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New Tools for
Environmental Protection
Eclucation, Information, and Voluntary Measures
Committee on the Human Dimensions of Global Change
Thomas Dietz and Paul C. Stern, Editors
Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education
National Research Council
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, DC
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NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS · 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W. · Washington, DC 20418
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing
Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of
the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Insti-
tute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen
for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
The study was supported by Purchase Orders 9W-3489-NANX and lW-2501-NANX
from the Environmental Protection Agency to the National Academy of Sciencess. Any
opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are
those of the authorts) and do not necessarily reflect the view of the organizations or
agencies that provided support for this project.
Suggested citation: National Research Council (2002) New Tools for Environmental
Protection: Education, Information, and Voluntary Measures. Committee on the Human
Dimensions of Global Change. T. Dietz and P.C. Stern, eds. Division of Behavioral and
Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Dietz, Thomas.
New tools for environmental protection: education, information, and
voluntary measures / Thomas Dietz and Paul C. Stern, editors.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-309-08422-9 (pbk.)
1. Environmental education--United States Congresses. 2.
Environmental policy United States Congresses. 3. Environmental
protection United States Congresses. I. Stern, Paul C., 1944- II.
Title.
GE70 .D54 2002
333.7'2'07 1 --dc21
2002005548
Additional copies of this report are available from National Academy Press, 2101 Consti-
tution Avenue, N.W., Washington, DC 20418
Call (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313 (in the Washington metropolitan area)
This report is also available online at http://www.nap.edu
Printed in the United States of America
Copyright 2002 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
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National Acaclemy of Sciences
National Acaclemy of Engineering
Institute of Meclicine
National Research Council
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of
distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the
furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the
authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate
that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters.
Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the
National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is
autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the
National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government.
The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at
meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior
achievements of engineers. Dr. Wm. A. Wulf is president of the National Academy of
Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences
to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination
of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the
responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to
be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of
medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of
Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in
1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's
purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in
accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the
principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National
Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the
scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both
Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. Wm. A. Wulf are
chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
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COMMITTEE ON THE HUMAN DIMENSIONS
OF GLOBAL CHANGE
THOMAS DIETZ (Chair), Department of Environmental Science and Policy,
and Department of Sociology and Anthropology, George Mason
University
BARBARA ENTWISLE, Department of Sociology, University of North
Carolina
MYRON GUTMANN, Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social
Research, University of Michigan
RONALD MITCHELL, Department of Political Sciences, University of Oregon
EMILIO MORAN, Department of Anthropology, Indiana University
M. GRANGER MORGAN, Department of Engineering and Public Policy,
Carnegie Mellon University
EDWARD PARSON, John F. Kennedy School of Government, Environment
and Natural Resources Program, Harvard University
ALAN RANDALL, Department of Agricultural, Environmental, and
Development Economics, Ohio State University
PETER J. RICHERSON, Division of Environmental Studies, University of
California, Davis
MARK R. ROSENZWEIG, Department of Economics, University of
Pennsylvania
STEPHEN H. SCHNEIDER, Department of Biological Sciences, Stanford
University
SUSAN STONICH, Department of Anthropology and Environmental Studies
Program, University of California, Santa Barbara
ELKE U. WEBER, Department of Psychology, Columbia University
THOMAS J. WILBANKS, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN
CHARLES KENNEL (Ex Officio, Chair-Committee on Global Change
Research), Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California,
San Diego
ORAN R. YOUNG (Ex Officio, Liasion to International Human Dimensions
Program), Institute of Arctic Studies, Dartmouth College
PAUL C. STERN, Study Director
DEBORAH M. JOHNSON, Senior Project Assistant
v
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Preface
There has been increasing concern among environmental protection offi-
cials in the federal government about the problem of diminishing returns
from regulation. Many believe that the quick environmental fixes from
command-and-control regulation mainly have been achieved and that the balance
of pollution sources is shifting from large "point sources" to more diffuse sources
that are more difficult and expensive to regulate. In addition, changes in the
political climate have made it increasingly difficult to use command-and-control
regulations. Consequently, there has been a search for alternatives to regulation,
including a shift to market-based approaches such as tradable emissions permits,
to informational approaches, and to voluntary measures.
The Office of Environmental Education of the U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency (EPA), responding to these concerns, asked the National Research
Council (NRC) to organize a workshop to examine these issues. At the work-
shop, held November 29-30, 2000, participants examined the belief that changed
conditions call for increased use of alternatives to regulation and economic
measures. They also presented and discussed scientific evidence on the efficacy
of education, information, and voluntary measures for achieving environmental
protection objectives. The chapters of this volume include revised versions of
presentations at the workshop, comments from discussants, and overviews of the
issues by the editors and other workshop participants.
Since its birth in 1989, the Committee on the Human Dimensions of Global
Change of the NRC has recognized the importance of understanding the indi-
vidual and organizational behaviors responsible for environmental degradation
both in order to anticipate environmental outcomes and to inform policy decisions
intended to improve those outcomes. A previous committee effort, Environmen-
tally Significant Consumption: Research Directions (NRC, 1997), examined the
determinants of some of those behaviors. This volume examines some of the
policy tools that are being used to change them.
. .
via
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. . .
vile
PREFACE
We believe the result of our project is a rich series of contributions that
review what we know about the potential importance and effectiveness of educa-
tion, information, and voluntary measures in environmental protection; brings
together what have been somewhat disparate literatures; and points directions for
the future. We hope this volume achieves several goals. First, we hope it
provides a sound grounding in what we have learned about the effectiveness of
the "new" tools, both individually and in combination with other policy instru-
ments. Second, we hope it provides a broad state-of-the-art review and shows
connections and gaps in knowledge that may not have been obvious in the past.
Third, for researchers and those funding research, we believe it conveys a sense
of what has been learned and indicates priorities for future work. Finally, al-
though not a management handbook, we hope it provides some guidance to those
who design and manage policies and programs that employ education, informa-
tion, and voluntary approaches.
On behalf of the committee, I wish to thank the EPA for its support of this
project and Ginger Keho of the EPA's Office of Environmental Education for
having the foresight to envision this project. The committee's gratitude goes to
Brian Tobachnick, who managed the logistics of the project during its early
stages; to Cecilia Rossiter, who provided additional organizational help at early
stages; and to Deborah M. Johnson, who carried it the rest of the way. We also
owe a debt to Laura Penny, who did the copy editing, and to Kirsten Sampson
Snyder and Yvonne Wise, who managed the review and editorial processes.
I wish to thank the following individuals for their participation in the review
of the papers in this volume: Clint J. Andrews, Rutgers University; Richard N.L.
Andrew s, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Lynton K. Caldwell,
Indiana University, Bloomington; Doug McKenzie-Mohr, McKenzie-Mohr As-
sociates, Ontario, Canada; James Meadowcroft, The University of Sheffield,
United Kingdom; Joanne Nigg, University of Delaware; Stuart Oskamp,
Claremont Graduate University, Claremont, California; Paul Sabatier, University
of California, Davis; Lynnette Zelezny, California State University, Fresno.
Although the individuals listed provided many constructive comments and
suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the final draft of the report before its
release. The review of this report was overseen by Barbara Entwisle, University
of North Carolina at Chapel Hill to whom we are most grateful. Appointed by the
NRC, she was responsible for making certain that an independent examination of
this report was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all
review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content
of this report rests entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.
Thomas Dietz, Chair
Committee on the Human Dimensions
of Global Change
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Contents
PART I: INTRODUCTION
Exploring New Tools for Environmental Protection
Thomas Dietz and Paul C. Stern
2 Changes in Pollution and the Implications for Policy
David W. Rejeski and James Salzman
3
17
PART II: INFORMATION AND EDUCATION FOR INDIVIDUALS, 43
HOUSEHOLDS, AND COMMUNITIES
Introduction
45
3 Marketing Household Energy Conservation: The Message and 49
the Reality
Loren Lutzenhiser
4 Knowledge, Information, and Household Recycling: Examining
the Knowledge-Deficit Model of Behavior Change
P. Wesley Schultz
5 Promoting "Green" Consumer Behavior with Eco-Labels
John Th0gersen
Six
83
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X6 The Public Health Perspective for Communicating
Environmental Issues
Thomas W. Valente and Darleen V. Schuster
7 Understanding Individual and Social Characteristics in the
Promotion of Household Disaster Preparedness
Dennis S. Mileti and Lori A. Peek
8 Lessons from Analogous Public Education Campaigns
Mark R. Rosenzweig
CONTENTS
105
125
141
9 Perspectives on Environmental Education in the United States 147
John Ramsey and Harold R. Hungerford
10 A Model of Community-Based Environmental Education
Elaine Andrews, Mark Stevens, and Greg Wise
11 Community Environmental Policy Capacity and Effective
Environmental Protection
Daniel Press and Alan Balch
12 Changing Behavior in Households and Communities:
What Have We Learned?
Paul C. Stern
PART III: VOLUNTARY MEASURES IN THE PRIVATE
SECTOR
Introduction
13 Government-Sponsored Voluntary Programs for Firms:
An Initial Survey
Janice Mazurek
14 Industry Codes of Practice: Emergence and Evolution
Jennifer Nash
15 Harnessing the "Power of Information": Environmental Right
to Know as a Driver of Sound Environmental Policy
Jeanne Herb, Susan Helms, and Michael J. Jensen
161
183
201
213
215
219
235
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CONTENTS
16 Challenges in Evaluating Voluntary Environmental Programs
Kathryn Harrison
17 Assessing the Credibility of Voluntary Codes: A Theoretical
Framework
Franco Furger
18 Factors in Firms and Industries Affecting the Outcomes of
Voluntary Measures
Aseem Prakash
19 The Policy Context for Flexible, Negotiated, and Voluntary
Measures
Alan Randall
20 Understanding Voluntary Measures
Thomas Dietz
PART IV: CONCLUSION
21 New Tools for Environmental Protection: What We Know
and Need to Know
Thomas J. Wilbanks and Paul C. Stern
ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS
x~
283
303
311
319
335
337
349
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