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MINDING THE HELM
Marine Navigation and Piloting
Committee on Advances in Navigation and Piloting
Marine Board
Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems
National Research Council
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C. 1994
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NATIONAL 'ACADEMY PRESS · 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W. · Washington, D.C. 20418
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the
National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy
of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of
the panel responsible for the report were chosen for their special competencies and with regard for
appropriate balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures
approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Scienc-
es, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of' Medicine.
The program described in this report is supported by Cooperative Agreement No. 14-35-0001-
30475 between the Minerals Management Service of the U.S. Department of the Interior and the
National Academy of Sciences.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Advances in Navigation
and Piloting.
Minding the helm: marine navigation and piloting / Committee on
Advances in Navigation and Piloting, Marine Board, Commission on
Engineering and Technical Systems, National Research Council.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-309-04829-X
1. Navigation-United States. 2. Navigation-United. States
Safety measures. 3. Pilots and pilotage United States.
I. Title.
VK555.N325 1994
363.12'35'0973 dc20
Copyright 1994 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
B-487
94-28864
CIP
Cover photo: Tanker westbound in New York's East River approaching the Manhattan Bridge.
From the perspective of an individual on the ship's bridge, the vessel "fills" the channel. Visibility
looking forward is generally good from a tanker with a superstructure aft, except for the water area
ahead of the bow. (USCG Vessel Traf&c Service New York).
Printed in the United States o,' America
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COMMITTEE ON
ADVANCES IN NAVIGATIO1S AND PILOTING
ALBERT J. HERBERGER, Chair (until September 14, 1993), International
panning and Analysis Center, Arlington, Virginia
MARTHA GRABOWSKI, Chair (from September 17, 1993), LeMoyne
College, Syracuse, New York, and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy,
New York
BERNHARD J. ABRAHAMSSON, University of Wiscor~sin-Superior, Superior
JAMES E. BAKER, Port of Houston Authority (retired), Houston, Texas
RONALD BRAFF, The MITRE Corporation, McLean, Virginia
ROBERT M. FREEMAN, SeaRiver Maritime, Houston, Texas
JEAN GRAFF, Port Revel Center, St. Pierre de Bressieux, France
PAUL LANE IVES, JR., The Pilots Association for the Bay and River
Delaware, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
WALTER PARKER, Parker Associates, Anchorage, Alaska
KARLENE H. ROBERTS, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley
WILLIAM SCHRENK, Natural Resources Defense Council, New York City,
New York
FRANK SEITZ, SIMSHIP Corporation, North Port, New York
EUGENE F. SWEENEY, Hvide Shipping, Fort Lauderdale, Florida
ARTHUR J. THOMAS, San Francisco Bar Pilots, San Francisco, California
Liaison Representatives
JOHN ALBRIGHT, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (until
September 30, 1992)
GEORGE LEIGH, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (from
October 1, 1992)
JOHN J. DUMBLETON, Maritime Administration
FREDERICK J. GRADY, III, U.S. Coast Guard (until June 30, 1992)
JOHN F. McGOWAN, U.S. Coast Guard (from August 1, 1992)
EDWARD J. LaRUE, U.S. Coast Guard
HAROLD C. TOHLEN, JR.' U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (until August 30,
1992)
MICHAEL F. KIDBY, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (from September 1, 1992)
Staff
WAYNE YOUNG, Project Officer
LAURA OST, Editorial Consultant
GLORIA GREEN, Project Assistant (until March 31, 1993)
PAUL FIELDS, Project Assistant (from April 1, 1993)
. . .
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MARINE BOARD
RICHARD J. SEYMOUR, Chair, Texas A&M University and Scripps Institute
of Oceanography
JERRY A. ASPLAND, Arco Marine, Inc.
ANNE AYLWARD, National Commission on Intermodal Transportation
ROBERT G. BEA, NAE, University of California, Berkeley
MARK Y. BERMAN, Amoco Production Company
BROCK B. BERNSTEIN, EcoAnalysis
JOHN W. BOYLSTON, Argent Marine Operations, Inc.
SARAH CHASIS, Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc.
CHRYSSOSTOMOS CHRYSSOSTOMIDIS, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology
JAMES M. COLEMAN, NAE, Louisiana State University
EDWARD D. GOLDBERG, NAS, Scripps Institution of Oceanography
MARTHA GRABOWSKI, LeMoyne College and Rensselaer Polytechnic
Institute
ASHISH J. MEHTA, University of Florida
M. ELISABETH PAT12-CORNELL, Stanford University
DONALD W. PRITCHARD, NAE, State University of New York at Stony
Brook
STEPHANIE R. THORNTON, Coastal Resources Center
ROD VULOVIC, Sea-Land Service, Inc.
ALAN G. YOUNG, Fugro-McClelland BV
Staff
CHARLES A. BOOKMAN, Director
DONALD W. PERKINS, Associate Director
DORIS C. HOLMES, Staff Associate
-
IV
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The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating
society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research,
dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the
general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress
in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal govern-
ment on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is president of the
National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the
charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of out-
standing engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of
its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility
for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also
sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages
education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers.
Dr. Robert M. White is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy
of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate profes-
sions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public.
The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of
Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government
and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and
education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of
Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology
with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal
government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the
Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the
National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in
providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineer-
ing communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and
the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. Robert M. White are
chairman and vice-chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
v
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Acknowledgments
The committee gratefully acknowledges the contributions of time and infor-
mation provided by liaison representatives, their agencies, and the many individ-
uals within and outside government who are interested in the role of marine
navigation and piloting and the improvement of marine safety and who support-
ed this assessment. Frederick J. Grady, III, and John F. McGowan, both from the
U.S. Coast Guard, provided technical support and reference materials for the
federal pilot system. Edward LaRue, U.S. Coast Guard; John J. Dumbleton,
Maritime Administration; and John Albright and George Leigh, National Ocean-
ographic and Atmospheric Administration, provided valuable insight on naviga-
tion technology applications, policy, and research. Michael F. Kidby and Harold
Tohlen, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, provided advice on waterway design
and maintenance. Wayne Young, Marine Board, helped develop marine traffic
regulation sections of the report.
The committee is especially indebted to the many marine pilots, docking
masters, representatives of the shipping and towing industries, and state and
federal pilotage authorities who provided detailed descriptions of pilotage routes,
practices, and administration and of pilot development programs. Special thanks
are extended to the many members of the European maritime community who
provided advice during a visit to European sites by a delegation from the com-
mittee. Special acknowledgement of those who met with the committee in the
United States, Canada, and Europe is included as Appendix B.
The committee is also especially indebted to W. Ph. van Maanen, formerly
with the Rotterdam Port Authority, who assisted in organizing and moderating
substantial presentations and discussions of marine navigation and piloting is
. .
V11
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. . .
V111
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
sues in the Netherlands and who provided reference materials on the use of
marine simulation for waterways design and professional development; James
Lindahl, SILJA Line Ferries, who graciously arranged for members of the dele-
gation to observe the operation of integrated bridge systems on the Stockholm-
Turku and Stockholm-Helsinki routes; S. N. Zuurbier, Reg. Loodsencorporatie
Rotterdam-Rijnmond, who provided detailed insight on pilotage serving the Port
of Rotterdam and arranged and coordinated a visit to the Rotterdam Pilots' North
Sea station boats to observe pilot boarding operations; Robert Hofstee, Rotter-
dam Pilots, who arranged for a committee member to participate in pilot board-
ing by helicopter and to observe the piloting of a very large crude carrier; and the
American President Lines, Washington State Ferries, and San Francisco Bar
Pilots for arranging and coordinating committee member trips aboard vessels to
observe onboard navigation and piloting practice.
The committee acknowledges and expresses its gratitude for the special
technical support provided by lain M. H. Slater, Thames Navigation Service;
John Hartke, U.S. Coast Guard; Warren Schneeweis, U.S. Coast Guard Vessel
Traffic Service New York; Spencer Martin, Canadian Coast Guard, Ottawa; John
MacLeod, Canadian Coast Guard Traffic Centre Vancouver; Paul Kirschner,
American Pilots' Association; William A. Arata, Biscayne Bay Pilots; and Ed-
ward T. Gates,- Arceneaux and Gates. The committee also greatly appreciates the
encouragement and support of Pat Neely, American Pilots' Association (retired);
George Quick, International Organization of Masters, Mates, and Pilots; Thomas
Allegretti, The American Waterways Operators; and Joseph Cox, American In-
stitute of Merchant Shipping.
Thanks also are extended to the many participants in the committee's meet-
ings and to the leaders and staffs of the pilot stations, VTS systems, and marine
training facilities that hosted visits by the committee. The extraordinary cooper-
ation and interest in the committee's work from so many knowledgeable individ-
uals were both gratifying and essential.
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Preface
BACKGROUND
The safety of vessel navigation and piloting practices have been called to
national attention by recent, well-publicized shipping disasters in which naviga-
tion and piloting have been contributing factors. Shiphandling, positioning, work
practices, and communications in piloting waters have been identified as key
causal factors in these accidents, calling into question the professional qualifica-
tions of merchant mariners and marine pilots and the effectiveness of marine
navigation technology, shipboard navigation and piloting, and safety oversight.
Also questioned are the programs and policies that led to current equipment
requirements, skill development programs, licensing regimes, and manning and
pilotage laws.
Safety concerns are accentuated by the large size of modern ships and barg-
es transporting petroleum or other hazardous or dangerous cargoes. Cargo vol-
ume has increased the scale of the hazards to life, property, and the environment
that could result from just one catastrophic marine transportation accident. How-
ever, these concerns must be considered in relation to the complex factors affect-
ing marine transportation and the considerable reliance on efficient and cost-
effective marine transportation for domestic and foreign trade. They also must
be seen against the backdrop of the economic conditions that threaten the exist-
ence of the U.S. merchant fleet. Improvements to the marine navigation and
piloting system too often are considered individually rather than collectively.
Even when a broad range of options is considered, actual implementation is
often fragmented and uncoordinated because of a patchwork of jurisdictions and
no clear mechanism for balancing safety and economic objectives.
IX
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x
PREFACE
The Congress, in the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, reacted to deficiencies it
perceived in the marine navigation and piloting system by requiring such mea-
sures as mandatory state pilotage and use of automatic dependent surveillance
(ADS) systems in Prince William Sound and examination of shiphandling simu-
lation as a means to improve the training of deck officers serving aboard tank
ships. Also receiving congressional attention are advanced electronic navigation
systems and application of aviation-like traffic control technology and proce-
dures to U.S. ports and waterways. The National Transportation Safety Board
continually has called for revision of federal pilotage laws to place all pilots
under Coast Guard discipline, a move opposed by the states and state-licensed
pilots. At the same time, the federal government and several states have enacted
laws greatly increasing the economic cost to polluters for oil pollution incidents.
Other states are considering extending state pilotage requirements to regulate the
services of docking and mooring masters who hold, but do not operate under the
authority of, federal pilot's licenses and endorsements.
The development of a suitable program to improve safety, which includes
the application of advanced technologies, is complicated by a lack of cohesion
and wide variations within the marine navigation and piloting system. These
variations occur in terms of port, waterway, and river operating environments;
vessel types, equipment, operating characteristics, loading, and manning; and
professional qualifications. Interactions among these various factors result in
safety problems that defy a simple solution. Pinpointing opportunities for im-
proving safety requires careful consideration of risk, navigation and piloting
practices, navigation technology, human systems, and public policy, as well as
of the difficulty of proving the value and reliability of innovative practices and
technologies in practical application. The system needs to be examined holisti-
cally, because a change in any aspect training, manning, marine pilotage, sys-
tems maintenance, port and waterway operating environments, economics, gov-
ernment policies, and traditional approaches to navigation and.change-affects
the performance of the entire marine navigation and piloting system and the
value of innovative solutions and technologies to improve safety. Proposed solu-
tions must also guard against constraining development of other alternatives that
may yield equivalent or greater value.
Against this backdrop of confounding factors and continuing public concern
and controversy, the Coast Guard determined the need for an independent as-
sessment. The Coast Guard requested that the National Research Council of the
National Academy of Sciences conduct a comprehensive assessment of the state
of practice of ship navigation and piloting and develop recommendations to
improve it. In requesting the study, the agency indicated that the examination
should address waterways management; marine pilotage, including the interac-
tion of oceangoing ships with other commercial traffic in the nation's ports and
waterways; and application of navigation technologies. The Coast Guard intends
to use the technical information, analysis, and recommendations in its decision
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PREFACE
Xl
making concerning specific programs and regulations for administering marine
safety and environmental protection responsibilities within the Coast Guard's
domain.
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL STUDY
The National Research Council convened the Committee on Advances in
Navigation and Piloting under the auspices of the Marine Board of the Commis-
sion on Engineering and Technical Systems. Committee members were selected
for their expertise and to ensure a wide range of experience and viewpoints. The
principle guiding the constitution of the committee and its work, consistent with
the policy of the National Research Council, was not to exclude members with
potential biases that might accompany expertise vital to the study but to seek
balance and fair treatment. Committee members were selected for their expertise
in naval science, marine pilotage, navigation technology, aviation systems, hu-
man systems, professional training and simulation, waterways management, and
environmental safety and law. Academic, industrial, government, scientific, and
engineering perspectives also were reflected in the committee's composition.
Biographies of committee members are provided in Appendix A.
The committee was assisted by the U.S. Coast Guard, Maritime Administra-
tion, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad~in.istration, and U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers, all of which designated liaison representatives.
SCOPE OF STUDY
The committee was asked to (1) conduct a multidisciplinary assessment of
the state of practice of ship navigation and piloting in the United States, with
emphasis on navigation while entering and leaving ports; (2) identify advances
in public policies, planning guidance, operational procedures, standards, train-
ing, and innovative technologies that have potential to improve safety and over-
all effectiveness of the marine navigation and piloting system; and (3) to make
recommendations on research and development and on the role of government at
all. levels in advancing innovative applications of technology to improve ship
navigation and piloting. The committee was to examine how changes in vessel
systems, waterway systems, and human performance affect the basic navigation
and piloting requirements in the port and on the vessel; to establish an improved
technical basis for rnanagirlg change in a competitive environment; and to im-
prove navigation safety. Included in the scope of study were
· the changing character of vessel traffic (vessel types, vessel sizes, traffic
density, port configuration and operation);
· the changing state of practice of vessel. navigation and piloting, including
technology advances and their implications;
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. .
X11
PREFACE
· the changing roles of the vessel's master, officers, and crew (bridge com-
plement); marine pilots; and shore-based traffic safety personnel;
· the effect of changes in technology on training, licensing, and perfor
mance;
· how changes in technology affect administration of marine navigation
and piloting; and
· the government role in oversight and operation of the marine navigation
and piloting system.
Although jurisdiction over pilotage was recognized as an important aspect
of marine navigation and piloting, the assessment initially sought to focus on
technical issues to provide a sound foundation for decision making affecting the
oversight and operation of the marine navigation and piloting system. It soon
became apparent that the technical issues, including those pertaining to stan-
dards, training, licensing, pilot performance, and the application of advanced
technology in piloting, were inexorably intertwined with pilotage administration
and issues of governance. The committee determined that full assessment of
administrative and technical issues was essential to fulfilling its charter and that
these issues needed to be addressed in its conclusions and recommendations.
The committee updated the study terms of reference to reflect this approach.
Pilotage for coastal towing industry vessels is an element of federal pilotage
regulation and within the scope of study. The piloting of inland towing industry
vessels is an ancillary area of interest insofar as these vessels interact with ocean-
going vessels in coastal ports, connecting waters, and river systems. Marine
traffic regulation, including vessel traffic services (VTS) as they interact with
marine traffic and vessel operators, is a major issue and a central feature of the
assessment. Also included in the scope of study are risk-assessment factors un-
derlying marine traffic safety and system performance, relevant lessons learned
from prior examinations of the Great Lakes Pilotage System, economic and op-
erating trends in marine transportation, and issues that might affect implementa-
tion of options to improve the state of practice of navigation and piloting.
Although tankers form a small portion of the world's merchant fleets, tanker
operations are perceived by the public as the major marine transportation prob-
lem. Because of public interest in the causes, consequences, and implications of
marine accidents that result in major pollution incidents, these marine accidents
are usually far better documented and provide a more complete basis for deter-
mining what went wrong in the specific case and insight, if not complete an-
swers, on systemic problems. Although these events constituted a major source
of documentation, the navigation and piloting of the full range of merchant ves-
sels is covered in order to assess systemic problems and options for improving
the state of practice.
Excluded from the scope of study are navigation and piloting on the Great
Lakes, navigation and piloting in inland navigation systems that do not support
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PREFACE
. . .
Xlll
ship navigation, the navigation and piloting of naval vessels and Coast Guard
cutters, the operation of recreational vessels in the vicinity of commercial traffic,
and pilotage rate structures. However, pilotage administration for the Great
Lakes, a Coast Guard responsibility, is addressed as an analogous system. Com-
prehensive assessment of implementation regimes for improvement options was
also outside the scope of study.
The committee reviewed available data and literature and visited selected
sites in North America and Europe to meet with local, regional, national, and
international interests and to acquire firsthand insight. The committee also solic-
ited data and views from marine pilots and docking masters; shipping and tow-
ing industry representatives; officials in local, state, and federal agencies and
boards and commissions; waterways managers and vessel traffic regulators; pub-
lic interest groups; and experts in maritime and pilotage law. A detailed trip
report documents findings of the committee's delegation that visited European
sites. A comprehensive background paper on VTS systems was prepared and
used as the basis for the committee's assessment of marine traffic regulation. An
extensive reference list was developed to facilitate identification and practical
use of these materials.
REPORT ORGANIZATION
This report was prepared for an audience of state and federal government
decision makers; marine licensing authorities; program administrators for navi-
gation, piloting, and maritime professional development; marine pilots and dock-
ing master associations; pilotage boards, commissions, and state government
departments responsible for pilotage regulation; the shipping and towing indus-
tries; port authorities; marine exchanges; and public interest organizations. The
report provides an overview of the marine transportation system as an essential
foundation for understanding the role of government, pilot associations and pi-
lotage administrators, marine transportation companies, port authorities, and oth-
er organizations concerned with vessel operations. As an aid for readability, a
chapter summary is provided at the beginning of each chapter.
Chapter 1 introduces issues in waterways management, marine pilotage, and
navigation technology and describes the marine navigation and piloting system.
It also describes changes affecting marine transportation, the controversy over
pilotage and safety performance, and the need for assessing navigation and pilot-
ing.
Chapter 2 describes and analyzes marine pilotage practices and identifies
the central features of an ideal pilotage system.
Chapter 3 describes and analyzes pilotage administration and identifies op-
tions for improving the state of practice.
Chapter 4 describes risk, risk-assessment methodologies, and risk assess-
ment in marine transportation. It also characterizes and discusses risk and safety
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XIV
PREFACE
performance factors in piloting waters, the operating environment, and the com-
plexity of vessel maneuvering behavior. The chapter provides a safety perfor-
mance analysis and offers options for improving risk and safety assessment ire
marine transportation.
Chapter 5 compares traffic regulation in the aviation and maritime environ-
ments and examines alternatives for improving waterways management in har-
bors, waterways, and rivers supporting ship navigation.
Chapter 6 examines traditional and emerging navigation technologies, their
application, and their potential for improving safety performance.
Chapter 7 examines human systems, such as organizational systems; hu-
man-machine interface issues; and professional development, including the use
of marine simulation.
Chapter 8 identifies research needs and suggests a research program.
Chapter 9 presents the committee's perspectives on the major changes that
are in progress and that will drive the marine navigation arid piloting system over
the next decade.
Chapter 10 presents the committee's conclusions and recommendations.
The appendices provide essential background and technical information ur~-
derpinning the analysis in the main body of the report.
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Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1
THE MARINE NAVIGATION AND PILOTING SYSTEM 25
Summary, 25
Introduction, 26
Pilotage, 30
Vessel and Waterway Systems, 32
Human Systems, 40
Technology, 49
Organizational Cultures and Structures for Decision Making, 52
Risk and Change in the Marine Navigation and Piloting System, 55
The Pilotage Controversy, 63
2 PILOTING PRACTICES
Summary, 67
Introduction, 68
Pilotage Overview, 68
Pilotage Systems and Models, 96
PILOTAGE ADMINISTRATION
Summary, 99
Introduction, 101
Regulating Professions and Professionals, 102
Federal Regulation of Pilotage, 104
xv
67
99
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xvi
State Regulation of Pilotage, 116
Other Forms of Pilotage, 122
Improving Pilotage Practices and Administration, 137
4 RISK, THE OPERATING ENVIRONMENT, AND SAFETY
Summary, 159
Introduction, 160
Risk, 161
Risk in Marine Transportation, 165
The Operating Environment from a Risk Assessment Perspective, 170
Issues to be Addressed by Quantitative Risk Management, 178
Improving Risk Assessment, Management, and Communication, 182
CONTENTS
MARINE TRAFFIC REGULATION
Summary, 185
Regulation of Marine and Air Traffic, 186
Comparison of Air Traffic Control and Marine Traffic Regulation, 187
Marine Alternatives to the Aviation Model, 200
Improving Waterways Management, 207
Implementing More Rigorous Marine Traffic Regulation, 215
6 NAVIGATION AND PILOTING TECHNOLOGY
Summary, 217
Introduction, 219
Summary of Improvement Options, 219
Improving Navigation Technologies, 223
Technological Change, 261
A HUMAN SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE ON MARINE
NAVIGATION AND PILOTING
Summary, 271
Introduction, 272
An Organizational View of Navigation and Piloting Systems, 274
Applying Organizational Safety Strategies to Marine Navigation
and Piloting, 279
8 RESEARCH NEEDS
Summary, 297
Introduction, 297
The Marine Transportation Research Environment, 298
Elements of an Holistic Research Program, 299
Establishing a Research Program, 303
185
217
271
297
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CONTENTS
9 A VISION OF THE FUTURE
Improving Safety Performance, 305
Specific Areas for Improvement, 306
Federal Agency Roles, 308
10 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Marine Navigation and Piloting: Integrating the System, 312
Human Systems, 314
Marine Pilotage, 317
Waterways Management, 330
Navigation and Piloting Technology, 334
Marine Navigation and Piloting Research Needs, 342
APPENDIXES
A. Biographies
B. Acknowledgements
C. Papers Prepared for this Study
D. A Review of Studies Covering U.S. Navigable Waters
E. Central Features of a Complete Pilotage System
F. Pilot Training Requirements
G. A Primer on Navigation Technologies
H. Summary Report of European Trip
GLOSSARY
REFERENCES
INDEX
. .
XV11
305
311
347
354
358
360
397
416
434
449
459
463
487
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. . .
XVIII
BOXES
2-10
2-11
2-12
3-1
3-3
3-4
3-6
3-7
3-8
3-9
4-1
4-2
4-4
CONTENTS
LIST OF BOXES, FIGURES, AND TABLES
Pilotage Terms Used in this Report, 28
Theoretical Knowledge, 46
General Assessment of Technology Usefulness and Availability, 50
Ship-Management Practices for U.S.-Flag Ships, 52
Risk Factors, 57
A Brief Legal History of Pilotage, 72
Solicited Expert Account: Pilot Routes, Port of Baltimore and Upper
Chesapeake Bay, 73
Solicited Expert Account: Pilot Route, Port of Charleston, South
Carolina, 74
Solicited Expert Account: Pilot Responsibilities, 78
Solicited Expert Account: Pilot Routes, Ports of Key West and Boca
Grande, 82
Solicited Expert Account: Pilot Routes, Hawaiian Ports, 86
Solicited Expert Account: Pilot Route and Skill Requirements,
Columbia River Bar and Lower Columbia River, 88
Solicited Expert Account: Pilot Services and Routes, San Francisco
Bay Area, 91
Solicited Expert Account: Docking Master Development, 92
Solicited Expert Account: Pilot Route, Puget Sound, 93
Solicited Expert Account: Pilot Routes, Southeastern, Southcentral'
and Western Alaska, 94
Central Features of Pilotage Models, 97
Professional Regulation and Certification Terms, 102
Coast Guard Role in Pilotage, 105
Gaps in Official Accountability for Foreign Trade Vessels, :107
Characteristics of a Federal Pilot as a Member of a Vessel's Crew,
108
Characteristics of a Federal Pilot Not a Member of a Vessel's Crew,
110
Characteristics of State Pilots, 117
Harbor Pilotage and Docking Services, Port of New York and New
Jersey, 126
Requirements for License as Operator of Uninspected Towing
Vessels, 131
Pilotage Accountability, Bay and River Delaware, 148
High Water on the Lower Mississippi, 171
Using Automatic Radar Plotting Aids in Narrow Channels, 172
Passing Evolution in a Narrow Channel, 175
Tradeoffs in Economic Efficiency and Safety in Port Operations, 176
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CONTENTS
6-1
6-2
6-3
6-4
6-5
6-6
6-7
7-1
7-2
D-1
E-1
H-l
FIGURES
1-1
1 -2
1 -3
2-1
2-2
2-3
2-4
3-1
4-1
4-2
5-1
TABLES
5-1
6-1
D-1
XIX
Central Features of the Airspace System Supporting Effective
Distributed Decision Making, 192
VTS-User Interactions, 207
Adequacy of Hydrographic Survey Data, 227
Evaluating Electronic Navigation Systems, 234
VTS Surveillance, 244
Turning a Ship, 248
Ship Controllability and Piloting Expert Systems, 251
Integrated Bridge Systems, 257
Marine Pilot Use of Integrated Bridge Systems, 258
Some Terms used in This Report, 272
Human Systems Literature, 273
Literature Reviewed, 361
Candidate Marine Pilot Simulator-Based Training Modules, 403
European Trip Itinerary, 452
Main Components of the Marine Navigation arid Piloting System, 27
Undergraduate Enrollment at the Federal and State Maritime
Academies, 45
Employment Data for Class of 1991 Graduates of the Federal and
State Maritime Academies, 46
Location of East Coast and Florida Pilot arid Docking Master
Associations, 75
Location of Gulf Coast Pilot Associations and Mooring Masters, 76
Location of West Coast Pilot Associations and Mooring Masters, 77
Location of Pilot Associations and Mooring Masters in Alaska arid
Hawaii, 77
Maritime Credentials for 23 of 36 Coastguardsmen and Civilian
Employees in the Merchant Vessel Personnel Division, U.S. Coast
Guard Headquarters, Washington, D.C., 114
Main Components of Quantitative Risk Analysis, 162
Historical Casualty Rates for VTS Addressable Casualties, 173
Vessel Traffic Services and Similar Operations Serving U.S. Waters,
188
National Airspace System Features Compared in the Aviation and
Marine Sectors, 195
Summary of Technology Improvemerlt Options, 220
VTS Benefits, 374
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MINDING THE HELM
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