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OCR for page R1
AGRICULTURAL
BIOTECHNOLOGY
Strategies for National
Compefitiveness
Committee on a National Strategy for
Biotechnology in Agriculture
Board on Agriculture
National Research Council
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C. 1987
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NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS ~ 2101 Constitution Ave.' NW ~ Washington, DC 20418
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the
National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of
Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the
committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for
appropriate balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures
approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences,
the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society a{ distinguished
scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and
technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by
the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on
scientific and technical matters. Dr. F`rank Press is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 19G4, under the charter of the National
Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its
administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences
the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also
sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research,
and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Robert M. White is president of the National
Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure
the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters
pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National
Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon
its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Samuel O. Thier is
president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to
associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering
knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies
determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the
National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the
government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered
jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine Dr. Frank Press and Dr. Robert M. White
are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
Support for this project was provided by grants from the Agricultural Research Service of the
U.S. Department of Agriculture and by contributions from the Foundation for Agronomic Research and
the Richard Lounsbery Foundation. It also has received support from the National Research Council
Fund, a pool of private, discretionary, nonfederal funds that is used to support a program of Academy-
initiated studies of national issues in which science and technology figure significantly. The NRC Fund
consists of contributions from a consortium of private foundations including the Carnegie Corporation
of New York, the Charles E. Culpeper Foundation, the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, the
John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, the Rockefeller
Foundation, and the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation; the Academy Industry Program, which seeks annual
contributions from companies that are concerned with the health of U.S. science and technology and
with public policy issues with technological content; and the National Academy of Sciences and the
National Academy of Engineering endowments.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on a
National Strategy for Biotechnology in Agriculture.
Agricultural biotechnology.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Agricultural biotechnology-United States.
2. Agricultural biotechnology-Government policy-United
States. 3. Agriculture-Research-United States.
4. Agricultural-Research-United States. I. Title.
S494.5.B563N37 1987 631.3'0973 87-12181
ISBN 0-309-0-3745-X
Printed in the United States of America
First Printing, May 1987
Second Printing, August 1987
Third Printing, October 1987
Fourth Printing, June 1988
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COMMITTEE ON A NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR
BIOTECHNOLO GY IN AGRICULTURE
CHARLES E. HESS (Chairman), University of California at Davis
RANDOLPH BARKER, Cornell University
LAWRENCE BOGORAD, Harvard University
RALPH E. CHRISTOFFERSEN, The Upjohn Company
ALBERT H. ELLINGBOE, University of Wisconsin
ANTHONY FARAS, Molecular Genetics, Inc., and
University of Minnesota
JACK GORSKI, University of Wisconsin
HAROLD D. HAPS, Merck, Sharp & Dohme Research Laboratories
LOWELL LEWIS, California Agricultural Experiment Station
BORIS MAGASANIK, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
LOIS K. MILLER, University of Georgia
KATHLEEN P. MULLINIX, Columbia University
ROGER SALQUIST, Calgene, Inc.
DANIEL I. C. WANG, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Staff
JAMES E. TAVARES, Project Officer
PHYLLIS B . MOSES, Staff Officer
SUSANNE E. MASON, Administrative Secretary
· ·-
111
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BOARD ON AGRICULTURE
WILLIAM L. BROWN {Chairman), Pioneer Hi-Bred
International, Inc.
JOHN A. PING (Vice Chairman), National Research Council
PERRY L. ADKISSON, Texas A&M University
C. EUGENE ALLEN, University of Minnesota
EDWIN H. CLARK II,* The Conservation Foundation
ELLIS B. COWLING,* North Carolina State University
JOSEPH P. FONTENOT, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University
ROBERT M. GOODMAN, CaIgene, Inc.
RALPH W. F. HARDY, Boyce Thompson Institute, and
BioTechnica International, Inc.
ROGER L. MITCHELL,l University of Missouri
CHARLES C. MUSCOPLAT, Molecular Genetics, Inc.
KARL H. NORRIS'* U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Beltsville, Md. ;
ELDER A. PAUL,l Michigan State University
VERNO N W . RUTTAN, University of Minnesota
CHAMP B. TANNER,* University of Wisconsin
JAMES G. TEER,l Welder Wildlife Foundation
THOMAS D. TRAUTMAN, General Mills, Inc.
JAN VAN SCHILFGAARDE, U.S. Department of Agriculture
Fort Collins, Colo.
VIRGINIA WALBOT, Stanford University
CONRAD J. WEISER, Oregon State University
CHARLES M. BENBROOK, Executive Director
JAMES E. TAVARES, Associate Executive Director
CARLA CARLSON, Reports Officer and Senior Editor
GRACE JONES ROBBINS, Assistant Editor
*Term began January 1, 1987
tTerm ended December 31, 1986
1V
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Preface
The breakthroughs in science that permitted genes, and thus
heredity, to be identified and manipulated as molecules ushered
in the biotechnology era, which is now more than a decade old.
The new tools of biotechnology are changing the way scientists
can address problems in the life sciences; agriculture is one area
facing major changes as a result of this new technology. The
unanticipated rapid rate at which discoveries and their applica-
tions in biotechnology have unfolded has stressed the capacity
of society more specifically, our agricultural research and ed-
ucational institutions to absorb and adjust to change. We are
challenged by pressing decisions, opportunities, and problems that
we face now and will continue to face in the future. Competition
from abroad impels us to devise and use new technologies that can
improve the efficiency and quality of U.S. agricultural production.
These concerns led to this study an overview of how the agricul-
tural research system is responding to biotechnology and how it
might prepare for future opportunities.
The Board on Agriculture initiated this study to explore ways
of accelerating the benefits of biotechnology within the U.S. agri-
cultural economy. Support was sought from the National Research
Council Fund and the U.S. Department of Agriculture, which
also requested a study of public and private sector interactions
in biotechnology research. Our committee was asked to examine
the activities and issues that biotechnology was generating in re-
search and practical applications, and to recommend strategies
v
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V1
PREFACE
by which agriculture might respond to and benefit from these
changes. Specifically, the mandate to our committee was to assess
. applications of biotechnology for improving the efficiency of
agricultural practice;
the capacity of existing institutions and programs to train
and retrain scientists and carry out research in agricultural
biotechnology;
models and approaches for fostering interdisciplinary research
combining the interests and talents of molecular biologists
with those of scientists in traditional agricultural disciplines;
and
the role of new interactions for scientific exchange and technol-
ogy transfer between the private sector and publicly supported
research and educational institutions.
Biotechnology is moving in many directions with positive
results crop improvement, vaccine development, and diagnostic
methods are some impending applications- but the development
of biotechnology's tools can be found in almost every agricultural
discipline. Advances are confined more by the limits of our knowI-
edge of the agricultural organisms we want to work with and the
resources and trained scientists available than by the power of the
tools biotechnology provides.
Chapter 1 provides a summary of our findings that includes
recommendations aimed at improving support for the integration
of biotechnology's tools into agriculture. Chapter 2 introduces
the significant uses of these tools in research and discusses some
applications pertinent to agriculture. Additional scientific details
on gene transfer methods applicable to agricultural organisms are
provided in the Appendix.
The remaining three chapters focus predominantly on policy.
Chapter 3 reviews the mandate and organization of institutions
that carry out or support agricultural research, how agricultural
research is funded, and the present role of biotechnology in agri-
cultural research policy. Chapter 4 covers the training of scientists
who will utilize the tools of biotechnology in agricultural research.
Last, Chapter 5 addresses technology transfer aimed toward bring-
ing the benefits of agricultural biotechnology to the marketplace.
Here the report reviews the rapidly changing scene of university,
industry, and government interactions concerning new research
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PREFACE
· ~
V11
agreements as well as patent policies. The committee also ad-
dresses new roles for agricultural extension and the need for gov-
ernment to rapidly address the regulatory problem of field testing
genetically engineered organisms.
Within the past few years the popular press has captured the
public's attention with the role biotechnology will play in agricul-
ture, citing both its positive and negative aspects, whether realistic
or wildly speculative. As a committee we profess no special insight
into what the future will bring, but we do know that the tools of
biotechnology will provide the means to better understand the
world we live in and thereby increase our knowledge and ability to
make wiser decisions.
Charles E. Hess
Chairman
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Acknowledgments
The committee wishes to express its gratitude to the many individ-
uals at public and private institutions who generously contributed
information crucial to this study. We particularly wish to ac-
knowledge those who responded to our invitation to come to one
of our meetings in Washington, D.C. and share their knowledge
and insights into agricultural biotechnology. They include Win-
ston J. Brill, Peter R. de Bruyn, Philip Filner, Gordon G. Hammes,
Ralph W. F. Hardy, Virginia H. Holsinger, Theodore L. HulIar,
Robert J. Kalter, Edgar L. Kendrick, Gretchen S. Kolsrud, Gwen
G. Krivi, Robert Nicholas, Mark L. Pearson, Robert Poling, Leroy
Randall, M. Howard Silverstein, Gerald Still, Zachary S. Wochok,
and J. Gregory Zeikus. The committee gratefully acknowledges
the contributions of its consultants, Chris Elfring, Nancy Hene-
son, and William Magrath, in gathering and organizing material
for this report, and Phyllis B. Moses for the background paper on
gene transfer methods that she prepared during her tenure in 1985
as an NRC fellow. We have included this paper as an appendix to
our report.
The committee also wishes to thank Aid a Nee! and Susanne
Mason, Administrative Secretaries to the study. Finally, the com-
mittee appreciates the role of Board on Agriculture staff members
James E. Tavares, Project Officer, and Phyllis B. Moses, Staff
Officer, in assimilating and expressing our findings in the final
report.
IX
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Contents
. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
The International Dimension, 1
The Power of Biotechnology, 3
Strategies for National Competitiveness, 4
Recommendations, 7
2. SCIENTIFIC ASPECTS
The Power of Biotechnology, 16
Using Gene Transfer to Enhance Agriculture, 17
Isolation of Important Genes, 18
Gene Transfer Technology, 19
Cell Culture and Regeneration Techniques, 20
Monoclonal Antibody Technologies, 21
Summary, 23
New Approaches to Crop Production, 23
The Genetic Engineering of Plants, 24
The Genetic Engineering of Microorganisms Associated
with Plants, 27
Genetic Engineering for Crop Protection, 30
New Approaches to Animal Agriculture, 33
Animal Breeding, 33
Microorganisms Associated with Animals, 37
Bioprocessing Opportunities, 41
Alternative Fuels, 41
Alternative Feed and Food Sources, 42
Other Products, 43
Conclusions, 44
Recommendations, 48
X1
1
16
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·-
X11
3. FUNDING AND INSTITUTIONS
Funding Biotechnology in the Agricultural Research
System, 51
The Federal-State Agricultural Partnership, 52
Past Contributions from Agricultural Research, 53
Pressures for Change, 54
The Emergence of Biotechnology, 56
Institutions that Support Agricultural Research, 59
Federal Agencies, 59
State Support of Agricultural Research, 68
Private Sector, 70
A Summary of Agricultural Research Funding, 71
Peer Review, 75
Realigning the System for Biotechnology, 76
Funding for Agricultural Biotechnology, 77
Integration of Agricultural Research Disciplines, 81
Recommendations, 86
4. TRAINING
Introduction, 90
Personnel Required for Biotechnology, 91
Demand for Scientists, 91
Demographic Trends, 93
Education alla Training, 95
Programs at the U.S. Department of Agriculture, 98
Programs at the National Science Foundation, 100
Programs at the National Institutes of Health, 101
Other Government Programs, 102
Private Support, 103
Conclusions, 103
Interdisciplinary Cooperation, 104
Recommendations, 106
5. TECHNOLO GY TRANSFER
Introduction, 108
The Economic Dimension, 108
University, Industry, and Government Interactions, 109
Research Relationships in Technology Transfer, 111
Alliances Related to Agriculture, 115
Implications of Alliances and Research Relationships, 121
Merging Biotechnology into Agriculture, 123
Land-Grant Universities, 123
Cooperative State Extension Service, 125
Regulation and Field Testing, 126
CONTENTS
51
90
108
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CONTENTS
Patenting and Licensing, 130
Patents and the Federal Government, 131
Patents and Universities, 135
Revenues from Licenses, 137
Biotechnology Patenting Activity, 138
Nonpatented Intellectual Property, 139
Conclusions, 140
Recommendations, 142
Summary, 143
REFERENCES
Appendix:
GENE TRANSFER METHODS APPLICABLE
TO AGRICULTURAL ORGANISMS
Phyllis B. Moses
Introduction, 149
Direct DNA Uptake, 154
DNA Microinjection, 157
Cell Fusion, 161
Vector-Mediated Gene Transfer, 163
Prospects, 181
References, 184
INDEX
X111
145
149
193
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