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Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole.
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OCR for page 201
~ ndex
A
Acetaldehyde, 152- 153
Acetic acid (AA), 134-135
Acetonitrile, 43
Acrolein, 152
Acute effects
of chlorophenols, 170- 172
of chloropicrin, 165- 166
of haloacetonitriles, 159
of haloacids, 138- 139
of haloaldehydes, 146-147
of haloketones, 155
of monochloramine, 93-94, 95
of trihalomethanes, 117-118
Ames Salmonella assay, 47-49
Amino acids, 42-45
Ammonia, 14
B
Bladder cancer, 2
national study, 57-58, 196-197
Blood urea nitrogen (BUN), 85-86
201
Breakpoint, defined, 82
Breakpoint chlorination, 82
Bromine
comparative efficacy, 12
in drinking water disinfection, 13
efficacy in demand-free system, 11
Bromochloroacetonitrile, see
Haloacetonitriles
C
Cancer, bladder, see Bladder cancer
Carbon, total organic (TOC), 39-41
Carcinogenicity
of chlorate, 108
of chlorite, 108
of chlorophenols, 172
of chloropicrin, 167
of haloacetonitriles, 161
of haloacids, 141
of haloaldehydes, 150-151
of monochloramine, 97
of trihalomethanes, 122- 129
Carcinogens, 80-81
Case-control sampling strategy, 198-199
OCR for page 202
202 Index
Case-control studies using personal
interview, 55-58
Chloral hydrate, 144
See also Haloaldehydes
Chloramination, 2, 9, 13-14
chemistry and toxicity of disinfection,
60-66
Chloramine analysis, 61-62
Chloramine B and Chloramine T. 91
Chloramines, 7, 90-99
comparative efficacy, 12
in drinking water disinfection, 13
efficacy in demand-free system, 11
inactivation of Giardia muris cysts, 19
organic, 92
See also Dichloram~ne; Monochloramine
Chlorate, 99- 111
carcinogenicity, 108
chronic effects, 107- 108
conclusions and recommendations, 110-
111
developmental effects, 108- 109
health effects in humans, 101-104
health effects in other species, 104-110
metabolism, 100- 101
mutagenicity, 108
NOEL, 110
references, 178-179
reproductive toxicity, 109- 110
SNARL, 110-111
subchronic effects, 104-107
Chloride-36, 93
Chlorination, 1-2, 6-8
breakpoint, 82
by-products, 1-2
conclusions and recommendations on,
190-191
marginal, 82
reactions and by-products, 27-50
toxicity, 45-50
Chlorine, 7, 81-83
in drinking water disinfection, 13
efficacy in demand-free system, 10
free, see Free chlorine
health effects in humans, 82
health effects in other species, 82-83
Norwalk agent and, 23-24
references, 173-174
Chlorine demand, 7
Chlorine dioxide, 9, 66, 83-90
comparative efficacy of, 12
conclusions and recommendations on,
89-90
in drinking water disinfection, 13
efficacy in demand-free system, 10
health aspects in humans, 84-87
health aspects in other species, 87-89
inactivation of Giardia muris cysts, 22
metabolism, 84
mutagenicity, 88
NOEL, 90
references, 174-175
reproductive effects, 88
SNARL, 90
subchronic effects, 87-88
teratogenicity, 88-89
use pattern, 66-67
Chlorine disinfectants, inactivation of
selected viruses, 23
Chlorine-to-carbon (Cl/C) ratio, 191- 192
Chlorite, 58, 99-111
carcinogenicity, 108
chronic effects, 107- 108
conclusions and recommendations, 110-
111
developmental effects, 108-109
health effects in humans, 101-110
health effects in other species, 104-110
metabolism, 100-101
mutagenicity, 108
NOEL, 110
references, 178-179
reproductive toxicity, 109-110
SNARL, 110-111
subchronic effects, 104- 107
1-Chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (DNCB),
134-135
Chloroacetaldehyde, see Haloaldehydes
Chloroform, 1, 111
carcinogenic risk for, 131 - 132
generation of, 29
precursors of, 37, 38
2-Chlorophenol, see Chlorophenols
tumor incidence with, 131-133
See also Trihalomethanes
Chlorophenols, 169- 173
acute effects, 170-172
carcinogenicity, 172
conclusions and recommendations, 172-
173
health effects in other species, 170-172
mutagenicity, 172
OCR for page 203
Index 203
NOEL, 173
references, 188- 189
reproductive effects, 170, 172
SNARL, 173
subchronic effects, 170
Chloropicrin, 44, 162- 168
acute effects, 165- 166
carcinogenicity, 167
chemistry and environmental fate, 163-
164
chronic effects, 166
conclusions and recommendations, 168
health effects in humans, 165
health effects in other species, 165-168
metabolism, 164
mutagenicity, 167-168
references, 186-188
subchronic effects, 166
2-Chloropropionate (2-CP), 140
Cholera, 4
Cholinesterase activity, 121
Chronic effects
of chlorate, 107- 108
of chlorite, 107- 108
of chloropicrin, 166
of monochloramine, 96
of trihalomethanes, 120- 122
Coagulation, 67
Contaminant level, maximum (MCL), 13
Correlational studies, 51-52
Cytochrome P450, 112- 113
D
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 20
Developmental effects of chlorate and
chlorite, 108- 109
Dibromoacetonitrile, see Haloacetonitriles
Dibromochloromethane, 111- 112
carcinogenic risk, 133
See also Trihalomethanes
Dichloramine
comparative efficacy of, 12
See also Chloramines
Dichloramine T. 91
Dichloroacetaldehyde, see Haloaldehydes
Dichloroacetic acid (DCA), 34-35, 37, 39,
40, 133
See also Haloacids
Dichloroacetonitrile, 43-44
See also Haloacetonitriles
Dichlorophenols, see Chlorophenols
Diethylnitrosamine (DENA), 128-129
Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), 156
N. N' -Diphenyl-p -phenylenediamine
(DPPD), 113
Disinfectant by-products, e~ct of,
in conjunction with other risk
factors for disease, 199-200
Disinfectants
approaches to assessment of human
health risks, 197- 198
chlorine, inactivation of selected viruses,
23
"life-cycle" studies, 191
selected, chemistry and toxicity, 80- 189
Disinfection
chemistry and toxicity, 27-79
conclusions and recommendations,
191-200
methods and efficacy, 4-26
conclusions and recommendations,
190-191
Dowicide 2S, see Chlorophenols
Drinking water, see Water entries
Dysentery, 4
E
Epidemiological observational studies,
potential contributions, 200
Epidemiological studies of contaminants,
50-60
case-control studies using personal
interview, 55-58
correlational studies, 51-52
groups at increased risk in, 58-60
mortality case-control studies, 52-55
Epidemiology, improvement, 196-200
Erie County, New York, correlational
study, 51
Escherichia coli, 16, 21
Ethylnitrosourea (ENU), 126
F
Ferrate in drinking water disinfection, 13
Flocculation, 67
OCR for page 204
204 Index
Free chlorine, 82
inactivation of Giardia lamblia cysts, 17
inactivation of Giardia muris cysts, 18
Fulvic acid, isolated aquatic, 34-42
Furanones, 37
G
Giardia lamblia, 15-18, 20, 21
Giardia muris, 16, 18-22
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G-6
PD) deficiency, 58-59
Glutathione S-transferase (GST), 134- 135
Glyoxylate aminotransferase (GAT), 134
H
Haloacetonitriles, 156-162
acute effects, 159
carcinogenicity, 161
chemical and physical properties, 157
conclusions and recommendations, 161-
162
health effects in other species, 159- 161
metabolic fate, 158
metabolism, 157-158
mutagenicity in other species, 160-161
NOEL, 161
references, 186
reproductive toxicity, 160
SNARL, 161-162
subchronic effects, 159- 160
Haloacids, 133-143
acute effects, 138- 139
carcinogenicity, 141
conclusions and recommendations, 143
health effects in humans, 136-138
health effects in other species, 138- 142
metabolism, 134- 136
mutagenicity in other species, 141
neurotoxic effects, 141 - 142
NOEL, 143
references, 182- 183
reproductive toxicity, 142
SNARL, 143
subchronic effects, 139- 141
Haloaldehydes, 143-154
acute effects, 146- 147
carcinogenicity, 150-151
conclusions and recommendations, 153-
154
health effects in humans, 146
health effects in other species, 146-153
metabolism, 144-146
mutagenicity, 150
references, 183-185
subchronic effects, 147-150
teratogenicity, 151- 152
Halogen, total organic (TOX), 39-40
Haloketones, 154-156
acute effects, 155
conclusions and recommendations, 156
health effects, 154- 156
mutagenicity, 155-156
references. 185-186
Health effects in humans
of chlorate, 101- 104
of chlorine, 82
of chlorine dioxide, 84-87
of chlorite, 101- 104
of chloropicrin, 165
of haloacids, 136- 138
of haloaldehydes, 146
of monochloramine, 93-95
of trihalomethanes, 114- 117
Health effects in other species
of chlorate, 104-110
of chlorine, 82-83
of chlorine dioxide, 87-89
of chlorite, 104- 110
of chlorophenols, 170-172
of chloropicrin, 165- 168
of haloacetonitriles, 159- 161
of haloacids, 138- 142
of haloaldehydes, 146- 153
of haloketones, 155- 156
of monochloramine, 95-98
oftrihalomethanes, 117-129
Hepatitis A virus, 14, 15, 22-23
Hepatomegaly, 117
Hexachloroacetone, see Haloketones
Humic acid, isolated aquatic, 34-42
Humic molecules, 28-34
Hydrogen peroxide in drinking water
disinfection, 13
Hydroxyl type chloroform precursors, 38
Hypochlorite ions, 7-8, 82
comparative efficacy of, 12
Hypochlorous acid, 7-8, 82
OCR for page 205
Index 205
comparative efficacy, 12
reaction products, 30
Illinois mortality case-control study, 52-53
Iodine
comparative efficacy, 12
in drinking water disinfection, 13
efficacy in demand-free system, 11
Ionizing radiation in drinking water
disinfection, 13
Iowa correlational study, 52
L
"Life-cycle" studies of disinfectants, 191
Louisiana mortality case-control study, 53
54
M
Marginal chlorination, 82
Massachusetts
correlational study, 51-52
mortality case-control study, 55
Maximum contaminant level (MCL), 13
Maximum tolerated dose (MTD), 128
Metabolism
of chlorate, 100- 101
of chlorine dioxide, 84
of chlorite, 100- 101
of chloropicrin, 164
of haloacetonitriles, 157-158
of haloacids, 134- 136
of haloaldehydes, 144-146
of monochloramine, 91-93
of trihalomethanes, 112- 114
Methemoglobin, 102
Monochloramine, 2, 60-62, 90-99
acute effects in humans, 93-94
acute effects in other species, 95
bactericidal action, 16, 20
carcinogenicity, 97
chronic effects in other species, 96
comparative efficacy, 12
conclusions and recommendations, 98-
99
health effects in humans, 93-95
health effects in other species, 95-98
metabolism, 91-93
mutagenicity, 96-97
NOEL, 99
references, 175-178
SNARL, 99
subchronic effects in humans, 94-95
subchronic effects in other species, 95-
96
teratogenicity, 97-98
See also Chloramines
Monochlorophenols, see Chlorophenols
Mortality case-control studies, 52-55
Mutagenicity, 45-46
of chlorate, 108
of chlorine dioxide, 88
of chlorite, 108
of chlorophenols, 172
of Chloropicrin 167- 168
of haloacetonitriles, 160- 161
of haloacids, 141
of haloaldehydes, 150
of haloketones, 155- 156
of monochloramine, 96-97
of trihalomethanes, 122
N
National Bladder Cancer Study, 57-58,
196-197
Neonates, 59-60
Neurotoxic effects of haloacids, 141-142
New York mortality case-control study,
54-55
Nitrite, 43
Nitrochloroform, see Chloropicrin
Nitrochloromethane, see Chloropicrin
Nitrogen compounds, organic, 42-44, 62-
66
No-observed-effect level (NOEL), 81
of chlorate, 110
of chlorine dioxide, 90
of chlorite, 110
of chlorophenols, 173
of haloacetonitriles, 161
of haloacids, 143
of monochloramine, 99
North Carolina case-control study using
personal interview, 55-56
OCR for page 206
206 Index
Norwalk virus, 14, 15
chlorine and, 23-24
o
Oxidation processes, 67-68
2-Oxothiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid (OTZ),
112
Ozonation, 66
Ozone, 9, 66
comparative efficacy, 12
in drinking water disinfection, 13
efficacy in demand-free system, 10
microorganism inactivation, 21
use pattern, 66-67
Ozone decomposition, 68
p
pH conditions, high, in drinking water
disinfection, 13
Phenobarbital, 126
Potassium permanganate in drinking water
disinfection, 13
Preozonation, 49
Propenals, 152
Pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH), 134-136
Q
Quantification, risk, 80
R
Red-blood-cell (RBC) counts, 105, 121
Redox process, 67
Reproductive toxicity
of chlorate, 109- 110
of chlorine dioxide, 88
of chlorite, 109- 110
of chlorophenols, 170, 172
of haloacetonitriles, 160
of haloacids, 142
Resorcinol, 29
aqueous chlorination of, 34
reaction products from, 31-33
Ribonucleic acid (RNA), 20
Risk quantification, 80
S
Salmonella assay, Ames, 47-49
Second International Symposium on
Health Effects of Drinking Water
Disinfectants and Disinfection By
Products, vii-viii
Serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase
(SCOT), 116, 119
Serum glutamic pyruvate transaminase
(SGPT), 116, 119
Short-term exposure limit (STEL), 162
Silver in drinking water disinfection, 13
Sister chromatic exchange (SCE) activity,
48
SNARL, see Suggested no-adverse-effect
level
Sodium chlorate, see Chlorate
Sodium chlorite, see Chlorite
Subchronic effects
in humans, of monochloramine, 94-95
in other species
of chlorate, 104- 107
of chlorine dioxide, 87-88
of chlorite, 104- 107
of chlorophenols, 170
of chloropicrin, 166
of haloacetonitriles, 159- 160
of haloacids, 139- 141
of haloaldehydes, 147- 150
of monochloramine, 95-96
of trihalomethanes, 118- 120
Suggested no-adverse-effect level
(SNARL), 81
of chlorate, 110- 111
of chlorine dioxide, 90
of chlorite, 110- 111
of chlorophenols, 173
estimated, 193
of haloacetaonitriles, 161- 162
of haloacids, 143
of monochloramine, 99
Superoxide ion, 68
T
Teratogenicity
of chlorine dioxide, 88-89
of haloaldehydes, 151 - 152
of monochloramine, 97-98
OCR for page 207
Index 207
1,1,3,3-Tetrachloroacetone, see
Haloketones
Threshold limit value (TLV), 82
Trichloroacetyl type chloroform precursors,
38
Trichloroacetaldehyde, 144
See also Haloaldehydes
Trichloroacetic acid (TCA), 34-35, 37,
39, 40, 133, 145-146
See also Haloacids
1, 1,1-Trichloroacetone, see Haloketones
Trichloroacetonitrile, see Haloacetonitriles
Trichloroethanol (TCEA), 145-146
Trichloroethylene (ICE), 145
Trichloromethane (chloroform), 111
See also Trihalomethanes
Trichloromethyl cyanide, see
Haloacetonitriles
Trichloromethylnitrile, see
Haloacetonitriles
Trichloronitromethane, see Chloropicrin
Trichlorophenols, see Chlorophenols
Trihalomethanes (THMs), 1-2, 111-133
acute effects, 117-118
carcinogenicity, 122- 129
chronic effects, 120- 122
conclusions and recommendations, 129-
133
health effects in humans, 114- 117
health effects in other species, 117-129
metabolism, 112- 114
mutagenicity, 122
references, 179- 182
subchronic effects, 118- 120
Tritox, see Haloacetonitriles
Typhoid fever, 4
U
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, 20
in drinking water disinfection, 13
V
Vapor hazard index, 165
Viruses, 22-24
Vitamin E, 113
W
Water
collection, 5-6
epidemiological studies, 50-60
See also Epidemiological
studies of contaminants
mutagenicity of, 45-46
See also Mutagenicity
toxicity, 46-50
treatment practices, 6
Water distribution system, 6
Water treatment practices, 6
Waterborne diseases, 4-5
conclusions and recommendations, 190-
191
outbreaks, 14-15
Waterborne pathogens, 14-24
White-blood-cell (WBC) counts, 121
Wisconsin
case-control study using personal
interview, 56-57
mortality case-control study, 53
Representative terms from entire chapter:
water disinfection
