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ENV/RONMENTAL ISSUES
IN PAC/F/C NORTHWEST
FOREST MANAGEMENT
Committee on Environmenta/ issues
in Pacific Northwest Forest Management
Board on Biology
Commission on Life Sciences
Nationa/ Research Counci/
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C.
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NA IIONAL ACADEMY PRESS 2101 Constitution Ave., N.W. Washington, D.C. 20418
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the
National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy
of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of
the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard
for appropriate balance.
This project was supported by Contract No. 53-3187-3-02 between the National Academy of
Sciences and the U.S. Department of Agriculture, by Grant No. 955-0585 from the Ford Foundation,
and by funds from the National Research Council. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or
recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authoress and do not necessarily
reflect the view of the organizations or agencies that provided support for this project.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 00-106115
International Standard Book Number 0-309-05328-5
Photograph courtesy of the Forest History Society, Durham, N.C.
Additional copies of this report are available from:
National Academy Press
2101 Constitution Ave., NW
Box 285
Washington, DC 20055
800~24 6242
202-334-3313 (in the Washington metropolitan area)
http://www.nap.edu
Copyright 2000 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
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National Academy of Sciences
National Academy of Engineering
Institute of Medicine
National Research Council
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The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of
distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance
of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the
charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise
the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is president of the
National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineenng was established in 1964, under the charter of the National
Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its
administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences
the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also
sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and
research, and recogruzes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. William A. Wulf is president
of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure
the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters
pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the
National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal
government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education.
Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to
associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of
furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with
general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating
agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in
providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities.
The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce
M. Alberts and Dr. William A. Wulf are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National
Research Council.
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COMMITTEE ON ENV/RONMENTAL ISSUES IN
PAC/F/C NORTHWEST FOREST MANAGEMENT
NORMAN L. CHRISTENSEN, IR. (Chair), Duke University, Durham, North
Carolina
STANLEY V. GREGORY, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon
PERRY R. HAGENSTEIN, Wayland, Massachusetts
THOMAS A. HEBERLEIN, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin
JOHN C. HENDEE, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho
JEFFREY T. OLSON, Peekskill, New York
JAMES M. PEEK, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho
DAVID A. PERRY, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon
TIMOTHY D. SCHOWALTER, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon
KATHLEEN SULLIVAN, Sustainable Ecosystems Institute, Portland, Oregon
G. DAVID TILMAN, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota
KRISTINA A. VOGT, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
Staff
LEE R. PAULSON, Project Director
PATRICIA PEACOCK, Program Officer
ERIC FISCHER, Principal Staff Officer
KATHRINE IVERSON, Project Assistant
MIRSADA KARALIC-LONCAREVIC, Information Specialist
STEPHANIE PARKER, Graphics and Layout
v
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BOARD ON BIOLOGY
PAUL BERG, Chairman, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford,
CA
JOANNA BURGER, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ
MICHAEL T. CLEGG, University of California, Riverside, CA
DAVID ETSENBERG, University of California, Los Angeles, CA
DAVID I. GALAS, Keck Graduate Institute of Applied Life Science,
Claremont, CA
DAVID V. GOEDDEL, Tularik, Inc., South San Francisco, CA
ARTURO GOMEZ-POMPA, University of California, Riverside, CA
COREY S. GOODMAN, University of California, Berkeley, CA
CYNTHIA K. KENYON, University of California, San Francisco, CA
BRUCE R. LEVIN, Emory University, Atlanta, GA
ELLIOT M. MEYEROWITZ, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA
ROBERT T. PAINE, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
RONALD R. SEDEROFF, North Carolina StateUniversity, Raleigh, NC
ROBERT R. SOKAL, State University of New York, Stony Brook, NY
SHIRLEY M. TILGHMAN, Princeton University, Princeton, N)
RAYMOND L. WHITE, University of Utah, Salt LakeCity, UT
RALPH DELL, Executive Director
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COMM/SS/ON ON L/FE SCIENCES
MICHAEL T. CLEGG (Chair), University of California, Riverside, CA
PAUL BERG Vice Chair), Stanford University, Stanford, CA
FREDERICK R. ANDERSON, Cadwalader, Wickersham & Taft, Washington,
DC
JOANNA BURGER, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ
JAMES E. CLEAVER, University of California, San Francisco, CA
DAVID EISENBERG, University of California, Los Angeles, CA
JOHN EMMERSON, ~Fishers, IN
NEAL FIRST, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI
DAVID J. GALAS, Reck Graduate Institute of Applied Life Science,
Claremont, CA
DAVID V. GOEDDEL, Tularik, Inc., South San Francisco, CA
ARTURO GOMEZ-POMPA, University of California, Riverside, CA
COREY S. GOODMAN, University of California, Berkeley, CA
JON W. GORDON, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY
DAVID G. HOEL, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC
BARBARA S. HULKA, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC
CYNTHIA KENYON, University of California, San Francisco, CA
BRUCE R. LEVIN, Emory University, Atlanta, GA
DAVID LIVINGSTON, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA
DONALD R. MATTISON, March of Dimes, White Plains, NY
ELLIOT M. MEYEROWITZ, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA
ROBERT T. PAINE, University of Washington, Seaffle, WA
RONALD R. SEDEROFF, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC
ROBERT R. SOKAL, State University of New York, Stony Brook, NY
CHARLES F. STEVENS' The Salk Institute, La Jolla, CA
SHIRLEY MO TILGHMAN, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
RAYMOND L. WHITE, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT
Staff
WARREN R. MUIR, Executive Director
JACQUELINE K. PRINCE, Financial Officer
BARBARA B. SMITH, Administrative Associate
LAURA T. HOLLIDAY, Senior Program Assistant
. .
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PREFACE
in response to a congressional request, the Board on Biology convened
the Committee on Environmental issues In Pacific Northwest Forest
Management ~1993 to review information concerning the status of
resources of the Pacific Northwest and the relationship of those to
supply and demand for forest products in other regions of the country.
Committee members were selected for their expertise in forestry
practices, public lands issues, biology, vertebrate and invertebrate
ecology, rural sociology, and multiple-use land management.
The committee grappled with many contentious questions. What
activities ought to be included under the rubric of "forest management?"
What was the presettlement character of Pacific Northwest forest
landscapes and how have those forests and landscapes been altered by
human activities? What are the ecological and economic consequences
of changes in forest management practices? How are changes in forest
management policy and practice in the Pacific Northwest influencing
forest management outside that region? The definition and assessment
of old-growth forests and their associated biodiversity and the
implications of changing modes of management for their future were a
particularly important part of the committee's deliberations. Nine
meetings with guest presentations were held, including meetings in
Portland, Oregon; Seattle, Washington; end Post Falls, Idaho. The public
was invited to briefings in Washington, D.C., and Portland, Oregon.
The original request for this study came from Congress In 1992, and
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much has changed in between then and now. There is now little debate
over the value and importance of conserving important areas of old
growth forest. Conflict over forest-resource management continues, of
course, but it is no longer polarized along such simple axes as "owls
versus jobs." However, the basic question of how we are to achieve
sustainable management of Pacific Northwest forests, as well as the
forests of other regions in the context of increasing demand for the
goods and services forests provide remains. How such specific
initiatives as the Northwest Forest Plan fit into that objective is also
unclear. It was clear throughout our study Mat few institutions exist to
resolve the increasingly complex conflicts between the needs and
aspirations of local communities and regional visions for the health of
forest ecosystems. Improvement in communication, institutional
learning, and institutional performance is badly neecled among
government agencies, environmental groups, the business sector and the
academic world.
The problems presented in our charge are highly interdisciplinary,
ranging from such fundamental natural science problems as the
presettlement dynamics of forests and the implications of forest
fragmentation for the management of species populations to very
human impacts of changes in forest management on regional economies
and rural communities. Furthermore, the committee was constantly
aware of the reality that forest management in all regions is being
undertaken with an increasingly diverse array of objectives across an
increasingly complex array of ownerships. When the committee began
its work, FEMAT (1993) had just been published and the President's
Northwest Forest Plan just released. Over these several years, a number
of the ~nanagement challenges and our understanding of a number of
particular issues have changed. We have worked hard to incorporate
those changes into this document. T am grateful to the committee for
their willingness, indeed eagerness, to work across traditional
disciplinary lines and perseverance in a process that became more
drawn out than any of us expected.
The committee would like to acknowledge the generous assistance of
numerous persons who made presentations or in other ways
enlightened the committee regarding the complex issues facing the
Pacific Northwest, including Senator Mark Hatfield, U.S. Senate; Mark
Walker, staff to Senator Hatfield; lack Ward Thomas, U.S. Forest Service;
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Davic! Darr, U.S. Forest Servicer Nancy Foster, NationalMarine Fisheries
Services; Donal Knowles and Donald Barry, U.S. Department of the
Interior; Stuart McKenzie, U.S. Geological Survey; Mike Penfold, Bureau
of Land Management; lames E. Brown, Oregon Department of Forestry;
Kaleen Cottingham, State of Wahsington; Robert Ewing, California
Department of Forestry and Fire Protection; lay O'haughlin, University
of Idaho; CharIey Grenier, Plum Creek, Columbia Falls, Montana; Kevin
Bolling, PotIach Corporation, Lewiston, Idaho; Ted Strong, Columbia
River Inter-Tribal Commission, Portland, Oregon; Si Whitman, Nez
Perce Tribe, Lapwai Idaho; Gary Morishima, Intertribal Timber Council,
Portland, Oregon; Terry Williams, Northwest Indian Fisheries
Commission, Olympia, Washington; lack Shipley and km Neal,
Applegate Partnership, Grants Pass, Oregon; and l eah Wills and km
Wilcox, Plumas Corporation, Quincy, California. A grant frown the Ford
Foundation provided important support to complete this project.
This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for
their diverse perspectives and technical expertise in accordance with
procedures for reviewing NRC reports approved by the NRC's Report
Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to
provide candle! and critical comments that assist the NRC in making the
published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report
meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and
responsiveness to the study charge. The content of the final report is the
responsibility of the NRC and the study committee and not the
responsibility of the reviewers. The review comments and draft
manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the
deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals, who
are neither officials nor employees of the NRC, for their participation in
the review of this report: Ellis Cowling, North Carolina State University;
Paul Ellefson, University of Minnesota; ferry Franklin, University of
Washington; and John Lapin, Oregon State University.
The individuals listed above have provided many constructive
comments and suggestions. Nevertheless, the responsibility for the final
content of this report rests entirely with the authoring committee and
the NRC.
Several NRC staff members contributed in important ways to the
committee's deliberations and to the assembly of this final report.
Patricia Peacock and Eric Fischer each played important roles in our
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early discussions and the assembly of many early report draft reports.
We also thank Gordon Orians for his thoughtful review of and
comments on the draft report that was sent to review. We are especially
grateful to Lee Paulson whose writing, editorial, diplomatic, and
motivational skills contributed mightily to this find product.
Norman Christensen, Chair
. .
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CONTENTS
Executive Summary
7 The Promised Land: The Land of Promise
Introduction, 15
Loss of the Frontier, 16
Changing Knowledge Base, 16
Changing Social Values, 17
The Study Area, 21
Other Major Studies and Reports, 22
This Report, 26
2 The Region and its Forests
Introduction, 27
A Brief History, 27
Demographics and the Economy, 33
Population Growth, 33
Economic implications of Population Growth, 35
The Region's Forests, 36
Westside Forests, 36
Eastside Forests, 38
Northern Rocky Mountains, 39
Regional Ownership Patterns, 40
Summary, 42
. . .
x///
75
~7
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O/d-Growth Forests
Introduction, 44
What is Vegetative Succsession?, 44
What Is an Old-Growth Forest?, 45
Time Required for Old-Growth Development, 53
Old-Growth Landscapes, 53
Managed Forests and Old-Growth Characteristics, 59
Stand Size, 60
Biologicai Functions of Old-Growth anct Late-Successional
Forests, 61
Species Diversity, 62
Logs and Woody Debris, 64
Susceptibility to Disturbance, 65
Aquatic Ecosystems, 66
Extent and Status of Old-Growth Forests, 67
Summary, 72
4
44
The Status and Functioning of Pacific Northwest
Forests
introduction, 73
Forest Condition, 73
General Criteria of Condition, 73
The Role of Biological Diversity, 75
Resistance and Resilience, 78
Landscape Change and Threats to Biodiversity, S!
Diseases ancl Pests, 85
Incidence of Pest and Disease Outbreaks, 87
Status of Other Plant Species, 91
Status of Wildlife, 92
Salmon and Other Fisheries, 93
Invertebrates, 101
Fungi, 102
Viable Populations and the Conservation of Biodiversity, 103
Demographic Factors, 105
Genetic Factors, 106
Population Viability Analysis, 107
73
5 Forest Succession, Fire, and Landscape Dynamics 7 08
xiv
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Introduction, 108
Concepts of Succession and Landscape Dynamics, 109
Fire and Landscape Dynamics, IJ2
Presettlement Fire Regimes and Successional Change, I13
Human Alteration of Fire Regimes, 116
Natural Disturbance and Human Management: An Ecological
Comparison, I18
Landscape Considerations, I18
Fuels, I19
Nutrient Fluxes, 120
Biological Diversity, 121
6 Products from the Forests
Pacific Northwest Woocl Products in the National
Economy, 123
Products In National and International Markets, 129
Effects of Changes in Federal Timber Harvests In the Pacific
Northwest, 129
Increased Harvests at the Extensive Margin, 135
Increased Harvests at the Intensive Margin, 136
Increased Use of Hardwoods, 137
Technology Changes, 138
Materials Substitution, 138
Environmental Effects, 139
Implications for Other Regions, 141
Effects on Regional and National Income, 144
Change and Incentives, 145
Nonwood Products from Forests, 146
Wildlife-Related Recreation, 147
Other Forest-Related Recreation, 151
Fisheries, 153
Mushrooms, 155
Water, 156
Effects of Changes in Management of PNW Forests on Nonwood
Products, 157
Regional Economic Effects, 158
Summary, 159
722
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Forest Management and Rura/ Communities in the
Pacific Northwest 7 60
Rural Economic WeD Being and Natural-Resource Industries, 160
Timber Dependency and Community Well Being, 162
Diversification in Rural Communities of the Pacific Northwest, 1 65
In-Migration, 168
Poverty and Plenty—Anger and Hope in the Pacific Northwest, 1 69
Summary, 170
A Framework for Sustainable Forest Management 7 77
Introduction, 171
Elements of Forest Management, 171
Land ADocation, 172
Rationing Uses, 174
Harvesting, 176
Investment, 1 79
Examples of Forest Investment, IS0
Positive and Negative Incentives to Forest Investment, 181
Meeting the Goals of Sustainable Forest Management, IS2
A Framework for Sustainable Forest Management, 184
Operational Goals, IS4
Managing in Context and Across Scales of Space and Time, IS5
Approaches to Managing for Diversity: General Considerations, 186
Reserves, 189
Logging to Improve Forest Health, 190
Management for Complexity and Diversity, 191
Variabilitr and Change, 192
Uncertainty and Surprise, 193
Humans as Ecosystem Components, 194
Making Management Adaptable, 195
Resolving Conflicts, 197
9
Conclusions and Recommendations
Forestry Practices in the Pacific Northwest, 200
What Is Old-Growth?, 205
Old-Growth Management, 206
Forest Products Substitution, 206
Research Recommendations, 208
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References
Glossary
277
254
. ~
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ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
IN PACIFIC NORTHWEST
FOREST MANAGEMENT
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