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HARALD ULRIK SVERDRUP
November I5, I888-August 2l, 1957
BY WILLIAM A. NIERENBERG
ABlOG^PHY OF Harald UIrik Sverdrup written for con-
sumption in his native Norway has a different perspec-
tive than one written for the National Academy of Sciences.
In the Uniter! States, Svercirup is recognizes! as the founder
of the moclern school of physical oceanography. A great
scientist en c! "father" of a school is recognizes! by the num-
ber en c! fame of his students en c! colleagues. In Svercirup's
case the list inclucles Robert S. Arthur, John Crowell, Dale
Leipper, Richarc! Fleming, Walter Munk, en c! Roger Revelle.
This clistinguishec! group former! the nucleus of the clevel-
opment of the science of physical oceanography in the Uniter!
States, which, before Svercirup, hac! been simply a punctu-
atecI, part-time effort by a few inclivicluals. This lifetime
achievement receiver! most unusual recognition by the nam-
ing of an oceanographic term after this great scientist, the
Svercirup, "a unit of volume transport equal to one million
cubic meters per second.") The American Meteorological
Society honored him with the Sverdrup Gold Medal, which
recognizes researchers for outstanding contributions to the
scientific knowlecige of interactions between the oceans en c!
the atmosphere. A building bearing Svercirup's name is on
the campus of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography.
339
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B I O G RA P H I C A L
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This memoir is being written cluring the fiftieth anniver-
sary of the publication of The Oceans, when ceremonies mark-
ing this event are being prepared. Sverdrup was the princi-
pal author along with colleagues Martin Johnson ant! Richarc!
Fleming, en c! his chapter XV on the oceanic currents is still
the most recent publication that treats all the worIcl's oceans
in one work. This remarkable text not only market! the
onset of moclern oceanography but also survives as a leacI-
ing source tociay. In the fielc! of science this lon~evitv is
almost unique.
~,
In Norway, Svercirup is not only recognizec! as a great
scientist but also as an arctic explorer en c! a member of an
oic! en c! clistinguishec! family. The following is a personal
history taken from Sverdrup's unpublished autobiography
written for the National Academy of Sciences when he left
the Uniter! States to return to Norway in 1948.2 In view of
Svercirup's achievements in establishing a new science in
the university, it is of historical value to portray his family
en c! academic backgrounc! in more cletaiT than is customary
in these Academy records in order to appraise their influ-
ence on his clevelopment.
HaraTc! Svercirup was born on November 15, ISSS, in
Sogncial, Sogn, Norway. At the time, his father, {ohan Ecivarc!
Svercirup ~866-]923) was teaching at the aclult school there.
Svercirup's father, as were his four uncles, was a minister of
the State Church of Norway (Lutheran), en c! in IS94 his
father became minister in the islanc! district of SoluncI, about
40 miles north of Bergen. Then his father mover! to Rennso
near Stavanger. In ~ 908 he became professor of church
history in OsIo, where he cliec! in 1923.
The first recorc! of a Svercirup appearec! in Norway in
1620, but Sverdrup can only trace his ancestry on his father's
sicle to his great-great-grancifather, a large lane! owner in
northern Norway. In ISIS one of his three sons, Georg
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HARALD U LRI K SVE RD RU P
341
Svercirup, was one of the first professors of the University
in OsIo in classical philosophy and languages. He partici-
patec! in the Norwegian constitutional convention en c! was
one of the three authors of the final document. The young-
est of the three, Svercirup's great-grancifather, Jacob Liv Borch
Svercirup ~ ~ 775-] 841 ), became an expert in lane! manage-
ment en c! establishec! the first agricultural school in Nor-
way. Two of his sons reacher! consiclerable prominence. {ohan
Svercirup ~6-92), a lawyer, was a member of the Storting
en c! became the leacler of the liberal party en c! succeeclec!
in introducing the parliamentary system.
The oIcler brother, Haralc! UIrik Svercirup (~13-91),
Svercirup's grandfather, was also a churchman who servec!
as a Lutheran minister in Sogncial, Svercirup's birthplace.
He also servec! a long time in the Storting en c! was involves!
in many enterprises, from fruit growing to banking to ship-
ping.
His mother, Maria VolIan, cliec! when her son was still a
chiTcI. Her family was relater! to the Grieg family. His mater-
nal grandmother was of Scotch crescent, en c! his maternal
gran cifather hac! a religious education also but serve c! as
the editor of a large newspaper and was the author of an
important arithmetic textbook.
As a result of his father's varier! career, Svercirup spent
much of his boyhooc! in various sites in western Norway
en c! was taught by governesses until he was fourteen years
old, when he went to school in Stavanger. During Sverdrup's
aclolescence, he experienced conflicts between his interest
in natural science and his family's profession of theology.
By his own account he was an avic! reacler of a Danish publi-
cation, Frem, meaning "forward," that spanner! the entire
gamut of the sciences. He had difficulty reconciling the
concept of evolution with his religious upbringing.
It clic! not occur to Svercirup at the time that one conic!
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B I O G RA P H I C A L
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stucly science in the university whose subject matter to him
was synonymous with theology. Thus, when he enterer! gym-
nasium in 1903, he chose the classical curriculum insteac!
of the science curriculum. But that gave him the opportu-
nitv to react evervthin~ he conic! fins! on astronomy, his
J O
major interest at the time, en c! when he learner! that he
conic! pursue the natural sciences in the university, his ca-
reer path was cleterminecI.
Much of Svercirup's scientific clevelopment was associates!
with the military. After leaving the gymnasium with honors,
he spent a year in OsIo preparing for en c! passing university
preliminary examinations. He cleciclec! to combine his com-
puisory military service at the Norwegian Academy of War
with an enc! towarc! becoming a reserve officer en c! having
the security of an income. He joiner! this training with the
stucly of physics en c! mathematics en c! thus was able to re-
turn to the university. He makes a special point in his mem-
oirs that his year at the academy was not waster! because he
neeclec! physical training. He was prouc! of the fact that he
finisher! the perioc! servec! (1907-8) as the top man in ath-
letics. It probably was essential to his survival en c! positive
performance later cluring his Tong arctic orcleals.
When he enterer! the university in 190S, Svercirup's in-
tended major was astronomy. The precise title of the sub-
ject at the university was "Physical Geography and Astronomy."
He defines the content in more moclern terms as inclucling
geophysics, meteorology, oceanography, and terrestrial mag-
netism. His ultimate research interests were fixed in 1911
when he was offerer! an assistantship with Professor Vilhelm
Bj erknes, the preeminent Norwegian meteorologist en c!
founder of the Bergen School.3 Theirs was not the usual
relationship of mentor to student. Bjerknes's assistants were
the brightest young scientists of their generation. They in-
cluded Jacob Bjerknes, Tor Bergeron, Olaf Devik, Theodore
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HARALD U LRI K SVE RD RU P
343
Hesselberg, CarI-Gustaf Rossby, en c! Halvor SoTberg. Bjerknes
expecter! them all to make substantial intellectual contribu-
tions to the work. Svercirup later recallec! that Bjerknes's4
. . . own work centered completely around the further development of the
theoretical tools. He has to my knowledge never attempted to draw a weather
map, nor has he ever discussed actual meteorological observations. In the
course of the years many of his assistants worked with the data, they tried
to interpret the observed conditions, and, step by step, to gain better un-
derstanding of the physical processes in the atmosphere or the ocean.
Bjerknes gave them complete freedom in their work. He was no hard task-
master, but he laid the course.
The Bergen School was supporter! by an annual grant
that Bj erknes receiver! from the Carnegie Institution of
Washington almost from the first clays of its establishment
after his visit to Washington in 1905. Bjerknes receiver! this
grant continuously to the enc! of his career. Svercirup notes
the vital role that the Carnegie Institution playact in clevel-
oping the earth sciences in those early years, en c! Svercirup
himself receiver! sunnort from the institution throughout
his career.
1 1
to
Svercirup initially expecter! to continue research in as-
tronomy, but he became more en c! more interested in me-
teorology en c! oceanography en c! so changer! his major. His
first publisher! paper (in 1914) was for his cancliciacy en c!
was in meteorology. When, in 1912, Bjerknes went to the
University of Leipzig as professor en c! director of the new
Geophysical Institute, Sverdrup accompanied him and spent
January 1913 to August 1917 in Germany. These were war
years, en c! Svercirup sufferer! from wartime shortages. He
clic! his thesis for the University of OsIo while there en c!
receiver! his doctorate in June 1917 on a publisher! paper
on the North Atian tic tradewinds.
It seems that Svercirup conic! not avoic! his clestiny in the
Arctic. In 1913 Roalc! Amuncisen resumes! his plan for a
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B I O G RA P H I C A L
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north polar expedition to the Arctic on R/V Maud. Svercirup
turner! clown an invitation as an assistant to the chief scien-
tist because he wisher! to complete his university work. In
1917 the opportunity resurfacec! with the position elevates!
to that of chief scientist en c! he accepted. Svercirup's expe-
riences in the Arctic former! his character both as a man
en c! a scientist.5 He regales! his students throughout his
later life with tales of the hardships of the Arctic en c! once
remarkocI, "These years were really very valuable because
they brought me in the closest possible contact with nature,
a circumstance which to one who works in geophysics can-
not be overestimatecI."6
.
The expedition left Norway on July 18, 1918, with a pro-
~ectec! duration of three to four years. Instead, it laster!
seven en c! one-half years, including an interruption of ten
months in 1921-22 spent in the Uniter! States. Svercirup clic!
not return to Norway until December 22, 1925. In his own
worcis, he woulc! not have misses! the experience of any one
of those years. He caller! the most interesting perioc! the
eight months of 1919-20 that he spent in Siberia living with
nomadic reindeer herclers, the Chukchi. This was at the
suggestion of Amuncisen cluring a perioc! when the vessel
was ice bouncI. It is not easy to unclerstanc! his statement,
for although Svercirup gave several lectures en c! talks on
the Chukchi, he never publisher! these. Svercirup left a hancI-
written monograph on the Chukchi that was translates! en c!
published some thirty years after his death by his colleagues
at Scripps as a tribute to Sverdrup,7 although by then a
larger en c! more authoritative ethnographic study of the
people had already been published.
Svercirup felt that the long years in the Arctic en c! the
heavy responsibilities of his work as chief scientist were jus-
tified by the firsthand experience he gained in field re-
search en c! ciata taking, but seven years away from home
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HARALD U LRI K SVE RD RU P
345
wouic! seem to have overdone it. His arctic work also al-
lowoc! him to visit the Carnegie Institution of Washington
for the first time in the winter of 1921-22, his first trip to
the Uniter! States en c! a very valuable scientific contact.
A more specific justification that Svercirup gave in sup-
port of his concentration on the Arctic was the easier in-
sight it affords in our unclerstancling of the basic physical
oceanography of currents. He argucc! that the effect of the
earth's rotation, a funciamental aspect of the dynamics of
the oceans, is best en c! most simply observer! in the polar
regions, where it is greatest. He recountec! how Nansen
empirically recognized the possibility of the rotation of the
current vector as a function of depth en c! suggester! to
Bjerknes that it shouIc! be examiner! more formally. Bjerknes
assignee! the problem to a young mathematical physicist, V.
Walfric! Ekman, who solver! it en c! thereby his name was
given to the phenomenon known as the Ekman Spiral. It
has never been clear why so much fuss is macle over this
formula. It is the direct analogy to the Coq effect (skin
effect) in the electromagnetics of a resistive conclucting
medium. This murkiness may be relater! to the curious fact
that the effect of the earth's rotation is caller! the geo-
strophic force by the earth scientists where all the rest of
physics call it after its eluciciator, Coriolis.
Svercirup hac! well establisher! his scientific reputation
and in 1926 was offered the chair of meteorology at Bergen,
which hac! been vacates! by Bjerknes, who hac! returnee! to
Osio. There he worker! on the ciata collectec! on the Maud
expedition en c! eclitec! the scientific report of the expecli-
tion. He later estimates! that he personally contributes! two-
thircis of the report. Before assuming this post, however he
spent ten months at the Carnegie Institution in Washing-
ton working on the electric and magnetic records of the
same expedition. There he met and made a favorable im
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B I O G RA P H I C A L
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pression on a number of American scientists en c! was twice
offerer! en c! refuses! permanent positions. He visitor! sev-
eral American laboratories, inclucling a brief visit to the
Scripps Institution. It is interesting to note parenthetically
that if Svercirup hac! acceptec! a Carnegie position he wouIc!
almost certainly have become the first director of the Woocis
Hole Oceanographic Institution, organizer! in 1930.8 If this
hac! occurred, the institutional history of U.S. oceanogra-
phy wouIc! have been vastly different.
Shortly after his return to Norway, Svercirup marries!
Gucirun Bronn VaumuncI. They hac! no chilciren, but he
acloptec! Anna Margrethe, the daughter of Gucirun's first
marriage.
In 1930 Svercirup spent another six months at the De-
partment of Terrestrial Magnetism, working on oceanographic
ciata collectec! by the R/V Carnegie for whose cruise he hac!
earlier servec! as a consultant. Not long after his return
from the United States in 1931 he accepted a research pro-
fessorship in the newly establishec! Christian Michelsens In-
stitute carrying on pretty much the same work on the Maud
ciata. In 1931 he was the leacler of the scientific group in
the Wilkins-Elisworth North Polar Submarine Expedition,
where valuable information was gathered despite the fail-
ure to achieve the chief goal of the expedition, the subma-
rine exploration of the Arctic in the Nautitus. In 1934 he
spent two months studying boundary layer processes over
high-lying snow fielcis in Spitsbergen with glaciologist H. W.
Ahiman.
But it was in December 1935 that the great change oc-
currec! in Svercirup's life when the director of his institute,
Bjorn HellancI-Hansen, just returnee! from the Uniter! States,
informed Sverdrup that his name had come up as a pos-
sible replacement for Thomas Waylanc! Vaughan, retiring
director of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in La
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HARALD U LRI K SVE RD RU P
347
Jolla en c! part of the University of California system.9 Svercirup
agreed, if he conic! be given a three-year leave of absence,
en c! he acceptec! the invitation that was soon tenclerecI. Scripps
was positioner! to be an important center of oceanographic
research, but it bacIly neeclec! increasec! resources en c! rig-
orous scientific leaclership. Svercirup knew, perhaps more
than anyone else in the woricI, about the emerging sciences
of oceanography, meteorology, en c! geophysics, but he neeclec!
a position with the scope to expanc! the sciences.
As an aside, it is interesting to note that Svercirup was
prececlec! in his immigration to the Uniter! States by his
brother, Leif, who hac! been sent abroac! for career pur-
poses. Lief also macle a great success of his life. He became
an American citizen, a civil engineer, en c! cofounder of the
firm of Svercirup en c! Parcel in St. Louis, one of the largest
en c! most important American engineering companies. Dur-
ing the seconc! worIc! war, he servec! as chief engineer to
Douglas MacArthur en c! rose to the rank of general in the
U.S. Armec! Forces.
The choice of Svercirup as director of the Scripps Institu-
tion of Oceanography in 1936 was one of the most felici-
tous decisions macle by the University of California en c! was
an action that enhancer! the university, the Scripps Institu-
tion, en c! the science en c! teaching of oceanography. No
one conic! possibly have foreseen the immense consequences
except, perhaps, Robert Gordon Sproul, the long-time presi-
clent of the University of California. Sproul worker! steaclily
with Svercirup to improve the institution, which hac! been
neglectec! by former university presidents. In fact, the Scripps
Institution had almost lost the support of the Scripps family
by neglecting them. When Scripps's major benefactor, Ellen
Browning Scripps, was on her deathbed, she expressed her
unhappiness with the fact the university regents had never
visitor! the institution. When Sprout learner! of her unhap
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B I O G RA P H I C A L
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piness, he came to La Jolla en c! caller! on her at her home
to reaffirm his strong interest.
Sproul was a great university president. When he iclenti-
fiec! exceptional talent, he went all out to support it en c!
macle every effort to personally see that the incliviclual was
supplier! with whatever he or she neeclec! to clo the job en c!
to create an environment that wouic! keep the incliviclual at
the university. This was certainly how he helpec! Ernest
Lawrence, among many others, achieve his goals by bypass-
ing the university bureaucracy en c! communicating clirectly
with Lawrence in his early years at the university.
Sproul's sponsorship was all the more remarkable in the
case of Svercirup, who heaclec! what then was an irregular
outpost of the university. Scripps was, in 1936, a small rather
remote en c! crusty marine station with one research vessel
capable of only coastal cruises en c! a staff of about thirty
people, including eight faculty members. It had an annual
operating budget of about $89,000 derived largely from con-
tributions made by the Scripps family and matched by the
state of California. It hac! potential in the form of an en-
clowment proviclec! by Ellen Browning Scripps, a spectacu-
lar campus, en c! a promising staff, inclucling some interest-
ing students. One of these was Roger Revelle, about whom
more later, who receiver! his training at the Scripps Institu-
tion en c! his doctorate from the University of California in
Berkeley, which was the degree-granting campus for Scripps.
Despite the remoteness en c! the relative insignificance of
the Scripps Institution in the university system, Sprout was
in constant communication with Svercirup en c! particularly
helpful in what was Sverdrup's perpetual headache, the op-
eration and maintenance of a research vessel.
Svercirup remainec! as heat! of the institution from Sep-
tember 1936 for almost twelve years before returning to
Norway to heat! the Norwegian Polar Institute. Svercirup
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HARALD U LRI K SVE RD RU P
365
Fridtj of Nansen som videnskapsmann. Nor. Geogr. Tidsskr. 3: 306-13.
Dirunal variation of temperature at polar stations in the spring.
Gerlands Beitr. Geophys. 32: 1-14.
Die Meteorologischen Untersuchungen und Ergebnisse der "Maud"-
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Internationale Studiengesellschaft zur Erforschung der Arkis mit
dem Luftschiff (Aeroarctic).
0 1
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r~
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Naturvidenskap og Religion. Fritt Ord 3:107-11.
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1934
The circulation of the Pacific. In Proceedings of the Fifth Pacific Science
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Air circulation over the Polar Sea. Arctica 2:47-63.
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..
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o
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1937
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On the evaporation from the oceans. 7. Mar. Res. 1:3-14.
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1938
EMOIRS
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sea ice. Am. I. Sci. 35:370-73.
On the explanation of the oxygen minima and maxima in the oceans.
Journal du Conseil International pour ['Exploration de la Mer 13:163-
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On the process of upwelling. 7. Mar. Res. 1:155-64.
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the Scripps Institution of Oceanography during April 1937 to
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pp. 173-74.
Hos Tundra-Folket. Oslo: Gyldendal.
1939
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Applied Mechanics, pp. 279-93.
On the influence of stability and instability on the wind profile and
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
physical oceanography
