation to the field of materials science and engineering	8-147
8.43A	Annual Expenditure of Research Associations in the U.K. (1963)	8-150
8.43B	Numbers of Staff in Research Associations in the U.K. (1963)	8-152
8.44	Nongrant Aided Co-Operative Industrial ResearchAssociations with Subscribing Members in the U.K. (1963)	8-155
8.45	Institutes Primarily Concerned with Metals Research in Germany	8-161
8.46	Suggested Typical Sizes of Research and Development Staff According to Area of Technology	8-168
8.47	Relative GNP Performance	8-181
8.48	Economic Trends—Average Annual Rate of Growth (Percent)	8-182
8.49	Rank in Each Category of Economic Performance Indicators	8-184
8.50	Productivity Comparisons in the Iron and Steel Industry	8-185
8.51	Trends in Capital Investment	8-187
8.52	U.S. Trade Balance in Illustrative Product Categories	8-189
8.53	U.S. Foreign Trade in Manufactured Goods, 1970, and Trade Patterns, 1925-1970	8-190
8.54	1970 Industrial Profiles	8-196
8.55	Processes of Foreign Derivation used by the American Steel Industry and Related Industries	8-210
8.56	Some Innovations in Metallurgical Processes	8-211
8.57	Patents Issued in the Nonferrous Metals Sector in Selected Countries	8-215
8.58	Location of R&D Activities in the Nonferrous Metals Sector Around 1956	8-217
8.59	Orientation of R&D Activities in the Nonferrous Metals Sector Around 1963/1964 (Percent of Total)	8-217
8.60	Countries of First Commercial Exploitation of Some New Plastics Since 1945	8-223
8.61A	Major Product Innovations in the Semiconductor Industry, 1951-1968	8-228
8.61B	Major Process Innovations in the Semiconductor Industry, 1950-1968	8-231
8.62	Quantity (A) and Quality (B) Rankings of Scientific Literature in Selected Fields	8-246
8.63	Chemical Abstracts (in thousands)	8-248
8.64	Ulrich’s International Periodicals Directory—Materials	8-249
8.65	Performance in Originating Innovations	8-286