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Improving the Regulation and Management
of
Low-Activity Radioactive Wastes
Interim Report on Current Regulations
Inventories, and Practices
Committee on Improving Practices for Regulating and
Managing Low-Activity Radioactive Wastes
Board on Radioactive Waste Management
Division on Earth and Life Studies
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
OF THE NATIONAl ACADEMIES
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
Washington, D.C.
www.nap.edu
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20001
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing
Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of
the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the
Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were
chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This study was supported by the following organizations:
Anny Corps of Engineers
Department of Energy
Environmental Protection Agency
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Southeast Compact Commission
Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication
are those of the authorts) and clo not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations or
agencies that provided support for the project.
International Standard Book Number 0-309-52787-2 (PDF)
Additional copies of this report are available from the National Academies Press, 500
Fifth Street, N.W., Lockbox 285, Washington, DC 20055; (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-
3313 (in the Washington metropolitan area); Internet, http://www.nap.e(lu
Copyright 2003 by the National Academies. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
Advisers to the Nation on S~ienre' Engineering' and Medirine
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of
distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, cledicated to the
furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the
authority of the charter grantee! to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate
that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr.
Bruce M. Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in ~ 964, under the charter of the
National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is
autonomous in its administration ant! in the selection of its members, sharing with the
National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government.
The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at
meeting national needs, encourages education ant! research, and recognizes the superior
achievements of engineers. Dr. Wm. A. Wulf is president of the National Academy of
Eng~neenng.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences
to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination
of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the
responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to
be an adviser to the fecleral government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of
medical care, research, ant! education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the
Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in
1916 to associate the broact community of science and technology with the Academy's
purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in
accordance with general policies determined by the Acaclemy, the Council has become
the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the
National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public,
and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by
both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. Wm. A.
Wulf are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council
www.nationaI-academies.org
. .
...
111
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COMMITTEE ON IMPROVING PRACTICES FOR REGULATING AND
MANAGING LOW-ACTIVITY RADIOACTIVE: WASTE
DAVID H. LEROY, Chair, Leroy Law Offices, Boise, Idaho
MICHAEL T. RYAN, Vice-Chair, Charleston Southern University, Kiawah Island, South
Carolina
EDWARD L. ALBENESTUS, Westinghouse Savannah River Company, Aiken, South
Carolina
WM. HOWARD ARNOLD, Westinghouse Electric, Coronado, California
FRANCOIS BESNUS, Institute de Raclioprotection et de Surete Nucleaire, FRANCE
PERRY H. CHARLEY, Dine College-Shiprock Campus, New Mexico
GAIL CHARNLEY, Health Risk Strategies, Washington, District of Columbia
SANFORD COHEN, SC&A, ~c., McLean, Virginia
F. SANITY ECHOLS, Echols Consulting Group, Washington, District of Columbia
SHARON M. FRIEDMAN, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
MAURICE C. FUERSTENAU, University of Nevada, Reno
NAMES HAMILTON, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
ANN RAPPAPORT, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts
D. KIP SOLOMON, University of Utah, Salt Lake City
KIMBERLY W. THOMAS, Los Alamo s National Laboratory, New Mexico
Liaise
ROBERT M. BERNERO, U.S. Nuclear Regulator Commission (retired), Gaithersburg,
Maryland
Staff
JOHN R. WILEY, Study Director
DARLA J. THOMPSON, Research Assistant
ANGELA R. TAYLOR, Senior Project Assistant
LATRICIA C. BAILEY, Senior Project Assistant
lV
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i
BOARD ON RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEl\IlENT
JOHN F. AHEARNE, Chair, Sigma Xi and Duke University, Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina
CHARLES MCCOMBE, Vice-Chair, Consultant, Gipf-Oberhick Switzerland
ROBERT M. BERNERO, U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (retired), Gaithersburg,
Maryland
GREGORY R. CHOPPIN, Florida State University, Tallahassee
RODNEY EWING, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
HOWARD C. KUNREUTHER, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia
NIKOLAY LAVEROV, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow
MILTON LEVENS ON, Bechte! International (retired), MenIo Park, California
JANE C. S. LONG, Mackay School of Mines, University of Nevada, Reno
ALEXANDER MACLACHLAN, E.I. flu Pont de Nemours & Company (retired),
Wilmington, Delaware
NORlNE E. NOONAN, College of Charleston, South Carolina
EUGENE A. ROSA, Washington State University, Pullman
ATSUYUKI SUZUKI, Nuclear Safety Commission of Japan, Tokyo
VICTORIA J. TSCHINKEL, The Nature Conservancy, Altamonte Springs, Florida
Staff
KEVIN D. CROWLEY, Director
MICAH D. LOWENTHAL, Staff Officer
BARBARA PAST1:NA, Senior Staff Officer
JOHN R. WILEY, Senior Staff Officer
TONI GREENLEAF, Administrative Associate
DARLA J. THOMPSON, Research Assistant
LATRICIA C. BAILEY, Senior Project Assistant
LAURA D. LIBIDOS, Senior Project Assistant
ANGELA R. TAYLOR, Senior Project Assistant
NAMES YATES, JR., Office Assistant
v
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Preface
This study began with the observation by members of the Board on Radioactive
Waste Management (BROOM) that low-activity radioactive wastes in the United States
are managed uncler a patchwork of regulations that have evolved over the past 60 years-
since the beginning of large-scale production of nuclear materials under the Manhattan
Project. Today a broad spectrum of low-activity wastes originates from nuclear power
utilities; the use of radioisotopes in industry, medicine, and research; recovery of mineral
resources (mining, oil ant! gas production); and Department of Energy (DOE) sites.
Because statutes ant! regulations that control Tow-activity waste are based on the
origin of these wastes, rather than their radiological properties, regulation may be overly
restrictive in some cases, leacling to excessive costs ant! other burdens on the waste
generator. In other cases, some wastes may present greater potential risks to the public
than are generally recognized. The BROOM therefore believed that a National Research
Council study of current low-activity waste management and regulation, and an
assessment of options for improving the current system would be valuable for state and
federal policy makers, waste generators and regulators, and concerned members of the
public.
This interim report concludes the first half of the study by providing an overview
of Tow-activity waste characteristics, inventories, management and disposal practices, and
the federal and state authorities that control these wastes. The committee has attempted
to organize a great deal of diverse information into a succinct presentation and set of
findings that will provide a sound basis for the final report, which will describe and
assess options for improvements.
The committee would like to recognize the five sponsors that provided financial
support at the beginning of this study:
Army Corps of Engineers
Department of Energy
Environmental Protection Agency
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Southeast Compact Commission.
Informative site visits were arranged by Rudy Guercia, DOE Richiand
Operations Office, Hanford, Washington site; Mike Ault, U.S. Ecology, also at the
Hanford site; Ken Alkema, Envirocare, Clive, Utah; and Louis Dell'Orco, Army Corps of
..
vll
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Engineers, FUSRAP sites near St. Louis, Missouri. The committee also thanks the
individuals who made presentations at our public meetings (see Appendix A).
The work of this committee was ably assisted by members of the BROOM staff.
John Wiley, stucly director, assistec! and acivisec3 the committee from its inception through
review of this interim report. DarIa Thompson, senior research assistant, provided the
extensive documentation ant! other data resources user! by the committee. Angela Taylor
and Toni GreenTeaf provided prompt and efficient assistance with logistical and financial
matters.
Finally, I want to thank the members of the committee for their dedication and
diligence. ~ especially appreciate the leadership skills and technical insights provided by
Michael Ryan, vice-chairman. Although of diverse backgrounds and expertise, the
committee respected the overall goal of this initial phase of the study, and each macle
significant contributions. I look forward to working with the committee and staff in
completing this study and the final report.
David Leroy
Chair
...
v///
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List of Report Reviewers
This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse
perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the
National Research Council (NRC) Report Review Committee. The purpose of this
independent review is to provide candid ant! critical comments that will assist the institution
in making the published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets
institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge.
The content of the review comments and craft manuscript remains conficlential to protect
the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals for
their participation in the review of this report:
David Adelman, University of Arizona
John Ahearne, Sigma Xi and Duke University
Jan Beyea, Consulting in the Public Interest
Allen Croff, Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Ron Fraass, Conference of Radiation Control Program Directors
Jill Lipoti, New Jersey Dept. of Environmental Protection
Paul Rennick, Rennick and Associates
John Vincenti, The Pennsylvania State University
Although the reviewers listed above have provicled many constructive comments
and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations, nor
did they see the final draft of the report before its release. The review of this report was
overseen by Chris Whipple of ENVIRON International. Appointed by the National
Research Council, he was responsible for making certain that an independent
examination of this report was carrier! out in accordance with NRC procedures and that
all review comments were carefully considerecl. Responsibility for the final content of
this report rests entirely with the authoring committee and the NRC.
lX
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Contents
Executive Summary, 1
Introduction, 7
What Are Low-Activity Wastes?, 7
Approach to the Task Statement, 9
The Statutory and Regulatory Context for Low-Activity Waste
Management, 13
Federal Statutes Applicable to Low-Activity Wastes, 13
Federal Regulations Applicable to Commercial Low-Activity Wastes, 14
Department of Energy Control of Low-Activity Wastes, 19
State Regulations, 19
Evolution of the Risk Concept for Controlling Low-Activity Waste, 23
Low-Activity Waste Overview, 25
Commercial Low-Level Waste, 26
DOE Defense Low-Level Waste, 28
Slightly Radioactive Solid Materials, 28
Discrete Radiation Sources, 30
Uranium Mining and Processing Wastes, 30
NORM and TENORM Wastes, 32
Hazard Considerations for Low-Activity Waste, 34
Low-Activity Waste Disposal, 36
Issues and Findings, 39
References, 46
Appendixes
A Committee Information-Gathering Meetings, 48
B U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 51
C The Environmental Protection Agency, 55
D Disposal Sites and Operations, 59
E The McMahon Act, 64
F Committee Biographies, 67
G Acronyms, 73
xi
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