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MANAGING GLOBE GET
RESOURCES
Fvest frees
Committee on Managing Global Genetic Resources:
Agricultural Imperatives
Board on Agriculture
National Research Council
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C. 1991
OCR for page R2
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS · 2101 Constitution Avenue, NW · Washington, DC 20418
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing
Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of
the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute
of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for
their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to
procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the
National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute
of Medicine.
This material is based on work supported by the U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service, under Agreement No. 59-32U4-6-75. Additional funding
was provided by Calgene, Inc.; Educational Foundation of America; Kellogg Endowment
Fund of the National Academy of Sciences and the Institute of Medicine; Monsanto
Company; Pioneer Hi-Bred International, Inc.; Rockefeller Foundation; U.S. Agency for
International Development; U.S. Forest Service; W. K. Kellogg Foundation; World Bank;
and Basic Science Fund of the National Academy of Sciences, contributors to which
include the Atlantic Richfield Foundation, AT&T Bell Laboratories, BP America, Inc.,
Dow Chemical Company, E.I. duPont de Nemours & Company, IBM Corporation, Merck
& Co., Inc., Monsanto Company, and Shell Oil Company Foundation.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Forest trees / Committee on Managing Global Genetic Resources:
Agricultural Imperatives, Subcommittee on Managing Plant Genetic
Resources, Forest Genetic Resources Work Group: Board on
Agriculture, National Research Council.
p. cm.-(Managing global genetic resources)
Includes bibiliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-309-04034-5: $19.95
1. Forest genetic resources conservation. 2. Tree~Germplasm
resoures. I. National Research Council (U.S.), Forest Genetic
Resources Work Group. II. Series.
SD399. 7. F67 1991
634. 9-dc20
91-8979
CIP
it) 1991 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
No part of this book may be reproduced by any mechanical, photographic, or electronic
process, or in the form of a phonographic recording, nor may it be stored in a retrieval
system, transmitted, or otherwise copied for public or private use without written
permission from the publisher, except for the purposes of official use by the U.S.
government.
Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication
are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the view of the organizations or
agencies that provided support for this project.
Printed in the United States of America
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Committee on Managing Global Genetic Resources:
Agricultural imperatives
PETER R. DAY, Chairman, Rutgers University
ROBERT W. ALLARD, University of California, Davis
PAULO DE T. ALVIM, Comissao Executiva do Plano da Lavoura Cacaueira,
Brasilia
JOHN H. BARTON, Stanford University
FREDERICK H. BUTTEL, Cornell University
TE-TZU CHANG, International Rice Research Institute, The Philippines
ROBERT E. EVENSON, Yale University
HENRY A. FITZHUGH, International Livestock Center for Africa, Ethiopian
MAJOR M. GOODMAN, North Carolina State University
JAAP I. HARDON, Center for Genetic Resources, The Netherlands
DONALD R. MARSHALL, Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Australia
SETIJATI SASTRAPRADJA, National Center for Biotechnology, Indonesia
CHARLES SMITH, University of Guelph, Canada
JOHN A. SPENCE, University of the West Indies, Trinidad and Tobago
Genetic Resources Staff
MICHAEL S. STRAUSS, Project Director
JOHN A. PING, Project Directort
STEVEN KING, Research Associate
JOSEPH I. GAGNIER, Senior Project Assistant
* Executive Commission of the Program for Strengthening Cacao Production, Brazil.
Winrock International, through January 1990.
Through June 1990.
Through June 1989.
. . .
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Subcommittee on Plant Genetic Resources
ROBERT W. ALLARD, Chairman, University of California, Davis
AMRAM ASHRI, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
VIRGIL A. JOHNSON, University of Nebraska
RAJENDRA S. PARODA, Indian Council of Agricultural Research,
New Delhi
H. GARRISON WILKES, University of Massachusetts, Boston
LYNDSEY A. WITHERS, International Board for Plant Genetic Resources,
Italy
Forest Genetic Resources Work Group
GENE NAMKOONG, Chairman, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Genetics Department, North Carolina State University
KAMAL}IT BAWA, Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts,
Boston
lEFFERY BURLEY, Oxford Forestry Institute, Oxford University, United
Kingdom
SUSAN S. SHEN, Asia Environment and Social Affairs Division, World Bank,
Washington, D.C.
IV
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Board on Agriculture
THEODORE L. HULLAR, Chairman, University of California, Davis
PHILIP H. ABELSON, American Association for the Advancement of Science
C. EUGENE ALLEN, University of Minnesota
DALE E. BAUMAN, Cornell University
R. JAMES COOK, Agricultural Research Service at Washington State
University
ELLIS B. COWLING, North Carolina State University
ROBERT M. GOODMAN, Visiting Professor, University of Wisconsin, and
National Research Council Scholar-in-Residence
TIMOTHY M. HAMMONDS, Food Marketing Institute
PAUL W. JOHNSON, Iowa House of Representatives
NEAL A. JORGENSEN, University of Wisconsin
ALLEN V. KNEESE, Resources for the Future, Inc.
JOHN W. MELLOR, International Food Policy Research Institute
ROBERT L. THOMPSON, Purdue University
JAN VAN SCHILFGAARDE, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Ft. Collins,
Colorado
ANNE M. K. VIDAVER, University of Nebraska
CONRAD I. WEISER, Oregon State University
JAMES E. TAVARES, Acting Executive Director
ROBERT M. GOODMAN, NRC Scholar-in-Residence
CARLA CARLSON, Director of Communications
BARBARA I. RICE, Editor
v
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The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-
perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and
engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and
technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority
of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has
a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific
and technical matters. Dr. Frank Press is president of the National
Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under
the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization
of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in
the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of
Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The
National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs
aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research,
and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Robert M.
White is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National
Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of
appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining
to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility
given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter
to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative,
to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Samuel
O. Thier is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Acad-
emy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science
and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge
and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with
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the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences
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The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute
of Medicine. Dr. Frank Press and Dr. Robert M. White are chairman
and vice-chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
.
v'
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Preface
Fvest trees are integral parts of human society. They provide fuel,
fiber, construction and building materials, food, and medicines,
among other things. The forest itself is an ecosystem, and as
ecosystems, forests stabilize environments and are essential components
of the global ecology. Although trees are the dominant vegetation,
forests are rich reservoirs of biological diversity. They harbor a major
proportion of the world's animal and plant species.
Forest trees also enhance and protect our landscapes. They sustain
wildlife, industry, and rural economies, and contribute to the quality
and richness of our environment.
For many years, concern has been expressed about rapid and contin-
uing losses of the world's forests. In temperate regions of Europe and
North America, the decline in forest health has been attributed to
industrial consequences, such as acid rain. In the humid tropics,
increased demands on the land resulting from the clearing of forests to
accommodate expanding populations and the production of industrial
products have been highlighted. The causes notwithstanding, the future
for the world's forests, if unprotected, is dim.
For many forested areas, efforts to halt or slow losses through the
establishment of protected areas will be essential. However, more than
protection will be needed. Society will continue to need the services
and products derived from the forest. As natural stands of trees are
lost, greater efforts to conserve those remaining will continue. There
will be more need to select and develop trees and forests that are
managed for production purposes to reduce pressure on the remaining
. .
v''
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viii / Preface
natural forests and to provide raw materials in forms more suitable for
commercial use and the needs of human society.
To develop these future forests, the genetic resources of forest trees
must be conserved and developed, whether they exist as trees in planted
or protected conservation stands or as seeds or tissue cultures in storage
(or one day possibly as DNA libraries). Managing forest genetic resources
involves developing overall strategies, applying specific methodologies,
developing new techniques, and coordinating local, national, regional,
and global efforts.
Although tree species are similar in many ways to crop species,
managing forest genetic resources is not simply a matter of applying
programs for crops to larger plants. Forests generate a wide variety of
product values, from the different components of the ecosystems that
depend on their structural viability to the industrial and agroforestry
crops that can be consumed, and the variety of systems that are used
to manage them dictates the variety of ways that the genetic resources
are used. Moreover, the genetic architecture of forest trees is poorly
known, breeding is slow, and wide variations in ecological and economic
environments must be anticipated to use the available genetic variation
efficiently.
This report, while recognizing serious threats to all the species and
ecosystems represented in the world's forests, focuses on managing
those forest trees from which harvested materials are currently extracted.
Protection of the world's forest ecosystems will require broad efforts by
scientists and policymakers. A report prepared by the Commission on
Life Sciences in cooperation with the Board on Agriculture, entitled
Forestry Research: A Mandatefor Change (National Research Council, 1990),
recommends modifications in the way forestry research is conducted to
bring about many needed improvements in the forestry research com-
munity. Careful, well-coordinated management of those tree species of
current or future harvest potential could play an important part in
reducing deforestation pressures on the remaining pristine vegetation.
Although the total number of known forest tree species exceeds 50,000
and potential extractive use can be made of several thousand species,
current efforts to manage trees focus primarily on fewer than 140 species.
Clearly, greater efforts and coordination are needed to sustain even the
current levels of forest production and to realize the potential produc-
tivity of as yet undeveloped species.
The Committee on Managing Global Genetic Resources, established
by the National Research Council in November 1986, is concerned with
genetic resources of identified economic value. These resources are
important to agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and industry. The committee
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Preface I ix
has been assisted by two subcommittees and several work groups that
gathered information or prepared specific reports. One of the work
groups, chaired by Gene Namkoong, examined the management of
forest genetic resources and drafted this report. It is one of five reports
to be published in a series entitled, Managing Global Genetic Resources.
The other reports prepared by the committee, its subcommittees, and
work groups address issues related to the management of plant genetic
resources by the U.S. National Plant Germplasm System and the global
management of livestock, fish and shellfish, and crop plants. The
examination of crop plants will be included in the committee's main
report, which will address the legal, political, economic, and social
issues surrounding global genetic resources management as they relate
to agricultural imperatives.
In addition, a work group was appointed to provide information that
would aid in planning and designing a new storage facility for the U.S.
National Seed Storage Laboratory. The committee released the report,
Expansion of the U.S. National Seed Storage Laboratory: Program and Design
Considerations, in April 1988. Copies of this report are available from the
Board on Agriculture.
The Forest Genetic Resources Work Group was asked to do the
following:
Examine the uses and status of forest tree genetic resources
globally.
· Examine in situ and ex situ methods for the conservation of forest
genetic resources.
· Assess current germplasm conservation activity for forest tree
genetic resources by national, regional, and international organizations.
· Identify the major problems in implementing action, including
coordination, information dissemination, and training.
· Recommend future actions to solve or alleviate technical and
financial problems.
· Present a global strate~v for conserving and managing forest tree
~ i,
genetic resources.
(JJ (J {J
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x I Preface
that determine the structure of genetic variation of managed and
unmanaged forest tree populations and points out how this knowledge
is important to efforts to create, monitor, conserve, and manage reserves
for tree species. Chapter 4 defines the methods and technology available
for the management of trees through complementary in situ and ex situ
conservation activities, and outlines the importance of greater emphasis
on developing long-term in situ conservation programs. Chapter 5
describes the activities of the national, regional, and international
organizations that are involved with the management and conservation
of tree genetic resources. Chapter 6 presents the committee's recom-
mendation on how to implement rapidly a much needed global strategy
for conserving and managing forest tree genetic resources.
The sciences related to genetics, plant breeding, and resource man-
agement are advancing rapidly. The commitment of increasing numbers
of nations to genetic resources conservation is growing. The committee
believes that the conclusions and recommendations presented in this
report can contribute to improved conservation and management of a
major resource the world's forest trees.
PETER R. DAY, Chairman
Committee on Managing
Global Genetic Resources:
Agricultural Imperatives
Acknowledgments
Many people and agencies have contributed their support, time,
and creative analysis to this report. Because of the global
nature of the study, it was critical that scientists from numerous
countries took the time to respond to a variety of questions posed by
the committee. To all of those researchers, special thanks are offered.
The committee would like to thank Robert Kellison, Frank Santamour,
Karl Keipi, John Spears, and Carl Gallegos for providing initial advice
and direction for this report. In particular, the help of John C. Gordon,
Raymond Curies, Colin Hughes, R. Sniezko, Milton Kaneshiro, Lilia
Barrientos, and Lucy Nunnally is gratefully acknowledged. Special
thanks are offered to Christel Palmberg of the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations and to Stanley Krugman of the U.S.
Forest Service, who contributed their knowledge and time from the
beginning of this study. In addition the committee acknowledges Grace
Jones Robbins, Nicole L. Kelsey, Philomina Mammen, Sherry Showell,
Carole Spalding, and Maryann Tully of the Board on Agriculture staff
for their assistance throughout various drafts of the report.
x'
Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Crisis of World Forest Decline, 3
Benefits, Uses, and Development of Forest Trees, 4
Structure of Genetic Variation in Trees, 7
Recommendations, 8
1 WORLD FORESTS
Losses in Forests, 21
Basic Inventory Data, 25
Causes of Forest Tree Loss, 26
What Can Be Done?, 29
Recommendations, 32
MULTIPLE USES OF FOREST TREES
Benefits of Trees and Forests, 37
Land Use Systems Involving Trees, 41
Increasing the Usefulness of Tree Genetic Resources, 45
Recommendations, 47
STRUCTURE OF GENETIC VARIATION
Mating Systems and Gene Flow, 51
Estimating Genetic Variation, 59
Conclusions, 71
Recommendations, 71
. . .
Xlll
21
.37
xivlContents
4 CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF TREE
GENETIC RESOURCES ......................
Conservation and Management Strategies, 73
In Situ Conservation, 75
Ex Situ Conservation, 85
Choice of Method, 89
Management Status of Tree Species, 93
Conclusions, 95
Recommendations, 96
5 INSTITUTIONS INVOLVED IN MANAGING TREE
GENETIC RESOURCES ................
In Situ Conservation Activities, 102
Ex Situ Conservation Activities, 103
International Institutions, 105
National and Regional Institutions, 116
Conclusions, 124
Recommendations, 127
6 ORGANIZING A GLOBAL SYSTEM OF
COOPERATION .....................
Coordinating and Expanding Existing Programs, 1ZY
Developing Regional and National Programs, 132
Developing an International Forest Tree Genetic Resources
Program, 134
Recommendation, 137
REFERENCES ....................
APPENDIXES
A Forest Tree Species Used in Breeding or Testing Activities, 147
B Literature Survey of Threatened Provenances or Species, 161
C Sources of Seed for Research, 183
GLOSSARY
ABBREVIATIONS
AUTHORS
INDEX
..73
.99
....... 129
.139
- 201
..207
..209
213
Forest Trees
