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OCR for page R1
From Monsoons to Microbes
Understanding the Ocean's Role in Human
Health
Committee on the Ocean's Role in Human Health
Ocean Studies Board
Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and
Resources
National Research Council
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C. 1999
OCR for page R2
Page ii
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS • 2101 Constitution Ave., N.W.
• Washington, D.C. 20418
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was
approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council,
whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy
of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute
of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the
report were chosen for their special competencies and with regard
for appropriate balance.
This report and the committee were supported by grants from the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the National
Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, and the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration. The views expressed herein
are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views
of the sponsors.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
From monsoons to microbes : understanding the ocean's role in human health / Ocean Studies Board,
Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources, National Research Council.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index.
ISBN 0-309-06569-0 (casebound)
1. Marine pollution—Health aspects. 2. Marine microbiology. 3.
Marine pharmacology. I. National Research Council (U.S.). Ocean
Studies Board.
RA600 .F76 1999
99-6094
616.9´8—dc21
From Monsoons to Microbes: Understanding the Ocean's Role in
Human Health is available from the National Academy Press, 2101
Constitution Ave., N.W., Lockbox 285, Washington, DC 20055; (800)
624-6242 OR (202) 334-3313 (in the Washington metropolitan area);
Internet, http://www.nap.edu
Cover art: Small single-celled algae known as
dinoflagellates fall on the background of a rainstorm, along with a
satellite image of a hurricane brewing over the tropical ocean. The
dinoflagellates are watercolors taken from C.A. Kofoid and O. Swezy
(1921), "The Free-Living Unarmored Dinoflagellata," Memoirs of
the University of California, Vol. 5, University of California
Press, Berkeley.
Copyright 1999 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights
reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
OCR for page R3
Page iii
Committee on the Ocean's Role in Human
Health
WILLIAM FENICAL, Chair, Scripps Institution of
Oceanography, La Jolla, California
DANIEL BADEN, University of Miami, Miami, Florida
MAURICE BURG, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda,
Maryland
CLAUDE DE VILLE DE GOYET, Pan American Health
Organization, Washington, D.C.
DARRELL JAY GRIMES, The University of Southern
Mississippi, Ocean Springs
MICHAEL KATZ, March of Dimes, White Plains, New York
NANCY MARCUS, Florida State University, Tallahassee
SHIRLEY POMPONI, Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution,
Inc., Fort Pierce, Florida
PETER RHINES, University of Washington, Seattle
PATRICIA TESTER, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA,
Beaufort, North Carolina
JOHN VENA, University at Buffalo, State University of New
York, Buffalo
Staff
SUSAN ROBERTS, Study Director
SHARI MAGUIRE, Senior Project Assistant
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Page iv
Ocean Studies Board
KENNETH BRINK, Chair, Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution, Massachusetts
ALICE ALLDREDGE, University of California, Santa
Barbara
DAVID BRADLEY, Pennsylvania State University, State
College
DAN BROMLEY, University of Wisconsin, Madison
OTIS BROWN, University of Miami, Florida
WILLIAM CURRY, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution,
Massachusetts
RANA FINE, University of Miami, Florida
CARL FRIEHE, University of California, Irvine
ROBERT GAGOSIAN, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution,
Massachusetts
JOHN HOBBIE, Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole,
Massachusetts
EILEEN HOFMANN, Old Dominion University, Norfolk,
Virginia
EDWARD HOUDE, University of Maryland, Solomons
JOHN KNAUSS, University of Rhode Island, Narragansett
ROBERT KNOX, University of California, San Diego
RAY KRONE, University of California, Davis
LOUIS LANZEROTTI, Bell Laboratories, Lucent Technologies,
Murray Hill, New Jersey
NANCY MARCUS, Florida State University, Tallahassee
B. GREGORY MITCHELL, University of California, San
Diego
NEIL OPDYKE, University of Florida, Gainesville
MICHAEL ORBACH, Duke University Marine Laboratory,
Beaufort, North Carolina
TERRANCE QUINN, University of Alaska, Juneau
JAMES RAY, Equilon Enterprises LLC, Houston, Texas
GEORGE SOMERO, Stanford University, Pacific Grove,
California
PAUL STOFFA, University of Texas, Austin
KARL TUREKIAN, Yale University, New Haven,
Connecticut
Staff
MORGAN GOPNIK, Director
EDWARD R. URBAN, JR., Senior Program Officer
DAN WALKER, Senior Program Officer
SUSAN ROBERTS, Program Officer
ROBIN MORRIS, Financial Associate
SHARI MAGUIRE, Senior Project Assistant
LORA TAYLOR, Senior Project Assistant
JENNIFER WRIGHT, Senior Project Assistant
ANN CARLISLE, Project Assistant
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Page v
Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and
Resources
GEORGE M. HORNBERGER, Chair, University of
Virginia, Charlottesville
PATRICK R. ATKINS, Aluminum Company of America,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
JERRY F. FRANKLIN, University of Washington, Seattle
B. JOHN GARRICK, PLG, Inc., Newport Beach, California
THOMAS E. GRAEDEL, Yale University, New Haven,
Connecticut
DEBRA KNOPMAN, Progressive Policy Institute, Washington,
D.C.
KAI N. LEE, Williams College, Williamstown,
Massachusetts
JUDITH E. MCDOWELL, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution,
Massachusetts
RICHARD A. MESERVE, Covington & Burling, Washington,
D.C.
HUGH C. MORRIS, Canadian Global Change Program, Delta,
British Columbia
RAYMOND A. PRICE, Queen's University at Kingston,
Ontario
H. RONALD PULLIAM, University of Georgia, Athens
THOMAS C. SCHELLING, University of Maryland, College
Park
VICTORIA J. TSCHINKEL, Landers and Parsons, Tallahassee,
Florida
E-AN ZEN, University of Maryland, College Park
MARY LOU ZOBACK, United States Geological Survey, Menlo
Park, California
Staff
ROBERT M. HAMILTON, Executive Director
GREGORY H. SYMMES, Assistant Executive Director
JEANETTE SPOON, Administrative and Financial Officer
SANDI FITZPATRICK, Administrative Associate
MARQUITA SMITH, Administrative Assistant/Technology
Analyst
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Page vi
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit,
self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in
scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance
of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare.
Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in
1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the
federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce
M. Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964,
under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a
parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in
its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing
with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility of
advising the federal government. The National Academy of
Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting
national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes
the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. William A. Wulf is
president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the
National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent
members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy
matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts
under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences
by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal
government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of
medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is
president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National
Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of
science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering
knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in
accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the
Council has become the principal operating agency of both the
National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of
Engineering in providing services to the government, the public,
and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is
administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of
Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. William A. Wulf are chairman
and vice-chairman, respectively, of the National Research
Council.
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Page vii
FOREWARD
1998 has been declared the International Year of the Ocean
(YOTO). This has led to the initiation of a number of activities
meant to enhance the public's awareness of the ocean and to improve
our ability to deal effectively with the hydrosphere. One useful
and important activity that each of us could undertake as YOTO
draws to a close would be to think about the ways the ocean affects
our lives. Some connections are clear: people in the transportation
industry might express concern about tides, winds and currents and
how they affect the safety and economics of shipping. People in the
fishing industry might recognize how their livelihoods depend on
the health and productivity of the fishing grounds. The broader
public might value the ocean as a source of food and recreation,
and remember how the warm Pacific Ocean waters of the 1997–98
El Niño brought unusually warm, wet weather to much of the
United States. There are many other immediate connections between
the ocean and human activities.
However, this report examines another, less often recognized,
aspect of how the ocean affects our lives; the implications of
ocean phenomena for human health. That this issue has not been
discussed broadly is probably a reflection of the diverse ways in
which the ocean influences health. The following report explores
the nature of these connections, considers the state of knowledge
in important areas, and makes recommendations for how improvements
can be made in human health through a better understanding of the
oceans.
KENNETH BRINK
CHAIR, OCEAN STUDIES BOARD
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5. MARINE ORGANISMS AS MODELS FOR BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH
Sea Stars, Sea Urchins, Tunicates, and Sharks: Their Role in Understanding How
the Body Fights Infection and Disease
Sea Urchin and Clam Eggs: Their Role in Understanding Cell Biology and
Biochemistry
Manne Organisms: Their Role in Physiological Studies Pertaining to Fluid and
Ton Transport, Renal Function, and Volume Regulation
The Toadfish: Its Role in Unraveling the Neural Control of Balance and
Equilibrium
Horseshoe Crabs: Their Role in Understanding Retinal Function and How Eyes
See
Aplysia: Its Role in Discovering the Molecular Basis of Learning and Memory
The Squid Giant Axon: Its Role in Establishing How Nerve Impulses are
Conducted
Use of Fish as Models for Human Diseases
Conclusions
6. LITERATURE CITED
7.
APPENDIX
A. Committee Biographies
B. Acronyms and Abbreviations
C. Program for the Workshop on the Ocean's Role in Human Health
· . .
vail
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Page ix
PREFACE
The Committee on the Ocean's Role in Human Health was charged
with examining a variety of ways in which the oceans play a role in
human health: from large-scale physical processes to micro-scale
biochemical processes. This report is intended as an overview of
these issues, a starting point for considering how the marine
sciences have contributed and can continue to contribute to
improving human health.
This study began with a workshop on the Ocean's Role in Human
Health to bring together members of the ocean sciences, medical,
and public health communities for discussion of various topics
connecting the study of marine processes and marine organisms to
the promotion of human health. The committee extends its gratitude
to the following individuals who spoke at the workshop and provided
background information for the report: Lorraine Backer, Robert
Baker, Frances Carr, David Epel, Joan Ferraris, Sherwood Hall,
Anwarul Huq, John Marchalonis, Baldomero Olivera, Joan Rose, Lynn
"Nick" Shay, Benjamin Sherman, Erika Siegfried, Milan Trpis, and
William Wiseman.
The committee is grateful for the assistance provided by the
following individuals who provided additional background material,
data, and figures for consideration and use by the committee:
Donald M. Anderson, Paul Epstein, Eric L. Geist, George N.
Pavlakis, Lynn "Nick" Shay, and Stephen A. Stricker. For their
assistance in data gathering, preparation, and consultation the
committee extends its thanks to the following individuals:
Constance Carter and Adrienne Davis.
This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals
chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in
accordance with procedures approved by the NRC's Report Review
Committee. The purpose of this independent
OCR for page R10
Page x
review is to provide candid and critical comments that will
assist the institution in making the published report as sound as
possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional
standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the
study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain
confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process.
We wish to thank the following individuals for their participation
in the review of this report: Duane Gubler, Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention; Judith McDowell, Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution; Jonathan Patz, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health;
Roger Pielke, National Center for Atmospheric Research; Michael
Roman, University of Maryland; Sandra Shumway, Southampton College,
Long Island University; Patrick Walsh, University of Miami; and
Jaw-Kai Wang, University of Hawaii. While the individuals listed
above have provided constructive comments and suggestions, it must
be emphasized that responsibility for the final content of this
report rests entirely with the authoring committee and the
institution.
The committee gratefully acknowledges the efforts of the Ocean
Studies Board (OSB) staff who helped to produce this report,
particularly the study director, Susan Roberts, and the project
assistant, Shari Maguire. For their efforts in bringing this
activity to fruition, the committee wishes to thank Morgan Gopnik,
OSB director; Daniel Walker, OSB program officer, and the staff of
the Board on Health Sciences Policy at the Institute of Medicine.
This study was funded by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, the National Institute of Environmental Health
Sciences, and the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration.
WILLIAM FENICAL
CHAIR, COMMITTEE ON THE OCEAN'S ROLE IN HUMAN HEALTH
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Page xi
CONTENTS
Executive Summary
1
Introduction
9
Part I: Hazards to Human Health From the
Oceans
15
1 Climate and Weather, Coastal Hazards,
and Public Health
17
The Physical Ocean Environment:
Circulation and Stratification
17
Public Health and Problems Caused by
Tropical Storms and Other Marine Natural Disasters
19
Forcasting Tropical Storms
23
Estuaries and the Coastal Ocean
27
Climate Variability and Global
Climate Change
33
New Technologies for Ocean
Environmental Observation
39
Conclusions
41
2 Infectious Diseases
43
Waterborne Diseases
43
Vector-borne Diseases
53
Conclusions
56
3 Harmful Algal Blooms
59
Harmful Algal Bloom Hazards in
Food
60
Research Requirements Aimed at
Diagnostics, Therapeutics, and Prevention
68
Conclusions
69
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Page xii
Part II: Value of Marine Biodivirsity to
Biomedicine
71
4 Marine-Derived Pharmaceuticals and
Related Bioactive Agents
73
The Marine Environment as a Source of
Chemical Diversity
74
The Discovery and Development of
Marine Pharmaceuticals:Current Status
75
Marine Microorganisms as a Novel
Resource for New Drugs
77
The Marine Environment as a Source of
Molecular Probes
79
The Ocean as a Source of New
Nutritional Supplements
80
Conclusions
81
5 Marine Organisms as Models for
Biomedical Research
83
Sea Stars, Sea Urchins, Tunicates,
and Sharks: Their Role in Understanding How the Body Fights
Infection and Disease
84
Sea Urchin and Clam Eggs: Their Role
in Understanding Cell Biology and Biochemistry
87
Marine Organisms: Their Role in
Physiological Studies Pertaining to Fluid and Ion Transport, Renal
Function, and Volume Regulation
89
The Toadfish: Its Role in Unraveling
the Neural Control of Balance and Equilibrium
91
Horseshoe Crabs: Their Role in
Understanding Retinal Function and How Eyes See
92
Aplysia: Its Role in
Discovering the Molecular Basis of Learning and Memory
92
The Squid Giant Axon: Its Role in
Establishing How Nerve Impulses are Conducted
93
Use of Fish as Models for Human
Diseases
94
Conclusions
95
6 Literature Cited
97
Appendixes
A Committee and Staff Biographies
115
B Acronyms and Abbreviations
119
C Program for the Workshop on the
Ocean's Role in Human Health
123
Index
127
