|
Items in cart [0] |
Questions? Call 888-624-8373 |
| [ Top of Page ] [ Home ] [ Contact Us ] [ Help ] [ The National Academies Home ] | ||
Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole.
Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter.
Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines.
OCR for page 427
Index
A
Adzuki beans, 254, 263
Agricultural Credit Act of 1987, 92
Agricultural productivity
balancing stewardship and, 16
comparison of regional advantages in,
12, 199-202, 210-211
and costs per unit of output, 8, 12,
199-204; see also Production costs
irrigation and, 52
measures of, 199-204
natural factors limiting, 5, 200, 202,
207
and off-farm inputs, 15, 37; see also
Fertilizers; Pesticides
soil erosion and, 98, 115-117, 119
trends in, 6, 32, 33, 37, 85
Agricultural trade
balance, 27-28, 30, 93
conflicts in policy, 68
economic conditions and, 6, 27, 30
export trends, 6, 27-32, 71, 75, 90, 92,
93, 95-96, 130
and federal farm programs, 27-30, 69,
71, 75, 236
imports, 32, 94, 96-97
surplus, 32, 89, 93
value of exports, 29, 30-32, 94, 96
volume of exports, 30-31, 94, 95
see also Farm policy; Trade policy
Agriculture Adjustment Act of 1938, 69
427
Alfalfa
feed value of, 281
integrated pest management in, 49,
178, 210, 211, 220
irrigation of, 412
Nitro cultivar, 149
nitrogen fixation by, 147, 149
pesticide use on, 44, 49, 211
pests, 179, 220, 260
potassium absorption by, 154
resistant cultivars, 179
rotations with, 140, 149, 153, 231, 277
saponins in, 167
seed crops, 210
yields, 231
Alternative agriculture, definition of, 3-
5, 27
Animal disease
in alternative systems, 5, 167-175,
224-228, 276, 284, 389, 392-394
and confinement rearing, 50, 168, 171,
225, 302
costs of, 224-225
health systems, 167-175
immunization for, 172-173
low-intensity management, 4-5, 170-
171
mastitis, 169, 173, 225
neonatal scours, 221
parasites, 173
research needs on, 17, 20, 21, 165, 173,
174-175, 225
OCR for page 428
428
respiratory infections, 225
stress and, 174, 393-394
uterine infections, 172
see also Disease control
Animal feeds
almond hulls, 84
antibiotics in, 49-50
bioavailability of lignocellulose in, 165-
166, 189
chemical treatment of, 166
citrus pulp, 84
from commodity by-products, 84, 166,
254
corn stalks, 166
gleaning of corn fields, 274
green, 281
hay and forage, 54, 165-167, 215, 230,
389
nutrient values of, 166, 280, 281
pesticides in, 84
roughage, 281
shelled corn for poultry feed, 254
small-grain straw, 166
soybean screenings, 254, 265
tomato pomace, 84
turnips, 274, 281
see also Feed grains; Forage crops
Animal production systems
alternative systems, 5, 135, 169, 171,
226-228, 266-268, 287-288, 301-
302, 308-309, 321-323, 389, 392-394
antibiotic use in, 49-50, 85, 90, 168,
170-171' 226, 301
confinement rearing in, 9, 50, 54-55,
76, 85, 135, 168, 171, 173, 174, 225-
228, 302
disease prevention in, 5, 167-175, 224-
225, 276, 284, 389, 392-394
economics of, 224-230
and fat content of meat and dairy
products, 12, 13, 83, 84, 167
and federal grading standards, 13
feedlot finishing, 50, 54-55, 77, 105,
109, 127
health maintenance in, 5, 10, 22, 50,
167-175, 224-228, 276, 284, 389,
392-394
hormonal therapy, 167, 171-172
pasture and hutch system, 171, 227,
266-268, 287-288, 301-302, 308-
309, 321-323, 389, 392-394
profitability of, 94, 226-Z8
research needs on, 4-5, 15, 21, 164-
165, 167
specialization and, 54, 85
structural changes in, 54-57, 76, 77, 85
ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE
tax policy and, 76, 77, 226-227
ventilation in, 168, 302
waste management, 5, 105, 127, 171;
see also Manures
see also Beef cattle; Case studies; Crop-
livestock systems; Poultry; Sheep;
&_ .
~wme
Animals and animal products
foreign producer subsidy equivalents
for, 97
value of exports, 31, 94
volume of exports, 31
see also Animal production systems;
Beef cattle; Dairy cattle; Dairy
products; Meats and meat
products; Poultry; Swine
Antibiotics
alternatives to, 5, 135, 168, 169, 171
benefits of, 49, 168, 170-171, 389
chloramphenicol, 129
confinement rearing and, 49-50, 85,
90, 168, 170-171
FDA regulation of, 50, 129-130
in feed, 49-50
gentamicin, 130, 173
health risks to humans from, 128-129,
130
medicinal, 49, 168, 169, 301
penicillin, 50, 128, 169
and profitability, 9
reduction in use of, 9
research and development costs, 168
and resistance of bacteria, 50, 84, 127-
128, 168
sulfamethazine, 129
tetracycline, 50, 128, 301
trends in use of, 49-50, 168, 170-171,
394
Apples, 49, 178, 210, 211, 223
B
Bacteria
Agrobacterium tumefaciens, 185, 220
Alternaria macrospora, 188
animal-to-human transmission of, 128
Bacillus thuringiensis, 182, 220, 342,
361, 362
beneficial, 162, 164, 184, 185, 186, 221,
342
campylobacter, 127
disease control in animals with, 221
listeria, 127
nitrogen-fixing, 148-149, 162
nematode control with, 186
Pas teuria penetrans, 186
OCR for page 429
INDEX
Pseudomonas sp. for fungi control, 185
Pseudomonas syringae, ice minus strains
of, 221
resistance to antibiotics, 50, 84, 127-
128, 168
ruminal, 166
salmonellae, 50, 84, 127, 128
in sewage sludge, 127
in soils, 162, 164
weed control with, 188
Balfour, Eve, 136
Barley
acreage idled under conservation
program, 80-81
animal diseases from, 393
irrigation of, 52, 53
rotations with, 159, 234-235, 240
yields, 52
Bee Indemnity Act of 1970, 122
Beef cattle
alternative management strategies,
261, 388-397; see also Crop-
livestock production
antibiotic use on, 49, 301, 394
breeding, 283-284, 389, 392-393, 394,
397
case study of Coleman Natural Beef,
388-397
disease control in, 302, 389, 392, 393-
394, 397
feeding, 389, 393
feedlot finishing, 55, 77, 395-396
finishing operation, 287-288, 301-302,
395-396
and food safety concerns, 63
grading standards for, 13, 83, 167, 396
growth stimulant implants in, 395
losses from disease, 224, 392-393, 396-
397
nutrient content of manure, 153
pasture maintenance practices, 389
profitability of, 94, 254, 284, 388-389, Case studies
394-397
regional differences in farm income
from, 61
size of production operations, 55-56
specialization and, 54
Bell peppers, 344-347, 348-349
Bermuda grass, 166
Biological pest control
with Agrobacterium strain, 185, 220
with bacterial insecticides, 182, 220,
342, 361, 362
with coastal Bermuda grass, 186-187
with coaling moth granulosis virus,
223, 330-333
429
for Colorado potato beetles, 125
with Crotolaria spectabilis, 186
economics of, 219-224
effectiveness of, 179
in fruit and vegetable production, 65,
?29
immunization of host plants, 220
insect hormones, 183
for nematodes, 186-187
nonpathogenic microflora, 13, 185, 221
pheromones, 180-181, 183, 220, 221,
223, 330, 382
for plant pathogens, 185-186
with plants, 17, 186-188, 221
predatory and parasitic insects, 180,
182, 219-221, 223, 331-332, 341,
344, 361, 380
Pseudomonas control of fungi, 185
regulatory standards for, 13
reproductive suppression by release of
sterilized males, 182, 220, 221
research needs on, 15, 17, 219, 223-224
resistant crop cultivars, 4, 5, 179, 183-
184, 186, 219-221
stimulation of plant defense system,
185-186
success factors in, 219-220
vaccination, 186, 220
see also Disease control; Genetically
engineered products and
organisms; Integrated pest
management; Plant breeding
Biotechnology, agricultural applications
of, 14, 17; see also Genetically
engineered products and
organisms
Birdsfoot trefoil, 149
Bluestem grass, 283
Bureau of Reclamation, 52, 53
c
crop -live stock pro duct ion, 215-21 6,
228-230, 249-250, 253-323
fresh-market vegetable operation, 212-
213, 250, 336-349
of integrated pest management, 212,
250, 251, 336-349, 374-387
livestock farming, 388-397
processing tomato operation, 212-213,
251, 374-387
rice production, 398-417
tree fruits, walnuts, and vegetables,
223, 250, 324-334
vineyards (table grapes), 222, 250-251,
350-373
OCR for page 430
430
Chickpeas, 149
Citrus, 43, 178
Clean Water Act, 98, 104
Clovers, 146, 148, 149, 154, 167, 187, 231,
255-256, 259, 263, 265, 281
Commodity Credit Corporation, 11, 52,
74, 81
Commodity price and income support
programs
acreage enrolled in, 10, 71, 85, 235
adverse effects of, 10-12, 17, 26, 70, 79,
115, 199, 207, 236, 238-240
and agricultural trade, 27-30, 69, 71,
75, 236
and alternative farming practices, 6, 8,
10-12, 17-18, 26, 69-75, 85, 235-
240
base acreage rule, 10-11, 18, 65, 69,
70, 74, 79, 85, 205, 236-240
benefits of, 78, 90, 205, 228
costs of, 3, 65-67, 89, 97
crops and products covered by, 74, 235
cross-compliance rule, 10-11, 69-70,
79, 81, 85, 104, 117, 237
deficiency payments, 7, 11, 65-67, 70,
71, 74, 81, 90, 93, 130, 205, 237-240
definition of terms, 74-75
disaster relief and insurance benefits,
78, 81, 90, 205
effects on nonparticipants, 65, 68
eligibility rules, 10-11, 18, 69, 81, 237
exempt crops, 11, 69, 237
and farm income, 7, 11, 65-67, 74, 93,
130, 238-240
fertilizer use and, 12, 38, 40, 70, 205,
207
and irrigation, 52-54, 70
and land use, 11, 12, 59, 65, 76, 90,
207, 236; see also Conservation
Reserve Program
and legume-based rotations, 10, 233-
235, 238-240
limitations on payments, 74, 93
loan rates, 6, 11, 28, 30, 74-75, 90, 236
participation, 71-73, 93, 207, 273-274
pesticide use and, 10, 12, 38, 70, 205,
207
and production costs, 205, 207-208
purpose of, 69, 74
recommended restructuring of, 17-18,
23, 65
and regional economies, 58-59, 62
target prices, 11, 65, 70, 71-73, 74, 78,
205, 237-238
yield goals, 10, 25, 69, 70-72, 93, 138
Commodity prices
ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE
alternative farming and, 8, 136, 255-
256, 263, 265, 324, 399, 413
effects on regional economies, 62
farm policy and, 68, 72-73, 91, 235
and irrigation, 54
and loan rates, 90
market, 72-73, 93, 237
and soil conservation, 79
target, for federal program crops, 11,
65, 70, 71-73, 74, 78, 205, 237-238
trends in, 5, 92
see also specific commodities
Compost, 151-152, 222, 358, 365; see also
Manures
Conservation Reserve Program
and agricultural productivity, 81, 117,
119
cropland enrolled in, 11, 18, 44, 70,
79-81, 117, 118, 402
effect on soil erosion, 99, 103, 115-119
effect on water pollution, 99, 103, 104
eligibility for other federal programs
tied to, 81
Consumer price index, for food, 35-36
Continuous cropping, 42, 138-139, 144,
147, 231, 232; see also
Specialization
Com
acreage enrolled in federal programs,
10, 71
acreage idled under conservation
programs, 80-81
animal feed from, 166, 254, 274
costs of production, 38-39, 200-201,
203, 205-206, 210, 216, 233, 238,
264, 274
deficiency payments for, 11
export trends, 27, 29
fertilizer use on, 38-42, 139, 152, 200,
344-345
genetic diversity of, 120
for grain, 52
integrated pest management on, 178,
187, 210, 343-345
irrigation of, 51-53, 77, 109, 113-114,
277
low-lignin, 166
market prices for, 11, 72
mechanical cultivation of, 25
monoculture, 42, 139, 147, 231, 232
nitrogen-responsive varieties, 40
participation rates in commodity
programs, 72
pesticide use on, 5, 38, 44, 47-48, 83,
101, 139, 175, 200-201, 210, 344-
345
OCR for page 431
INDEX
regional differences in farm income
from, 61
ridge tillage of, 25
rotations with, 9, 25, 40, 140, 145, 146,
149, 153, 157, 159, 215, 231-232,
238-240, 249, 253-285
specialty markets for, 254
surpluses, 52, 114
target prices for, 72, 237, 238
value of exports, 29
yields, 34, 52, 145, 147, 200-201, 210,
216, 232, 255, 262, 271, 275-277
Cotton
acreage enrolled in federal programs,
10, 71
acreage idled under conservation
programs, 80-81
costs of production, 39, 206, 210, 238
export trends, 27, 29, 30-31
fertilizer use on, 39-42
integrated pest management in, 49,
178, 188, 210, 211
irrigation of, 52, 53, 113-114
loan rates for, 75
pesticide use on, 43, 44, 47-49, 124,
210
pests, 124, 178, 185, 187, 188, 220
profitability of, 94
regional differences in farm income
from, 61, 62
surpluses, 114
target price of, 238
value of exports, 29, 31
volume of exports, 31
yields, 34, 52, 210
Cropland
from erodible grassland, 79
idled, ]:1, 18, 44, 70, 79-81, 117, 118,
402
irrigated, 53
value of, 119
wetlands conversion to, 76, 78
Crop-livestock production
animal waste management in, 230; see
also Manures
buildings and facilities, 257-258, 270,
291, 311-312
case studies of, 215-216, 228-230, 249-
250, 253-323, 388-397
costs of production, 68, 264-265, 321
cover crops in, 320-321
crop rotations in, 54, 145, 229-230,
266, 270, 278, 280-282, 287, 294-
297, 313-314
crop yields in, 255, 261-262, 267, 271,
275, 276, 288, 303-304, 309, 310
431
disease control in, 255, 260, 263, 276,
309, 322-323
environmental impacts of, 284, 302-
303
federal policy effects on, 62, 85
irrigation in, 275, 276, 278
labor management, 255, 260, 267, 276,
288, 293-294, 309, 317-318
livestock management, 255, 261, 266-
268, 274, 283-284, 287, 288, 301-
302, 309, 321-323
machinery, 258, 270, 291-293, 392
marketing strategies for, 255, 263, 265,
267, 276, 287, 288, 309
obstacles to use of hay and forage,
165-167
pasture renovation for, 282-283
pest control in, 54, 255, 260, 263, 267,
288, 300-301, 309, 317, 410
pesticide use in, 54, 254, 272, 273
prevalence of, 54
profitability of, 166, 228-229, 255, 262,
265, 267, 273-274, 276, 284-285,
288, 304-306, 309, 311
research needs on, 165
soil fertility management in, 142, 144,
152, 228-230, 255, 258-259, 261,
263, 267, 270-271, 276, 281, 288,
297-300, 309, 311, 318-320
tillage practices, 259, 272, 294-297,
314-316
weed control, 215-216, 255, 259-260,
263, 267, 272-273, 276, 288, 300-
301, 309, 316
Crop rotations
benefits of, 138-140, 199, 230
barley-soybeans, 159
climate and, 10
coin-alfalfa, 149
com-barley- com-oats, 240
cam- corn-soybeans-hay-hay-hay, 253
corn- corn- com-wheat-alfalfa, 231
corn-hay-soybeans, 275-285
coin-oats-alfalfa, 153, 232
com-oats- clover, 231
coin- oats-meadow-meadow, 238-240
corn-soybeans, 232
corn-soybeans- corn-oats, 239-240
com-soybeans- corn-oats-alfalfa, 266-
274
coin-soybeans-hay-hay, 253
coin-soybeans-small grain-red clover
hay, 146, 215, 249, 253-265
corn-wheat-alfalfa, 140
and crop health, 4, 140
in crop-livestock production, 54, 145,
OCR for page 432
432
229-230, 266, 270, 278, 280-282,
287, 294-297, 313-314
and crop yields, 138-139, 141, 150,
199, 228, 232-233, 234, 239, 255,
294
and deficiency payments, 238-240
definition, 138
disadvantages, 141, 230, 238-240
economics of, 141, 197, 199, 230-233,
238-240
federal policies working against, 6, 10,
70, 71, 85, 141, 199, 233-235, 238-
240
and fertilizer needs, 140, 199, 230, 232,
240
in fruit and vegetable production, 329,
378
with legumes, 9, 17, 18, 40, 71, 85,
119, 135, 136, 138-139, 140-141,
143, 144, 157, 199, 230-235, 238-
240, 299, 405
length of, 138, 141
and nutrient availability, 4, 40, 139-
140, 143, 144, 230-233
perpetuating alternative legume
system (PALS), 233-235, 238-241
and pest control, 4, 9, 54, 85, 135, 139,
140, 175, 178, 184, 186, 209, 212,
230, 232, 234-235, 399
research needs on, 6, 15, 17, 21, 150
rice-vetch, 398, 399, 402-405, 407-410,
411, 413-414
rotational effects, 138-140, 145, 231-
232
short, 144, 159
sod-based, 139-140
and soil conditions, 10, 139-140
and soil erosion, 4, 70, 115, 119, 135,
137, 140, 141, 257
small grains- corn-soybeans- corn-
small grains, 294-297
and weed control, 4, 5, 135, 188, 214-
216, 255, 259, 288, 300, 399, 410
wheat-barley-wheat-peas, 234-235
Crop yields
from alternative farming practices, 8,
216; see also specific crops
crop rotations and, 138-139, 141, 150,
199, 228, 232-233, 234, 239, 255,
294
cultivar improvement and, 34, 38, 120,
166, 303
disease control and, 120
dryland, 52-53
farm income and, 203-204, 216-217
farm policy and, 68, 70-71, 78, 138
ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE
fertilizer use and, 34, 38, 42, 113, 144,
200-201
in fruit and vegetable production, 326,
332, 333, 351, 383
integrated pest management and, 12-
13, 210-212, 213, 383
irrigation and, 51-53, 104, 113
machinery improvements and, 34
perpetuating alternative legume
system (PALS), 233-235, 238-241
pesticide use and, 34, 36, 38, 175, 200-
201
and production costs, 200-201, 203,
216
and profitability, 78, 144
rotation effects, 138-140, 145, 231-232
soil salinization and mineralization
and, 104
soil types and, 262, 277
specialization and, 25-26, 42, 78, 138,
147, 231
trends in, 3, 34-35, 37, 38
see also Crop-livestock production;
Crop rotations; and specific crops
Cultivation, see Tillage
D
Dairy cattle
alternative management strategies,
169, 173, 225, 232, 254, 261
antibiotic use on, 49, 130
breeding of, 120, 254
disease control in, 169, 173-174, 225
farm size and market share, 57, 58
feed, 261
genetic diversity of, 7, 120
losses from disease, 224-225
nutrient content of manure, 153
profitability of, 94
Dairy products
antibiotics in milk, 129, 169
fat content of, 12, 84
and food safety concerns, 63, 127, 129,
169
foreign producer subsidy equivalents
for, 97
grading standards for, 12-13, 84, 235
milk production per cow, 34
pathologic bacteria in, 127
price supports for, 235
regional differences in farm income
from, 61
surpluses of, 68, 84
Dairy termination program, 68, &1
Disease control
OCR for page 433
INDEX
alternative strategies, 183-186, 224-
228, 255, 405-407
in animal production systems, 5, 17,
50, 55, 167-175, 224-228, 302, 389,
392, 393-394, 397
crop rotations and, 4, 184, 209, 255,
382
in feedlots, 55
genetic, 5, 120-121, 173-174, 183, 382
by harvesting and processing
practices, 184, 399
hormonal therapy and, 171-175
immunization of animals, 172-173, 393
immunization of plants, 220
parasitism, 173
in planting practices, 120-121, 184, 230
quarantine, 288
research needs on, 184, 226
sanitation and, 184
soil health and, 184, 260
stress prevention and, 174
technology and advanced diagnostics
for, 174-175
tillage and, 184
see also Animal diseases; Antibiotics;
Plant diseases and pathogens
Diversification
benefits of, 4, 141, 178, 228-229
and crop yields, 228
public policies and, 10-11, 69, 85, 228,
237
research needs on, 219
studies of, 228-235; see also Case
studies
see also Crop-livestock production;
Crop rotations; Leguminous
crops; Planting practices
E
Economic assessment of alternative
methods
animal disease prevention, 224-228
biological pest control, 219-224
comparative regional cost of
production, 199-202
crop-livestock systems, 228-230
crop rotations, 141, 197, 199, 230-233;
see also Leguminous crops
data availability on, 22
enterprise budgeting approach, 211
federal policy impacts, 235-241
flaws in, 196, 187, 198-199, 202-203,
241
integrated pest management, 208-224
methodology, 196-203
433
partial budgeting techniques, 196
pesticide use, 218-219
and production costs, 203-208
research needs on, 21-23, 208, 240-241
risk programming, 197-198
studies of farming practices, 196-197
and transition to alternatives, 198-199,
238
weed control, 216-218
whole-farm analysis, 197-198, 199
see also Agricultural productivity; Case
studies; Farm income; Production
costs; Profitability
Erosion, see Land, marginal; Soil erosion
Farm economy
credit costs, 52, 54
credit sector losses, 92
debt-to-asset ratios, 91, 92-93, 95
federal support and, 26, 58-59, 61-63,
93
production expenses, 91
regional implications of IPM, 211-212
share of retail prices for food, 34-37
trends in, 26, 90-93
see also Agricultural productivity;
Economic assessment of
alternatives; Farm income; Inputs,
off-farm; Production costs
~ .
term Income
from alternative systems, 197, 203-204,
216-217, 238-240
from crop-livestock production, 61,
262
crop rotations and, 238-240
and crop yields, 203-204, 216-217
from deficiency payments, 7, 11, 65-
67, 74, 93, 130, 238-240
from direct government payments, 67,
93
estimation of changes in, 197
farm program outlays and, 65-66, 130
favorable capital gains treatment, 76
from off-farm sources, 93, 266, 390
and production costs, 91, 203
regional differences in, 57, 59-63, 203-
204, 208
from rents and interest, 62, 237-238
returns to farmers from retail food
sales, 35-37
sources of, 54, 58-59, 61-62, 130
specialization and, 54
and transition to alternative farming
methods, 199, 238
OCR for page 434
434
trends in, 26, 91, 93, 95, 130
see also Production costs; Profitability
Farm machinery
costs per acre for, 203-204
for crop-livestock production, 258, 270,
291-293, 392
and crop yields, 34
depreciation of, 52, 76, 77, 90, 204,
226-227
development of, 37
farm policy and capital investments in,
68, 90, 226
for fertilizer application, 40
field cultivator, 161
for fruit and vegetable production,
325, 328, 357, 377
for hay crops, 392
insect vacuum, 214
investment tax credits on, 76, 77
labor displacement by, 77
laser-guided, 213
offset disk, 161, 257
research needs on, 21
ridge tillage planter, 157
sales trends, 92
and specialization, 90
spray rigs, 43
tractors, 37, 213
value of, 77
Farm policy
and agricultural structure, 68-69, 85
and alternative farming practices, 6,
10-12, 17-18, 26, 62, 69-75, 85,
235-240
conflicts in, 25-26, 85
and crop surpluses, 25-26, 30, 53, 70,
78, 79, 81, 89, 91, 113-114, 236, 237
economic hardship and, 6-7, 62, 89,
92-93, -130
effects of, 65-84
farm income and, 7, 11, 65-67, 74, 93,
130, 238-240
and interest rates, 91
lack of long-range planning in, 68-69
and production costs, 205, 207-208
reforms, effects of, 207-208
see also Commodity price and income
support programs; Irrigation;
Regulatory policy; Research and
extension; Soil conservation, and
federal policies; Tax policy; Trade
policy; Water conservation and
protection
Farm size
and financial condition, 7, 12, 94
growth in, 6, 54, 85
ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE
and practicality of alternative
practices, 215
and production costs per unit of
output, 12, 208
regional differences in, 57-58
specialization and, 54, 85
tax policy and, 76-77
Farmers and farm labor
for crop-livestock production, 255, 260,
267, 276, 288, 293-294, 309, 317-
318
in fruit and vegetable production, 332-
333, 375, 382-383
health risks to, 13, 20, 121-122, 416
labor productivity, 37
for livestock farming, 389, 390
number of farmers, 33-34
off-farm employment/income of, 58-
59, 62
skill and time requirements of, 9-10,
22
Farmers Home Administration loans, 81,
91
Farms
amount of cropland farmed, 34
number of, 25-26, 54
operating costs, 3, 12; see also
Production costs
regional characteristics of, 57-65
value of, 37-38, 63-64, 68, 76, 90-91
see also Case studies; Crop-livestock
production
Fava beans, 147-149, 359
Federal Endangered Species Act of 1973,
pesticide restrictions under, 123
Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act of
1954, 82-83
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
Rodenticide Act
cost-benefit assessments, 13, 19, 23,
108, 218
pesticides registered under, 46, 82
standards for new products, 13, 82
see also Pesticides; Regulatory policy
Feed grains, see Barley; Corn; Oats;
Sorghum
Fertilizers
adverse effects of, 7, 9, 16, 42, 89, 98,
207
benefits of, 34, 38, 42, 184, 200, 222,
363, 365
broadcast, 160, 162
and commodity prices, 40
costs of, 38-39, 119, 200-201, 288, 299
in crop-livestock production, 54, 230,
270
OCR for page 435
INDEX
and crop yields, 34, 38, 42, 113, 144,
200-201
federal policies and use of, 12, 38, 40,
70, 205, 207
health hazards of, 127
inefficient use of, 10, 12, 42, 144
limestone, 156
microbial fertilizers, 255, 258, 263
and monocultural production, 25, 42,
139
reduction of need for, 4, 5, 9, 140, 199,
232, 240
sewage sludge, 127, 136, 309, 319-320
timing and placement of, 9, 10, 144
trends in use of, 40-42, 85
water pollution from, 3, 89, 98, 127,
207
see also Crop rotations; Leguminous
crops; Manures; Nitrogen
fertilizers; Phosphorus fertilizers;
Plant nutrients; Potassium
fertilizers
Fescue, 167, 275, 277, 283, 390
Field peas, 148, 149
Flax, 53
Food
consumer expenditures for, 34-35, 37
consumer price index, 35-36
pathologic bacteria in, 127
safety, 63, 83-85, 126-127, 224
see also Case studies; Dairy products;
Meats and meat products; and
....
specific crops
Food grading and cosmetic standards
and animal feeding and management
systems, 13, 83, 167, 396
for dairy products, 12-13, 84, 235
for fruits and vegetables, 12-13, 19-20,
62, 177, 236
for meats, 12-13, 83, 167, 236, 396
and pest control practices, 12-13, 19-
20, 62-63, 177, 340
Food industries
employment in, 33-34, 37, 58
historical patterns in, 25-27, 32
portion of GNP, 26-28
Food processing, 35, 37-37, 177
Food Security Act of 1985
conservation compliance provisions of,
69-70, 79, 81, 85, 104, 117, 237
cross-compliance rule, 10-11, 69, 85,
104
effect on alternative farming practices,
18
export programs, 30
feed grain program, 68
435
freezing of yield levels, 70-71, 237
limitations on commodity payments,
74
loan rate changes under, 75
sodbuster and swampbuster
provisions, 76, 79
soil conservation provisions, 117, 162,
402
Forage crops
antimetabolites and plant toxins in,
167
bioavailability of nutrients in, 165-166
in crop-livestock production, 54, 165-
167
erosion control with, 141, 165
in federal commodity program, 18
harvesting, storage and processing of,
165
lignocellulose digestion, 165-166, 189
nitrogen fixation with, 145, 165
nutrient absorption by, 154
obstacles to use of, 165-167
palatibility of, 166-167
research needs on, 166
weeds as, 215, 230, 389
see also Alfalfa; Animal feeds; Hays;
Leguminous crops
Fruits and vegetables
biological control methods in, 182, 222
exports, 31
grading and cosmetic standards for,
12-13, 19-20, 62-63, 177, 236
imports, 96
integrated pest management in, 9, 65,
177, 182, 221-223
pesticide residues in, 127
pesticide use in, 5, 20, 44, 186, 222-
223
regional differences in production and
farm income from, 58, 61, 63, 65
unit value of, 177
see also Case studies; Orchard crops;
and specific fruits and vegetables
Fumigants
chloropicrin, 185, 341, 360, 365
methyl bromide, 185, 341, 348, 360,
365
need for, 186
sulfur dioxide, 365
Fungicides
application methods, 43, 123
bacterial, 185
captan, 414
chlorothalonil, 107
ethylene bisdithiocarbamates, 123
health risks from, 126, 185
OCR for page 436
436
mancozeb, 343, 344
market share, 44, 46
need for, 186
pest resistance to, 46, 124, 185
registered under FIFRA, 46
use of, 44-46, 179, 214
see also Disease control
G
Genetic diversity of crops and domestic
animals, 7, 120-121
Genetically engineered products and
organisms
biological pest control agents, 221
corn with reduced lignin, 166
definition of, 13
economic benefits of, 222
herbicide-resistant crops, 188
nitrogen-fixing, 17
regulatory standards for, 13
resistance to viruses in tobacco plants,
184, 221
ruminal bacteria, 166
toxic plants, 182, 221
Grading standards, see Food grading
and cosmetic standards
Grains, see Feed grains; Small grains;
and specific grains
Groundwater
decontamination of, 107-108
depletion of, 51, 77, 89-90, 109, 113-
114, 130, 207
drinking water from, 105, 107, 109
energy costs for pumping of, 51
fertilizer contamination of, 42, 111, 147
irrigation water from, 51, 52, 105, 109
monitoring of, 18
nitrate in, 3, 63, 89, 109, 110-112, 113-
114, 147
Ogallala aquifer, 77, 113
pesticides in, 3, 16, 63, 89, 101, 105-
109, 112, 113-114
H
Hays
erosion control with, 141, 230
harvesting, storage, and processing of,
165, 282, 295
irrigation of, 53
marketing of, 275, 295
millet-pea-rye mixture, 280
nitrogen availability from, 147
obstacles to use of, 165-167
ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE
potassium depletion by, 154
prices, 295
production by dairy farmers, 68
profitability of, 145, 230
in rotations, 138, 141, 253, 275-285
yields, 276, 277
see also Forage crops
Health risks
allergic reactions, 129
from antibiotic use in animal feeds,
128-129
assessment of, 129
cancer, 105, 121-122, 126, 129
cholinergic illness, 122
from fertilizers, 127
methemoglobinemia, 105
multiple myeloma, 122
from nitrate in drinking water, 105
non-Hodgkin's lymphomas, 121-122
from pesticides, 82-84, 105, 121-122,
126, 185, 416
salmonellosis, 128-129
systemic poisoning, 122
Herbicides
acifluorfen, 106
alachlor, 83, 101-104, 105, 106, 107,
109, 300
ametryn, 106
application methods, 10, 43, 363
application rates, 43
atrazine, 101-103, 105, 106, 107, 109,
160, 281, 300, 344
benefits assessments, 83
bentazon, 106
benzene hexachloride (BHC), 42, 107,
175
bromacil, 106, 107
butylate, 102-103, 106, 300
chloramben, 106, 109, 385
in crop-livestock production, 54
crop losses from, 125
cyanazine, 102-103, 106, 107, 109, 160
cycloate, 106
1,2-D, 107, 385
1,3-D, 107, 385
2,4-D, 42, 102-103, 106, 109, 121-122,
175, 272
dalapon, 106
DCPA, 106, 107
dicamba, 102-103, 106, 107, 109
dinoseb, 106, 107, 385
diphenamid, 106, 385
diuron, 106, 107, 363
in drinking water, 101, 105
economics of, 5, 217-218
OCR for page 437
INDEX
EPTC plus R-25788, 278, 280, 281
fluometuron, 106
glyphosphate, 188, 329, 363, 385
groundwater and surface water
contamination, see Groundwater;
Surface water
hexazinone, 106, 108
human health risks from, 121-122
linuron, 103, 108, 300
maleic hydrazide, 106
market share, 44, 187
MCPA, 106, 406, 409, 414
metolachlor, 83, 102-103, 106, 108, 109,
217, 300
metribuzin, 102-103, 106, 108, 109
molinate, 404, 409, 410-411, 414
napropamide, 382, 386
paraquat, 363, 386
pebulate, 382, 386
picloram, 106, 108, 109
prometon, 108
pronamide, 106
propachlor, 109
propazine, 106, 108
prophan, 106
simazine, 101, 103, 106, 108, 109, 160,
363
spot-spraying of, 10
2,4,5-T, 106
terbacil, 106
2,4,5-1P 106, 109
trends in use of, 44-47, 101, 175
trifluralin, 102-103, 108, 109, 386
Howard, Albert, 136
Information on alternative agriculture,
137
Inputs, off-farm
agrochemicals, 37; see also Fertilizers;
Pesticides
antibiotics, 49-50
costs of, 3, 5, 23, 38-39, 91, 92, 203-
208, 300, 344, 364
dependency on, 25
economic activity generated by, 32-33
employment in industries producing,
37
fuel, 38-39, 51
GNP share, 27
government policies supporting use
of, 10-13, 15, 205, 207, 233, 237
inefficiencies in use of, 12, 205, 236
irrigation, 50-54
437
reduction in use of, 4, 9, 23
seed, 39
transportation, 37, 38
see also Farm machinery
Insect control
alternative, 178-183
crop rotations and, 4, 212, 300
by endophyte fungus Acremonium
coenophialum, 167
through plant breeding, 121; see also
Biological pest control; Integrated
pest management
Insecticides
aldicarb, 105-107, 109
aldrin, 82, 107
application methods, 43, 123
atraton, 107
azinphos-methyl, 362, 385
Bacillus thuringiensis, 125, 342, 361,
362, 385
benomyl, 234
cancellation of, 82, 123
carbamates, 122, 175, 362, 385
carbaryl, 183, 362, 385
carbofuran, 102-103, 106, 107, 109,
122-123, 296, 408, 410, 413
carbophenothion, 362
chlordane, 82, 104, 106, 107
chlordecone, 82
chlorothalonil, 343, 385
chlorpyrifos, 109
copper sulfate, 407
in crop-livestock production, 54
cryolite, 362
DDT, 42, 82, 103, 107, 123, 124, 126,
127, 175
demeton, 362, 385
diazinon, 107, 123, 362, 385
dibromochloropropane, 107
dicofol, 123, 385
dieldrin, 82, 107
dimethoate, 296, 362, 385
dioxathion, 362
disulfoton, 106, 385
endosulfan, 107, 385
endrin, 123
ethoprop, 107
ethyl parathion, 410
fenamiphos, 106
fonofos, 107, 109, 385
health risks from, 122
heptachlor, 82
lindane, 108, 385
malathion, 108, 385
market share, 44
OCR for page 438
438
methamidophos, 108, 386
methidathion, 330
methomyl, 106, 108, 799, 343, 344, 361,
365, 381, 386
methyl parathion, 108, 124, 386
oxamyl, 106, 108, 386
parathion, 108, 386, 407, 409, 413-414,
417
pest resistance to, 124, 173
phorate, 109
phosalone, 330
propargite, 330
spot-spraying of, 10
synthetic pyrethroids, 46, 175, 342
TDE, 108
toxaphene, 104, 108, 123, 134, 344, 386
trends in use of, 44-46, 48
triadimefon, 364
water pollution by, 102
Insects
alfalfa weevil, 182, 220, 260
Anagrus wasp, 220, 361, 363, 365
aphid, 179, 222, 330, 379
armyworm, 410
Australian Vedalia beetle, 182
Bactra verutana, 187
bee, 122
beet army worm, 378, 379
beneficial, 10, 122-124, 180, 182, 187,
214, 220, 361, 363
boll weevil, 124
carabid beetle, 187
coaling moth, 330
Colorado potato beetle, 124, 125
corn rootworm, 178, 212, 300
cotton aphid, 124
cotton bollworm, 124
cotton leafworm, 124
European corn borer, 121, 179, 182,
222
fire ant, 341, 344
fruit fly, 182
fruitworm, 378, 379, 381
grape leafroller, 183
grasshopper, 410
greenbug, 121
Hessian fly, 179, 221, 222
ladybug, 214
leaf-feeding caterpillar, 182, 220
leafhopper, 222-223, 360, 363, 410
leafmining weevil, 187, 409, 410, 414
lygus bug, 214
Mexican bean beetle larva, 180
mosquito, 220, 410
oriental fruit moth, 183, 223, 330
pink bollworm, 178, 183, 212, 220
ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE
potato leafhopper, 296
purslane sawfly, 187
rice water weevil, 403, 407, 408, 410,
413
scabies and lice in livestock, 389, 393
scale, 182, 330
screwworm, 182, 220
seed midge, 403
snails (predatory), 220
spider mite, 124, 182, 214, 222, 330,
359, 363, 381
spined soldier bug, 180
tobacco budworm, 124
tomato pests, 183, 379, 381
vineyard mite, 363
wheat stem sawfly, 179, 799
see also Pests
Integrated pest management (IPM)
biological pest control in, 219-224
case studies, 212, 250, 251, 336-349,
374-387
components of, 4, 135, 176, 208-209,
341-348
consultant industry, 177, 211, 342
cost-benefit assessments of, 210-212,
384-385
and crop quality, 210, 211, 213
and crop yields, 12-13, 210-212, 213,
383
development of, 176-178
economic threshold principle, 176,
177, 207, 208, 211-212, 337-338,
381, 407
economics, 22, 210-213, 343-347, 380
effects on water quality, 108
federal support for, 177
in fruit and vegetable production, 65,
341-348, 378-382
insect and mite control, 178-183, 212,
379-381
nematode control, 186-187
and pesticide use, 44, 46, 49, 176, 209-
214, 218-219, 340-341, 343-344,
380, 384
plant pathogen control, 183-186, 209
profitability of, 22, 177, 188, 209, 212-
213, 223, 348-349, 384
regional economic implications of, 211
research needs on, 6, 15-16, 21, 22,
162, 164, 173, 174, 184, 185, 188,
209
scouting for pests, 4, 10, 135, 181, 209-
214, 330, 337-338, 342-344, 346,
360, 380, 382, 405
weed control, 187-188, 209, 214-218,
343-344, 380
OCR for page 439
INDEX
see also Biological pest control; Crop
rotations
tax policy and, 76
see also Cropland; Pasture
Leguminous crops
Irrigation
acreage under, 50, 108-109, 113
aquifer depletion from, 51, 77, 109,
113, 130, 207
center pivot systems, 51, 77, 113
competition with urban users, 54
and crop yields, 51-53, 104, 113
economic costs of, 51, 54, 109, 113
fanjet, 357
federal policies and, 52-54, 68-69, 70,
76, 77, 236 ~ v
flood, 389, 399, 402 280-282
in fruit and vegetable production, 329, ~ ~ ~
356-357, 378
gravity, 356-357, 375, 378, 389
pest control with, 178, 382, 399, 407
410, 411-412
profitability of, 54, 77
regional differences in, 50, 63, 77
runoff from, 98
soil improvement with, 156
and soil salinization and
mineralization, 114, 130, 207
sources of water for, 51, 52, 105, 113,
356
sprinkler guns, 276, 278
of surplus crops, 113-114
use of, 50-54, 76
wastewater, 104
water conservation, 52, 54, 77
and water quality, 108-109, 113-115
J
lohnsongrass, 215, 275-278, 280-282, 329
K
Kesterson wildlife refuge, 104
L
Land, marginal
conversion to pasture, 164
cultivation of, 11, 12, 76, 90, 236
protection of, 18, 79, 81
Land use
Conservation Reserve Program and,
11, 18, 44, 70
economic policy changes and, 11
federal farm program effects on, 10-11,
18, 59, 65, 68
harvested acres, 35
market demand and, 11
439
costs of, 15, 136, 233
economics of, 5, 136, 199, 230-233
effects on water quality, 108
erosion control with, 119, 188
government policies and use of, 10,
233-235, 238-240
and grain yields, 141, 145, 231
groundwater contamination from, 147,
150
interseedin~ with weeds 275-277,
nitrogen fixation with, 10, 13, 40, 108,
119, 136-137, 140-141, 143, 145-
150, 157, 160, 165, 188, 222, 229,
230-235, 259, 270, 299, 357-358,
359, 198, 405
perpetuating alternative legume
system (PALS), 233-235, 238-241
profitability of, 145, 230-235
regional distinctions in use of, 231
rotations with, 9, 17, 18, 40, 71, 85,
119, 135, 136, 138-139, 140-141,
143, 144, 157, 199, 230-235, 238-
240, 299, 405
soil pH for, 154
see also Forage crops; and specific crops
Lentils, 149
Lespedeza, 148, 167, 186-187
Livestock
genetic resistance to disease, 173-174
immunization of, 172-173
lignocellulose digestion, 165-166
muscle-to-fat ratios, 167
parasitism in, 173
stress in, 174
see also Animal production systems;
Beef cattle; Crop-livestock
production; Dairy cattle; Poultry;
Swine
M
Manures
animal, 42, 54, 55, 85, 99, 144, 150-
153, 215, 258, 271, 283, 293, 357,
405
application methods and timing, 150-
151, 259, 263, 271, 298-299
biogas from, 151-152
composted, 151-152, 358
disposal problems of feedlots, 55
excessive applications of, 16
green, 119, 137, 143, 144, 146, 256,
259, 263, 359, 398, 405, 412
OCR for page 440
440
handling and storage of, 151, 152, 283
nutrient contribution of, 150-153, 230,
258, 298-299
nutrient losses from, 151, 154
pollution from, 89, 99, 105, 152
research needs on, 152
and soil quality, 119, 164, 255
substitution for chemical fertilizers, 5
weed seeds in, 215
Markets and marketing strategies
for beef cattle, 389, 394-396
for cattle-livestock production, 255,
263, 265, 267, 276, 287, 288, 309
specialty markets, 77, 254, 255, 389,
394-396
see also specific commodities
Meats and meat products
drug residues in, 129, 173
fat content of, 12, 13, 83, 84, 167
grading standards for, 12, 83, 84, 167
imports, 96
pathologic bacteria in, 127, 128
Millet, 275, 277, 281, 282
Monoculture, see Specialization
Mulch, 187
plastic, 213, 341, 345-346
see also Compost
N
National Program for Soil and Water
Conservation, 104
National Stream Quality Accounting
Network, 99
National Water Quality Surveillance
System, 99
Nematode control, 186-187, 222
New River, pollution of, 114, 116
Nitrate
availability for plant uptake, 143, 145
drinking water standard for, 105 Oats
groundwater contamination by, 3, 7,
105, 109, 110-112, 127, 152, 207
health risks from, 105, 127
losses from soil, 143, 145
and nitrogen fixation, 146, 150
and plant diseases, 184
surface water contamination by, 7, 99,
207
Nitrogen fertilizers
ammonium compounds, 40, 145, 184,
270, 408
application rates per acre by crop, 41
atmospheric deposition of, 99
availability for plant uptake, 42, 143
benefits of, 34, 38, 42, 184
economics of use, 145, 240, 408
ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE
energy inputs for synthesis of, 145
excessive applications of, 16, 42, 207
and plant diseases, 184, 406
and soil acidification, 42
timing and placement of, 9, 42
urea, 145, 408
use of, 40-42
water pollution from, 42, 99, 101, 105,
111, 160, 162, 207
see also Fertilizers; Nitrate
Nitrogen fixation
crop rotation and, 4, 40, 143
energy required for, 145
by genetically engineered bacteria, 13
harvest timing and, 147, 259
by legumes, 4, 10, 13, 40, 42, 108, 119,
137, 143, 145-150, 157, 160, 165,
188, 229-231, 259, 270, 299, 357-
358, 359, 398, 405
physical and managerial factors in, 146
research on, 148-150
soil temperature and, 147, 148
Nursery-greenhouse production,
profitability of, 94
Nutrient cycling, 3, 6, 143-145, 150, 160,
164, 188-189; see also Crop
rotations; Nitrogen fixation; Plant
nutrition
Nuts
almonds, 210, 223
integrated pest management for, 49,
210
profitability of, 94
value of exports, 31
volume of exports, 31
walnuts, 223, 324-334
see also Peanuts
o
. .
acreage m conservation reserve
program, 80-81
costs of production, 274
exemption from cross-compliance rule,
11, 69, 237
high-test-weight, 260
irrigation of, 53
pedigreed, 266
rotations with, 153, 240, 255
yields, 255
Orchard crops, 53, 185
Orchardgrass, 149, 281, 283
Oregon, drug residues in milk in, 129
Organic farming
case study of, 324-334, 398-417
certification, 329, 333, 413
OCR for page 441
INDEX
plant nutrient sources, 153
practitioners and advocates of, 136
premium prices for commodities, 136,
255, 263, 265, 324, 399, 413
p
Pasture
feed value of, 281
improving quality of, 166-167
irrigation of, 53, 390
parasitism in animals on, 173
permanent, 255, 269, 277
renovation and interseeding, 282-283
Peanuts
acreage idled under conservation
programs, 80
costs of production, 210
integrated pest management on, 178,
210
irrigation of, 53
pesticide use on, 44, 49, 179, 210
yields, 210
Pest control
climate and, 9, 177, 185, 212, 220, 389
by crop rotation, 4, 9, 54, 85, 135, 139,
140, 175, 178, 184, 186, 209, 212,
230, 232, 234-235, 399
by cultivation, 54, 83, 175; see also
Tillage
economic costs of, 13, 210-211, 223,
408
federal policies and, 6, 10, 62-63
naturally occurring agents, 13; see also
Biological pest control; Integrated
pest management
by plant breeding, 121, 175
planting techniques for, 83
with plastic mulch, 213, 341, 345-346
research activities in, 175
research needs on, 6, 15-16, 21, 22,
162, 164, 173, 174, 184, 185, 188,
209
by tillage, 4, 5, 83, 157, 160
see also Biological pest control; Disease
control; Insect control; Integrated
pest management; Pesticide use;
Weed control
Pest-predator relationships, 3, 199; see
also Biological pest control
Pest resistance, 3, 5, 7, 13, 22, 46, 121,
123, 124-125, 126, 175, 209-210,
316, 417; see also Insects;
Nematodes; Plant diseases and
pathogens; Weed control
Pesticides
adverse effects of, 7, 9, 16, 90, 105,
121-125
441
in animal feeds, 84
animal losses from, 122-123, 126
application methods, 10, 43, 209
application rates, 12, 44, 175, 177, 213-
214
arsenic, 107
atmospheric deposition of, 103-104
climate and, 9, 46, 186, 212-213
cosmetic quality of foods and, 12-13,
19-20
cost-benefit assessments of, 83, 218-
219
in crop-livestock production, 54, 230,
272, 273
crop losses from, 125
and crop yields, 34, 36, 38, 175, 200-
201
destruction of beneficial organisms,
10, 122, 123, 175, 180, 187, 199
and diversification, 44
and ecological interactions, 122-123,
130, 175
economic costs of, 38-39, 121, 175,
200-201, 203-204, 278, 280, 285,
363, 364, 408-409, 410, 413-414
effectiveness of, 121, 123
farm size and use of, 44
federal policies and, 6, 10, 12, 19-20,
38, 70, 82-83, 177, 205, 207
in foods, 3, 13, 20, 22, 23, 82-84, 126
in groundwater, 3, 89, 105-109, 112,
341, 416
health advisory levels, 107-108
health risks from, 82-84, 105, 121-122,
126, 130, 175, 416
in integrated pest management
systems, 44, 46, 49, 176-177, 209-
212, 340-341, 343-344, 380, 384
and labor needs, 44
market value of, 44
monocultural production and, 25, 139
persistence in environment, 103-104,
106, 126
pest resistance to, 3, 5, 7, 13, 22, 46,
121, 123, 124-125, 126, 175, 209-
210, 417
reduction of, 4, 9, 46-47; see also
Integrated pest management, 209-
210
regulation of, 6, 13, 19-20, 82-83, 122-
123, 126, 218
in response to pest resistance, 124-
125, 126
and resurgence and secondary
outbreaks of pests, 123
and soil erosion, 123
in surface water, 63, 89, 100, 101-104
i
OCR for page 442
442
synergistic effects of, 84, 127
toxicity of, 105, 361, 362
use of, 42, 44-45, 85, 101
and worker exposure, 20, 22
see also Fungicides; Herbicides;
Insecticides
Phosphorus fertilizers
acidulated phosphate, 153
availability for plant uptake, 143
trends in use of, 40-41
water pollution from, 99-101, 160, 162
Photosynthesis, 141, 142
Plant breeding
for insect control, 121, 179
for palatability of forages, 167
resistant crop cultivars, 4-6, 17, 21, 34,
38, 120, 135, 166, 179, 183-184,
186, 209, 219-221, 255, 303
Plant diseases and pathogens
alternative control methods, 179, 183-
186, 209, 212, 255
bacterial soft rot, 184
biological control of, 185-185
blight in walnuts, 332
brown leafspot, 407
brownstem rot, 232
bunch rot, 364
citrus tristeza virus, 186, 221
corn leaf blight, 221
crown gall tumors, 185, 221
fusarium wilts, 184
grape fanleaf virus, 365
leaf diseases in cereal grains, 230
overwintering in crop residues, 158
pine root rot fungus, 221
potato scab, 184
powdery mildew, 230, 364
research needs on, 15, 17, 20, 21, 164,
184
Rhizoctonia and Pythium fungi, 185, 407
seed rot, 407
sheath blight, 407
soil microbial populations and, 255,
260
stalk rot, 184
stem rot, 399, 405-407
take-all (wheat), 184
wee d- specific, 188, 220
wheat root pathogens, 212
wheat stem rust, 121, 179
Plant nutrition
crop rotations and, 4, 40, 139-140, 143,
144, 230-233
and disease control, 184, 222, 260
essential elements, 141-142, 154-156
genetic improvements in use of, 5
ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE
and insect control, 222, 363, 365
management of, 143-154, 222, 255,
258-259, 276, 281, 288, 297-300,
328-329, 357-359, 375, 3-77; see also
Soil fertility management
nitrogen, 141-143, 144-152, 154; see
also Leguminous crops; Manure;
Nitrogen fixation
and pest resistance, 17
phosphorus, 141-142, 152-154, 156
potassium, 141-142, 152, 154
research needs on, 17, 21
soil biota and, 162-164
soil properties and, 142-143, 148, 152-
156, 158, 164
sources and functions of, 141-142
see also Nitrogen fertilizers;
Phosphorus fertilizers; Potassium
fertilizers; Soils
Plant toxins, 167, 187-188
Planting practices
climate and, 10
closely sown crops, 141, 187, 221
and disease control, 120-121, 184, 230
double cropping, 230
genetically diverse crops, 120-121
intercropping, 187, 230
pest control with, 83, 140, 141, 178,
209
polyculture, 230
profitability of, 230
soil erosion and, 4, 70, 140, 141, 277-
278
strip cropping, 70, 140, 141, 229, 269,
277-278, 286
terracing, 269-270
timing of planting, 4, 135, 178, 184,
187, 209, 259, 263
transplanting of seedlings, 187
weed control and, 4, 187, 259
see also Case studies; Crop rotations
Pollution, agricultural sources of, 3; see
also Fertilizers; Groundwater;
Pesticides; Surface water
Potassium fertilizers
availability for plant uptake, 143, 154
climate and needs for, 154
use of, 40-41
Potatoes, 52, 53, 124, 125, 178, 184
Poultry
antibiotic use in production, 9, 49, 85
broiler industry, 57
confinement of, 228
egg industry, 57
genetic diversity of, 7, 120
manure, 153, 301
OCR for page 443
INDEX
microbiological contamination of, 83,
84, 127, 128
production of, 34, 57
profitability of, 94
regional differences in farm income
from, 61
turkey industry, 57
Production costs
accounting systems and methods,
202-203
for alternative systems, 5, 23, 136, 196-
208, 210-211, 215, 216, 222, 264,
413
comparison by region, 199-206, 208,
210-211
for corn, 38-39, 200-201, 203, 205-206, v
210, 216, 233, 238, 264, 274 in, 12, 94
for cotton, 39, 206, 210, 238
crop-live stock product ion, 68, 264-265,
321
crop rotations and, 233, 238-240
and crop yields, 200-201, 203, 216
farm income and, 91, 203-204, 208
farm size and, 12, 208
federal policies and, 205, 207-208
fertilizers, 5, 38-39, 119, 145, 200-201,
203-206, 233, 264, 288, 299, 408
integrated pest management, 210-213,
343-347, 380
irrigation, 51, 54, 109, 113
machinery, 203-204
methods for comparing, 202-203
national averages for selected inputs,
206
oats, 274
peanuts, 210
per acre, 199-202, 203-206, 265, 321
per unit of output, 12, 199-202, 203,
206, 208, 264
pest control, 13, 210-211, 408
for pesticides, 5, 38-39, 121, 175, 200-
201, 203-206, 233, 278, 280, 285,
300, 344, 363, 364, 408-409, 410,
413-414
for rice, 39, 206, 238, 408-409, 413-415
for sorghum, 39, 206
for soybeans, 38-39, 200-201, 203, 205-
206, 210, 216, 238, 264, 274
for wheat, 38-39, 71, 200-201, 203-206,
238
see also Profitability
Profitability
443
crop yield and, 78, 144
factors affecting, 197
of fruit and vegetable production, 94,
223, 326, 333-334, 337, 348-349,
351, 367-371, 384
of hays, 145, 230
input use and, 12, 54, 77, 144, 205
of integrated pest management, 22,
177, 188, 209, 212-213, 223, 348-
349, 384
of irrigation, 54, 77
of leguminous crops, 145, 230-235
of livestock farming, 94, 389
measures of, 199-200
methods for improving, 195
neighborhood and regional variation
of planting practices, 230
of rice production, 399, 413-416
variable costs and, 12, 205; see also
Production costs
see also Economic assessment of
alternative methods; Farm income
R
Reed canary grass, 167
Regional distinctions
acreage idled under conservation
programs, 80, 118
animal production systems, 54-55
aquifer depletion, 113
costs of production by alternative
methods, 12, 199-202, 210-211
in crop rotations with legumes, 231
environmental effects of agriculture,
63, 89-90, 99, 101
farm income sources, 58-59, 61-63
farm size, 57
farmland prices, 90-91
feed grain production, 55
financial condition of farms, 94
groundwater contamination, 107-108,
110, 111-112
irrigated acreage, 50-52, 54, 77, 109,
113-114
in pest control needs, 212
pesticide use, 5, 46, 101
sales per farm, 57, 59-60
soil erosion, 63
structural changes in agriculture, 54-
55
of crop-livestock production, 166, 228- water quality, 63
229, 255, 262, 265, 267, 273-274, Regulatory policy
276, 284-285, 288, 304-306, 309, on antibiotic use in animals, 50
311 cost-benefit assessments, 13, 19, 23
OCR for page 444
444
for pesticide approval, 6, 13, 19, 218-
219
and product availability, 5
reforms needed in, 13, 18-20, 23, 219
for soil and water conservation, 18-19
see also Conservation Reserve Program;
Food grading and cosmetic
standards; Food Security Act of
1985
Research and extension
adaptive field research, 15
on alternative practices and federal
policies, 63, 65, 77-78, 136-137
contributions in, 6, 90, 136-137
on crop rotations, 233-235, 238-240
funding for, 14, 15
in genetic engineering, 16-17
impediments to, 14, 138, 223-224,
240-241
on integrated pest management, 6,
175, 177
interdisciplinary approach, 6, 14, 137-
138
interest in alternative farming
practices, 14
in molecular biology, 15, 223
on-farm, 14, 23
on nitrogen fixation, 148-150
policy goals, 63, 65, 77-78, 136-137
soil and water conservation, 6
state of, 14-17
USDA low-input sustainable
agriculture initiative, 20
tillage, 6
Research needs
on alternative practices, 22-23, 188,
196
animal health and nutrition, 17, 20,
21, 165, 169, 171-172, 173, 174-175,
225
animal production systems, 4-5, 15,
21, 164-165, 167
biological control methods, 15, 17, 21,
183, 185, 188, 219, 223-224
centers for sustainable and alternative
agriculture, 20
computer aids for farm management,
22
cover crops, 15, 17
crop-livestock systems, 165, 173
crop rotations, 6, 15, 17, 21, 150
on disease control, 21, 169, 171-172,
173, 174, 184, 226
diversication, 219
economics of alternative systems, 20,
21-23, 138, 196, 208, 225, 240-241
ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE
environmental consequences of
agricultural practices, 15-16, 138
farm equipment, 21
forage crops, 166, 167
funding, 20-21
genetic engineering, 16-17, 21, 166,
167, 187, 188
integrated pest management, 6, 15-16,
21, 22, 162, 164, 173, 174, 184, 185,
188, 209
lignocellulose digestion, 166, 189
manures, 21, 152, 165
monitoring processes and analytical
tools, 15
nutrient cycling, 9, 17, 21, 143, 145,
150, 164, 189
on-farm interactions, 6, 14, 20, 22, 138,
188
plant breeding, 16, 21, 184, 187
plant health and nutrition, 15, 17, 20,
21, 164, 184
planting practices, 21
resistant cultivars, 21, 184
soil and water conservation, 15, 20, 21,
22
soil fertility management, 164
technological trends and policy
changes, 198
tillage systems, 6, 16, 21, 150, 162
weed control, 17, 21, 188
Rice
acreage enrolled in federal programs,
10, 71
acreage idled under conservation
programs, 80
case study, 398-417
export trends, 27, 29, 30
integrated pest management for, 178
loan rates for, 75
nitrogen-fixing sources for, 149
organic, 398-417
participation rates in commodity
programs, 73
regional differences in farm income
from, 61, 62
value of exports, 29
Rural Clean Water Program, 104
Rye, 53, 360
S
Saliniz at ion
and depletion of Colorado River, 104,
114
of soils, 89, 104, 114-115, 130, 207
Sediment deposition
economic consequences of, 99
OCR for page 445
INDEX
and nutrient loading, 99-100
in surface water, 63, 98-100
volume of, 99
Selenium, 104
Sewage sludge, as fertilizer, 127, 136,
309, 319-320
Sheep
forage improvements for, 167
management in crop-livestock
pro duct ion, 266-267
profitability of, 94
Small grains
irrigation of, 113-114
rotation with leguminous forages, 9,
146
surpluses, 114
see also Oats; Wheat
Soil conditions
acidity, 42, 142, 146
biological antagonism level, 186
cation exchange capacity, 142-143, 145,
154, 156
crop rotations and, 10, 139-140, 143
depth of soils, 116
and erosion, 116, 257
and groundwater contamination, 109,
114
moisture retention, 116, 119, 139, 142,
143, 158, 164
monitoring of, 6, 10
nitrogen fertilization and, 42
and nitrogen fixation, 148
organic matter and, 116, 119, 139-140,
143, 164, 272
and pesticide binding, 142
pH, 143, 154-156, 184, 259, 263, 271,
278, 300
and plant nutrients, 142-143, 148, 152-
156, 158, 164
planting schedules and, 10
texture, 142, 164
tillage and, 119, 135, 158, 160
Soil conservation
compliance, 69-70, 79, 81, 85, 104, 117,
237
Conservation Reserve Program, 11,
78-81
crop prices and surpluses and, 79
crop rotations and, 4, 70, 115, 119,
135, 137, 140, 141, 257
eligibility for federal programs tied to,
81
and excess production capacity, 81
federal policies and adoption of
alternative practices, 6, 10, 18, 68,
70, 78-82
445
with hays and forages, 78-79, 137, 165
incentives for, 79
research contributions in, 6
rotations and, 4, 70, 115, 119, 135, 137,
140, 141, 257
runoff reduction strategies, 117
tillage and, 5, 6, 70, 81, 119, 135, 136,
141, 156-160, 162, 184, 229, 303
Soil Conservation and Domestic
Allotment Act of 1936, 78
Soil erosion
and agricultural productivity, 98, 115-
117, 119
cultivation of marginal lands and, 90
economic costs of, 115-116
management practices contributing to,
115, 119
nutrient losses from, 116, 143; see also
Plant nutrition
offsite effects of, 115
onsite damage from, 115-116
planting practices and, 4, 137, 140
policies contributing to, 79, 89, 115
prevalence of, 3, 18, 63, 130
prevention of, see Soil conservation
research needs on, 15, 22
and sediment deposition in surface
waters, 115
tillage and, 4, 70, 160-161, 257, 272
and water quality, 98, 115-120
by wind and water, 116-117
see also Land, marginal
Soil fertility management
amending soil reaction, 154-156
in crop-livestock production, 142, 144,
152, 228-230, 255, 258-259, 261,
263, 267, 270-271, 276, 281, 288,
297-300, 309, 311, 318-320
in fruit and vegetable production, 222,
326, 328-329, 337, 347-348, 351,
357-359, 375, 377
nitrogen, 144-152; see also Leguminous
crops; Nitrogen fertilizers;
Nitrogen fixation
for organic farming, 153
phosphorus, 152-154; see also
Phosphorus fertilizers
potassium, 154; see also Potassium
fertilizers
see also Crop rotations; Fertilizer use;
Manures; Nitrogen fixation; Plant
nutrition; Soil conditions; Tillage
Soil fumigation, rotations and, 214; see
also Fumigants
Soils
alkaline, 156
OCR for page 446
446
beneficial fauna in, 158, 162-164
Bennington, 257, 262
Berks, 289, 291
Clarinda, 269
clay, 142, 143, 153
Clearfield, 269
and crop yields, 262, 277
erosion potential, 257
Fogelsville, 289, 291
Homewood, 257, 262
Louisburg, 276-278
Luray, 257, 262
Macksburg, 269
Madison, 276-278
mineralization of, 104, 164
Monocan, 277
muck, 340
nutrient management in, see Soil
fertility management
Pacelot, 276-278
quality of, 143; see also Soil condition
Ryder, 289, 291
salinization of, 89, 104, 114-115
sandy, 109, 114, 142, 338, 340
Sharpsburg, 269
silt, 142
Stockton clay adobe, 400
testing of, 6, 10, 144, 154, 186, 278,
300, 359
toxic to plant roots, 156
Weikert, 289, 291
Winterset, 269
Sorghum
acreage enrolled in commodity
program, 71, 80
acreage in conservation reserve
program, 80-81
cyanogenic glycosides in, 167
diseases, 184-
input costs for, 39, 233
integrated pest management in, 178
irrigation of, 52, 53, 109, 113-114
market price for, 72
participation rates in commodity
programs, 72
pest-resistant, 121
surpluses, 114
tannins in, 167
target price for, 72
yields, 52
Soybeans
animal feed from, 254, 281, 297
costs of production, 38-39, 200-201,
210, 233, 238, 264, 274
exemption from cross-compliance rule,
11
export trends, 27, 29, 94
ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE
fertilizer use on, 38-42, 200-201
integrated pest management in, 178,
180, 187, 210
irrigation of, 52, 53
loan rates for, 75
meal, 94
monoculture, 147
nitrogen fixation by, 146-149
pesticide use on, 5, 38, 44, 47-48, 83,
101, 175, 200-201
pests, 186
prices for, 237, 238, 254
regional differences in farm income
from, 61, 62
rotations with, 9, 25, 146, 159, 186,
215, 232, 239-240, 249, 253-274,
275-285
specialty markets for, 254
tillage of, 25, 187
value of exports, 29
yields, 34, 52, 200-201, 216, 255, 262,
271, 277
Specialization
adverse effects of, 7, 119
climate and, 78
and crop yields, 25-26, 42, 78, 138,
147, 231
factors contributing to, 25-26, 50, 97-
98
and pest control, 185, 186
and structural changes in agriculture,
54-55, 85
Strawberries, 185, 214
Sudan grass, 167, 281
Sugar, 96, 97
Sugar beets, 53, 186
Sugarcane, 53, 341, 344
Sunflowers, 53
Surface water
depletion of, 104, 114
economic costs of contamination, 98
estuary degradation, 100-101
eutrophication, 100, 153-154
fertilizers in, 16, 42, 63, 89, 98-101,
153-154
monitoring of, 18, 99
pesticides in, 16, 63, 89, 100-104
sediment deposition in, 63, 98-99,
100, 153-154
soil erosion and contamination of, 98
~ .
Swine
alternative management practices, 171,
227-228
antibiotic use on, 49, 85, 170-171
confinement rearing, 9, 77, 169-171,
227-228
disease prevention in, 169-171
OCR for page 447
INDEX
economics of alternative production
systems, 94, 171, 227-228
effects of farm programs on
production of, 65, 68
feed costs, 68
and food grading standards, 13
genetic diversity of, 120
hormonal therapy for, 167
management in crop-livestock
operation, 267
nutrient content of manure, 153
productivity of different production
systems, 171, 227-228
profitability of, 94, 171, 227-228
regional differences in farm income
from, 61
respiratory infections in, 169-170, 225
size of production production, 55-57
specialization and, 54
stress in, 174
T
Tax policy
accelerated depreciation of equipment,
52, 76, 77, 90
and agricultural trade, 27
and animal production, 76, 77, 226-
227
capital gains preferences, 76, 90
and cultivation of erodible land, 90
and farm size, 76
investment tax credits, 52, 76-77, 226-
227
and irrigation, 52, 54, 76, 77
and land use, 76
and real estate prices, 76
and structural changes in agriculture
76-77
and value of machinery and vehicles,
77
Tax Reform Act of 1976, 76, 77, 226
Technological change
and disease control in animals, 174-
175
farm policy and, 68, 90, 198
and structural change in agriculture,
97-98
Technology Transfer Act, 224
Tillage
chisel plowing, 119, 158, 160, 257, 259,
272, 281, 402
conservation, 5, 6, 70, 81, 119, 135,
136, 141, 156-160, 162, 184, 229
conventional, 119, 161, 257, 272
double-disking, 147, 259
ecofallow, 184
447
erosion control with, 70, 81, 119, 135,
141, 156-160, 253, 257, 272, 303
evaluation of effectiveness of, 217
French plow, 360
in fruit and vegetable production, 329,
378
and herbicide runoff, 101
moldboard plowing, 147, 158, 160,
272, 303
mulch, 156, 158, 272
no tillage, 119, 147, 156, 158-160, 253,
257, 270, 272, 277, 280, 282, 360,
413
and nutrient availability, 147, 160, 162
and nutrient cycling, 160
pest control with, 4, 5, 83, 157, 160,
162, 178, 184, 188, 255, 360, 395,
399
and pesticide use, 156, 157
research needs on, 6, 16, 21, 150
ridge, 25, 119, 156-157, 162, 163, 215-
218, 270-272
and soil properties, 119, 135, 158
strip, 119, 156
water conservation with, 156-157, 160
weed control with, 4, 5, 160, 162, 163,
187, 214, 215, 255, 259, 263, 272,
329, 343, 395, 399
see also Soil conservation
Tobacco
acreage idled under conservation
programs, 80
exports, 94
imports, 96
IPM costs and benefits, 210
irrigation of, 53
pest control in, 186, 188, 221
profitability of, 94
regional differences in farm income
from, 61
Tomatoes, 178, 181, 184, 186, 188, 212-
213, 251, 347-349, 374-387
Trade policy
and fruit and vegetable production:, 62
of U.S. competitors, 30
see also Agricultural trade
Turnips, 270, 271, 274, 283
U
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
pesticide review program, 82, 83, 122-
123, 218
survey of pesticides in groundwater,
105-106
U.S. Food and Drug Administration,
regulation of animal drugs, 50,
129-130
OCR for page 448
448
U.S. Geological Survey, survey of well
contamination, 105
V
Vegetable oils and oilseeds
exports, 30, 31, 93
foreign producer subsidy equivalents
for, 97
Vegetables, see Fruits and vegetables
Vetches, 147-149, 157, 398, 399, 402-405,
407-410, 411, 413-414
W
Walnuts, 223, 324-334
Water
agricultural use of, 50; see also
Irrigation
contamination, see Groundwater;
Surface water; Water quality
depletion allowances, 52, 77
"use it or lose it" code, 114
Water conservation and protection
agricultural competition with urban
users, 54
cropping patterns and, 108
federal policies on, 6, 10, 18
by integrated pest management, 108
and irrigation, 52, 54, 77
by leguminous nitrogen sources, 108
reduction of agricultural uses of water,
114
research contributions on, 6
tillage and, 5, 157, 160-162
water quality improvement projects,
104
Water quality
groundwater, 105-109
irrigation and, 108-109, 113-115
regional characteristics of, 63, 68, 101-
102, 110-112
soil erosion and, 115-120
surface water, 98-104
Weed control
by allelopathic crops, 17, 187-188, 216
alternatives, 187-188, 214-218, 230
by competition with other plants, 187,
216, 221
with cover crops, 214, 215, ?~9, 320-
321
in crop-livestock production, 215-216,
255, 259-260, 263, 267, 272-273,
276, 288, 300-301, 309, 316
crop rotations and, 4, 5, 135, 188, 214-
216, 255, 259, 288, 300, 399, 410
economic assessment of alternative
measures, 216-218
ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE
by flooding, 343, 399
in fruit and vegetable production, 222,
326, 329, 337, 343-344, 351, 360,
375, 382
hand weeding, 979, 255, 260, 263
harvesting of weeds as hay, 215, 389
with herbicides, 5, 187, 288
by insects and plant pathogens, 187,
220
interseeding, 276
with irrigation, 410
planting practices and, 4, 187, 215,
221, 255, 259, 263
summer fallowing for, 395
tillage and, 4, 5, 160, 162, 163,- 187,
214, 215, 217-218, 255, 259, 263,
272, 329, 343, 395, 399
weather and, 215
and weed resistance, 316
Wetlands, protection of, 18, 76, 79
Wheat
acreage enrolled in federal programs,
10, 71
acreage idled under conservation
programs, 79, 80-81
continuous production of, 42
cost of production, 38-39, 71, 200-201
203-204, 233, 238
deficiency payments for, 11
diseases, 121, 184, 212, 230
erosion rates on, 119
export trends, 27, 29, 30
farm program payments for, 65
fertilizer use on, 38-42, 200-201
grasses, 390
integrated pest management in, 178
irrigation of, 52-53
loan rates for, 75
market prices for, 11, 71, 73
participation rates in commodity
programs, 73
in perpetuating alternative legume
system (PALS), 233-235, 238-241
pesticide use on, 38, 43, 44, 47-48,
179, 200-201
regional differences in farm income
from, 61, 62
resistant cultivars, 179, 221, 222, 260
rotations with, 140, 145
as a seed crop, 254-255
spring, 164
surpluses, 52
target prices, 71, 73, 74, 238
value of exports, 29
winter, 119, 200-201, 234
yields, 27, 34, 52, 145, 200-201
Representative terms from entire chapter:
pest management
