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PHYSICS THROUGH THE 1990s
Condensed-Mauer
Physics
Pane} on Condensed-Matter Physics
Physics Survey Committee
Board on Physics and Astronomy
Commission on Physical Sciences,
Mathematics, and Resources
National Research Council
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C. 1986
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NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS 2101 Constitution Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20418
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing
Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of
the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the
Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were
chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to
procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the
National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute
of Medicine.
The National Research Council was established by the National Academy of Sciences
in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's
purposes of furthering knowledge and of advising the federal government. The Council
operates in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy under the
authority of its congressional charter of 1863, which establishes the Academy as a
private, nonprofit, self- governing membership corporation. The Council has become the
principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National
Academy of Engineering in the conduct of their services to the government, the public,
and the scientific and engineering communities. It is administered jointly by both
Academies and the Institute of Medicine. The National Academy of Engineering and the
Institute of Medicine were established in 1964 and 1970, respectively, under the charter
of the National Academy of Sciences.
The Board on Physics and Astronomy is pleased to acknowledge generous support for
the Physics Survey from the Department of Energy, the National Science Foundation,
the Department of Defense, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the
Department of Commerce, the American Physical Society, Coherent (Laser Products
Division), General Electric Company, General Motors Foundation, and International
Business Machines Corporation.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Main entry under title:
Condensed-matter physics.
(Physics through the 1990s)
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Condensed matter. I. National Research Council
(U.S.). Panel on Condensed-Matter Physics. II. Series.
QC173.4.C65C66 1985 530.4 85-21778
ISBN 0-309-03577-5
Printed in the United States of America
First Printing, April 1986
Second Printing, October 1986
Third Printing, March 1987
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PANEL ON CONDENSED-MATTER PHYSICS
ALEXE! A. MARADUDIN, University of California, Irvine, Chc~irmc~n
NEIL w. ASHCROFT, Cornell University
JOHN D. AXE, Brookhaven National Laboratory
PRAVEEN CHAUDHARI, IBM T.J. Watson Research Center
c. PETER FLYNN, University of Illinois
JERRY GOELUB, Haverford College
BERTRAND l. HAEPERIN, Harvard University
DAVID L. HUBER, University of Wisconsin
RICHARD M. MARTIN, Xerox Corporation
DOUGLAS L. MILLS, University of California, Irvine
ROBERT c. RICHARDSON, Cornell University
JOHN M. POWELL, AT&T Bell Laboratories
/
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PHYSICS SURVEY COMMITTEE
WILLIAM F. BRINKMAN, Sandia National Laboratories, Chairman
JOSEPH CERNY, University of California, Berkeley, and Lawrence
Berkeley Laboratory
RONALD c. DAVIDSON, Massachusetts institute Of Technology
JOHN M. DAWSON, University of California, Los Angeles
MILDRED s. DRESSEEHAUS, Massachusetts institute of Technology
VAL L. FITCH, Princeton University
PAUL A. FLEURY, AT&T Bell Laboratories
WILLIAM A. FOWLER, w. K. Kellogg Radiation Laboratory
THEODOR w. HANSCH, Stanford University
VINCENT JACCARINO, University of California, Santa Barbara
DANIEL KEEPPNER, Massachusetts institute of Technology
ALEXE! A. MARADUDIN, University of California, Irvine
PETER D. MACD. PARKER, Yale University
MARTIN L. PERK, Stanford University
WATT w. WEBB, Cornell University
DAVID T. WILKINSON, Princeton University
DONALD c. SHAPERO, St`~ffDirect`'r
ROBERT L. RIEMER, Staff Officer
CHARLES K. REED, Cons`'ltc~nt
IV
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BOARD ON PHYSICS AND ASTRONOMY
HANS FRAUENFEEDER, University of Illinois, Chc~irmc~n
FELIX H. BOEHM, California Institute Of Technology
RICHARD G. BREWER, IBM San Jose Research Laboratory
DEAN E. EASTMAN, IBM T.J. Watson Research Center
JAMES E. GUNN, Princeton University
LEO P. KADANOFF, The University Of Chicago
W. CARE LINEBERGER, University Of Colorado
NORMAN F. RAMSEY, Harvard U Diversity
MORTON S. ROBERTS, National Radio Astronomy Observatory
MARSHALL N. ROSENBEUTH, University Of Texas at Austin
WILLIAM P. SEICHTER, AT&T Bell Laboratories
SAM B. TREIMAN, Princeton University
DONALD C. SHAPERO, Sta~Director
ROBERT L. RIEMER, Sta~Offiicer
HELENE PATTERSON, StaJAssistc~nt
SUSAN WYATT, Stap Assistant
v
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COMMISSION ON PHYSICAL SCIENCES,
MATHEMATICS, AND RESOURCES
HERBERT FRIEDMAN, National Research Council, Chairman
THOMAS D. BARROW, Standard OH Company (Retired)
ELKAN R. BLOUT, Harvard Medical School
WILLIAM BROWDER, Princeton University
BERNARD F. BURKE, Massachusetts Institute Of Technology
GEORGE F. CARRIER, Harvard University
CHARLES L. DRAKE, Dartmouth College
MILDRED s. DRESSEEHAUS, Massachusetts Institute Of Technology
JOSEPH L. FISHER, Office Of the Governor, Commonwealth Of
Virginia
JAMES c. FLETCHER, University Of Pittsburgh
WILLIAM A. FOWLER, California Institute Of Technology
GERHART FRIEDEANDER, Brookhaven National Laboratory
EDWARD D. GOLDBERG, Scripps Institution Of Oceanography
MARY L. GOOD, Signal Research Center
J. Ross MACDONALD, University of North Carolina
THOMAS F. MALONE, Saint Joseph College
CHARLES J. }/1ANKIN, Oklahoma Geological Survey
PERRY L. MCCARTY, Stanford University
WILLIAM D. PHILLIPS, Mallinckrodt, Inc.
ROBERT E. SIEVERS, University of Colorado
JOHN D. SPENGEER, Harvard School of Public Health
GEORGE w. WETHERIEE, Carnegie Institution of Washington
RAPHAEL G. KASPER, Executive Director
LAWRENCE E. MCCRAY, Associate Executive Director
V1
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Preface
In this survey of condensed-matter physics we describe the current
status of the field, present some of the significant discoveries and
developments in it since the early 1970s, and indicate some areas in
which we expect that important discoveries will be made in the next
decade. We also describe the resources that will be required to produce
these discoveries.
Condensed-matter physics is divided roughly into two broad
subareas devoted, respectively, to solids and to liquids. In this volume
the subarea of solids is subdivided into several subfields, including the
electronic properties of solids, their structures and vibrational excita-
tions, critical phenomena and phase transitions, magnetic properties of
solids, semiconductors, defects and diffusion, and surfaces and inter-
faces. The subarea of liquids is divided into the subfields of classical
liquids, liquid crystals, polymers and nonlinear dynamics instabilities,
and chaos. The subareas of solids and liquids are roughly linked by the
subfield of low-temperature physics, which is concerned with phenom-
ena occurring in both of them. This subdivision of condensed-matter
physics reflects the manner in which the community organizes itself,
through its conferences, workshops, and seminars.
Each of the subfields was reviewed by a member of the community
working in that subfield, chosen both for technical expertise and
scientific breadth who, in general, had the assistance of many other
members of that community. These reviews of the subfields of con
. .
V11
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Viii PREFACE
densed-matter physics were supplemented by reviews of the new
materials that are exciting interest because of the unusual physical
properties that they display and the opportunities for technological
applications that they may afford, of new experimental techniques
whose use has led to remarkable discoveries, and of the National
Facilities that have provided researchers in condensed-matter physics
with capabilities beyond those available in their own institutions.
These reviews were also prepared by experts in the corresponding
subject areas.
This volume is organized as follows. Part I is devoted to a discussion
of the importance of condensed-matter physics; to brief descriptions of
several of the most significant discoveries and advances in condensed-
matter physics made in the 1970s and early 1980s, and of areas that
appear to provide particularly exciting research opportunities in the
next decade; and to a presentation of the support needs of condensed-
matter physicists in the next decade and of recommendations aimed at
their provision. In Part 11, the subfields of condensed-matter physics
are reviewed in detail. The volume concludes with several appendixes
in which new materials, new experimental techniques, and the Na-
tional Facilities are reviewed.
As one reads through this volume, one cannot help being struck with
the conclusion that condensed-matter physics is an intellectually
exciting field of physics in which discoveries have had, and are
continuing to have, significant impacts on other fields of physics, as
well as on chemistry, mathematics, and the biological sciences. At the
same time, it is the field of physics that has the greatest impact on our
daily lives through the technological developments to which it gives
rise. It has witnessed a decade in which remarkable discoveries and
advances in our understanding of the condensed states of matter have
been made. It is currently experiencing a period of intensive activity in
existing subfields and growth of new subfields, and it offers the promise
of significant new discoveries and advances in the decade to come.
However, research in condensed-matter physics at a world-class level
today is becoming increasingly sophisticated in both theoretical and
experimental techniques. With this increasing sophistication is associ-
ated a rapidly increasing cost of doing research, in dollars and in
manpower, which must somehow be met if the opportunities facing this
field are to be achieved. This is a challenge that together with the
opportunities will be facing condensed-matter physics in the United
States in the next decade.
Finally, I am grateful for the technical contributions of the members
of the Panel on Condensed-Matter Physics and for their assistance in
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PREFACE iX
drafting the recommendations made in this report. In addition, I want
to thank the many members of the U.S. condensed-matter physics
community who contributed to every part of this survey, either by
writing parts of it or by reading it and making suggestions for its
improvement. They are listed at the end of this volume. Their valuable
contributions are greatly appreciated.
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Contents
I HIGHLIGHTS, OPPORTUNITIES, AND NEEDS
Condensed-Matter Physics and Its Importance, 3
Discovery, 6
Artificially Structured Materials, 6
The Quantized Hall Effect, 7
Ejects of Reduced Dimensionality,
Charge-Density Waves,
Disorder, 9
Mixed Valence and Heavy Fermions, 10
The Superfluid Phases of 3He, 10
The Renormalization Group Methods, ~ ~
Chaotic Phenomena in Time and Space, 12
Widespread Use of Synchrotron Radiation, 12
Atomic Resolution Experimental Probes, 13
Research Opportunities in Condensed-Matter
Physics in the Next Decade, 14
Needs of Condenseci-Matter Physics in the Next
Decade, 19
Support for Individual Researchers, 21
Manpower, 21; Instrumentation, 23; Computation, 25;
Funding, 26
Support for National Facilities, 27
Neutron Facilities, 28; Synchrotron Radiation Sources
Xl
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xii CONTENTS
Recommendations, 29; High-Magnetic-Field Facilities
Recommendations, 31; Electron-Microscope Facilities
Recommendations, 31; General Recommendations
Concerning National Facilities, 32
University-lndustry-Government Relations, 33
II A DECADE OF CONDENSED-MATTER PHYSICS
1 ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES
OF MATTER..................
Introduction, 39
Advances in Electronic Structure Determinations, 40
Many-Electron Effects, 41
Quantized Hall Effect, 42
Electron-Hole Droplets, 45
Electronically Ordered States, 45
Disordered Systems, 47
Mixed Media, 53
Condensed Matter at High Pressure, 53
Opportunities, 55
2 STRUCTURES AND VIBRATIONAL
PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS .............
Introduction, 58
Theoretical Calculations, 59
Measurements of Structures and Phonon Spectra, 61
Phonon Transport, 64
Electron-Phonon Interactions, 65
Disordered Solids and Incommensurate Phases, 69
Phase Transitions and Nonlinear Excitations, 71
Opportunities, 72
3 CRITICAL PHENOMENA AND PHASE
TRANSITIONS ...........................
Introduction, 75
What Are Critical Phenomena, and Why Are They
Interesting to Physicists? 75
Examples of Phase Transitions and Critical Points, 77
History, 78
39
.. 58
75
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· . .
CONTENTS X111
What Does One Measure? 80
What Determines the Universality Class? 84
Experimental Realizations of Low-Dimensional
Systems, 87
Multicritical Points, 88
Systems with Almost-Broken Symmetry, 88
Two-Dimensional Superfluid and XY Model, 89
Melting of a Two-Dimensional Crystal, 89
Smectic A-to-Nematic Transition, 90
Quenched Disorder, 91
Percolation and the Metal-Insulator Transition in
Disordered Systems, 92
Nonequilibrium Systems, 92
First-Order Transitions, 92
Outlook, 93
4 MAGNETISM........
Introduction, 95
Magnetic Insulators, 97
Low-Dimensional Systems, 97
Critical Phenomena, 100
Metallic Magnets, 100
Transition-Metal Ferromagnets, 100
Rare-Earth and Actinide Magnets, 103
Disordered Systems, 105
Introduction, 105
Disordered Ferromagnets, Antiferromagnets, and
Paramagnets, 106
Spin Glasses, 108
Computer Simulations in Magnetism, Il0
Future Developments, ~12
5 SEMICONDUCTORS
Introduction, il3
Surfaces and Interfaces, I l5
Defects in Semiconductors, Il7
Reduced Dimensionality in Semiconductors, I lS
Optical Properties of Compound Semiconductors, ~19
95
~3
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Xiv CONTENTS
Amorphous Semiconductors, 121
Future Prospects, 122
Semiconductor Surfaces and Interfaces, 122
S e m i c o n d u c t o r - S e m i c o n d u c t o r I n t e r f a c e s , 1 2 3 ;
Semiconductor-Insulator Interfaces, 123; Semiconductor
Metal Interfaces, 124
Defects in Semiconductors, 124
Systems of Reduced Dimensionality, 125
Quantized Hall Eject, 125; Growth Techniques and
Lithography, 125; Small Structures, 125;
Heterostructures,126; The Two-Dimensional Wigner
Crystal, 126
6 DEFECTS AND DIFFUSION ............
Introduction, 127
New Fields from Old: An Example, 128
Phase Microstructure and Phase Generation in
Radiation Fields, 129
Surface and Near-Surface Probes, 130
Ion-Beam Microfabrication, 13 ~
Calculations of Defect Structure, 132
Fundamentals of Atomic Mobility, 134
Comments on Active Areas, 137
Point Defects in Simple Solids, 137
Surface Diffusion, 138
Photochemical Processes, 139
Molecular Dynamics, 139
Dislocation Motion in Glasses, 140
Defect Imaging at Atomic Resolution, 141
Some Directions for Future Research, 142
7 SURFACES AND INTERFACES ...........
Introduction, 144
The Structure of the Crystal Surface, 147
Spectroscopy and Elementary Excitations on
the Surface' 151
Interactions of Atoms and Molecules on
the Surface, 155
....... 127
..... 144
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CONTENTS XV
The Interface Between Solids and Dense
Media, 157
Theory, 159
Opportunities, 160
8 LOW-TEMPERATURE PHYSICS.......
Definition of Subfield, 164
Quantum Fluids, 164
Superfluid 3He, 166
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance in Superfluid 3He, 170;
Ultrasound, 170; Other Sound Modes, 171; Defects, 171;
Superfluid Flow and Hydrodynamics, 172
Novel Quantum Fluids, 172
Mixtures of 3He in 4He, 173; Spin-Polarized Hydrogen
and Deuterium, 173; Liquid 4He in Unusual Geometries,
174; Electrons on Helium Surfaces, 175
Superconductivity, 176
Nonequilibrium Superconductivity, 179
Novel Superconducting Materials, 179
Magnetic Superconductors, I80
High-Transition-Temperature, High-Magnetic
Field Materials, I80
The Josephson Effects, I82
Quantum Crystals, I82
Low-Temperature Technology, I85
Research Opportunities in Low-Temperature
Physics, IS7
9 LIQUID-STATE PHYSICS
Classical Liquids, 190
Introduction, 190
Static Properties, 191
Dynamical Properties of Classical Liquids, 193
Colloidal Systems Soap Solutions, 198
Liquid Crystals, 199
What Are Liquid Crystals? 199
Why Are Liquid Crystals Interesting? 200
Major Advances, 202
Opportunities for Future Work, 203
... 164
...... 190
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Xvi CONTENTS
10 POLYMERS .............................
Introduction, 206
Research Problems, 207
Amorphous State Solutions and Melts, 207
Glass, 209
· .
Elastomers, Gels, Cross-linked Networks, 209
Polymer Crystals, 210
Electrical Properties, 21 ~
Other Polymer Properties, 212
Opportunities, 213
11 NONLINEAR DYNAMICS, INSTABILITIES,
AND CHAOS .............................
Introduction, 215
Major Advances, 2 ~ 6
A New Paradigm, 216
New Experimental Methods, 217
Routes to Chaos, 217
Dynamical Systems Theory of the Routes to
Turbulence, 219
Dynamical Systems Analysis of Experiments, 221
Nonlinear Stability Theory, 222
Pattern Evolution, 223
Instabilities in Other Dissipative Systems, 223
Nonlinear Dynamics of Conservative Systems, 225
General Remarks, 226
Current Frontiers, 227
Bifurcation Sequences, 227
Patterns, 228
Numerical Simulations, 228
Experimental Methods, 229
Transition from Weak to Fully Developed
Turbulence, 229
Conservative Systems, 230
Nonequilibrium Systems, 231
New Directions, 232
.... 206
..... 215
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C0~ XV11
APPENDIXES
^ Connections Between Subareas of Condensed-~auer
Physics and Applications of Nabona1 Interest ....
~ Nc~ Expedmenta1 Techniques
C New Materials
D Laser Spectroscopy of Condensed Anger
E ~ As..
CONTR~UIOkS TO Tam VOLUME
INDEX .....
236
246
248
~0
Ago
263
291
295
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