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Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality (2001)

Chapter: 3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers

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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
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3
Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers

Teacher licensure is under the authority of individual states. The goal of initial teacher licensure is to ensure that all students have competent teachers. Given the complexity of teaching and differences in states’ current efforts to improve teaching and learning, it is not surprising that the landscape for teacher licensing is complex. States impose numerous and varied requirements on candidates for licensure. States require candidates to fulfill education and supervised teaching requirements, pass required tests, provide evidence of good character, and meet other licensure requirements. Furthermore, states use many different licensure tests in different ways.

This chapter describes initial teacher licensing—the licensing decisions made before a teacher enters the classroom on an unsupervised basis for the first time. This chapter begins with a brief discussion of licensing in other professions and of the differences between teacher licensing and licensing in other fields. The committee then describes teacher licensure systems, the tests used by states, and the decisions about candidates they support. The committee closes with examples of teacher preparation, testing, and licensure in seven states.

Here and elsewhere in the report the committee distinguishes between tests and assessments. The committee defines tests as paper-and-pencil measures of knowledge and skill; tests are evaluated and scored using standardized processes. Assessments are broader. While assessments can include standardized paper-and-pencil measures, they may also include performance-based evidence, such as portfolios, videotapes, and observation records. Assessments can be collections of different sorts of evidence, systematically gathered over time, to inform particular decisions or interpretations.

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
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PROFESSIONAL LICENSING

Many professions use licensing systems to select individuals into their fields and to prevent those considered incompetent from practicing. As defined in 1971 by the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, licensure is “the process by which an agency of government grants permission to persons to engage in a given profession or occupation by certifying that those licensed have attained the minimal degree of competency necessary to ensure that the public health, safety, and welfare will be reasonably well protected” (p. 7). Licensure is a state function. States regulate more than 500 professions, from real estate appraisers to electricians to architects. Licensure requirements for a given profession may vary across states, and states may vary in the professions they regulate.

Professions generally promote quality practice in three ways: through professional accreditation of preparation programs, through state licensing of applicants to the profession, and through certification of practitioners. Professions use accreditation to examine their preparation programs and to attempt to ensure that they provide high-quality instruction and practice opportunities. Licensing serves as a gateway to the profession, allowing only those who have met minimum standards of competence to practice. For some professions, certification is granted to those who demonstrate exemplary knowledge and skill. For example, in the medical profession, certification generally is professional recognition of higher standards of accomplishment and typically is associated with advanced study and practice. A national professional body, such as the American Board of Internal Medicine, the American Board of Emergency Medicine, or the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards usually grants certification.

Tests often play an important role in licensure systems and in what candidates study and learn to prepare for licensure and practice (Darling-Hammond et al., 1999). Licensing tests are designed “to provide the public with a dependable mechanism for identifying practitioners who have met particular standards” (American Educational Research Association et al., 1999:156). Typically, panels of professionals determine the knowledge and skills that are critical for safe and effective performance, with an emphasis on the knowledge and skills that should be mastered prior to entering the profession (Stoker and Impara, 1995; American Educational Research Association et al., 1999). The test specifications for licensure examinations make explicit at least part of what professions consider worth knowing and how it should be known and demonstrated.

Specifications for licensure tests may also recognize advances in professional knowledge. Licensing exams are viewed as a means for ensuring that advances in professional knowledge are incorporated into professional education programs. For example, one way that fields such as medicine, engineering, and psychology ensure that new research knowledge gets used is by including it on licensing examinations, specialty board examinations, and accreditation guidelines for professional schools, hospitals, or other training sites. Although tests

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

are prominent in licensing systems, it is important to recognize that they are only one part of the overall quality control system that most professions have developed (National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 2000b).

Professional regulations generally address requirements in three areas: education, experience, and testing. The education component is intended to ensure that candidates have encountered the broad base of knowledge they will need to draw on when making decisions in professional practice. The supervised experience component allows candidates to learn the complex art of applying knowledge to specific problems of practice, to make judgments, to weigh and balance competing considerations, and to develop practical skills and put them to use.

Professions generally include education, experience, and testing components in their licensing requirements but vary in the amounts of education and experience they require and in the sequence in which the requirements must be met. In deciding on specific education, experience, and testing requirements, professions evaluate the extent to which each element is likely to lead to public protection. The required levels of education, experience, and testing are intended to reflect the knowledge and skills needed for entry-level practice and not to be so high as to be unreasonably limiting (Schmitt, 2000; American Educational Research Association et al., 1999).

To learn more about licensing in other professions, the committee commissioned a paper on licensure requirements in seven fields. The goal was to learn (1) how other professions handle licensing requirements; (2) what other professions require with regard to education, experience, and testing; and (3) whether the requirements of other professions suggest ways to improve teacher licensure. The committee focused on professions that generally require a bachelor’s degree for entry into the profession because these professions were expected to offer useful analogies to education.

Table 3–1 compares licensure requirements for seven professions: architects, certified public accountants (CPAs), professional engineers, land surveyors, physical therapists, registered nurses, and social workers. For each profession the state is the licensing agent. For each profession there is also variability in the education and experience that states require for licensure. For example, there are four categories of practice for social workers: Basic, Intermediate, Advanced, and Clinical. States differ in the level of practice that they regulate. The 34 states that offer licenses to social workers with bachelor’s degrees (the Basic level) have 19 different combinations of education and experience requirements (Schmitt, 2000). For CPA candidates, over half of the states require two years of practical experience for a license and a few require three years (American Institute of Certified Public Accountants and National Association of State Boards of Accountancy, 1998). For architects about a quarter of states require graduation from an accredited five-year architecture program; other states accept alternative ways for satisfying the education requirements <www.ncarb.org>. These differ-

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

ences are analogous to the different state education and experience requirements for teachers.

There is a difference, however, between states’ licensure testing requirements for the seven professions and the licensure testing requirements for teaching. For each of the seven professions examined, the same test or series of tests are used by all states (although some states augment a national examination with additional state components). For six of these professions (all but social work), the passing standards on the test(s) are the same across states (Schmitt, 2000). The situation is very different in education where testing requirements differ by state, subject area, and grade level and the passing standards vary from state to state.

Table 3–1 also provides data on alternate paths into the seven professions. A number of the professions studied have varying degree requirements for alternate routes to licensing. Some accept experience in lieu of the education requirements. About half the states allow engineers to substitute experience for an engineering degree, although the experience requirement is substantial (e.g., over 10 years; National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying, 2000). Prospective architects can also substitute experience for education. Over half the states allow architect candidates to be licensed with a bachelor’s degree or a high school diploma, in combination with experience/training (although typically candidates must have a combination of eight years’ experience and education <www.ncarb.org>. Several states accept various combinations of education and experience in lieu of a bachelor’s degree in order for prospective accountants to sit for the licensing exam (American Institute of Certified Public Accountants and National Association of State Boards of Accountancy, 1998). This is another area in which teaching is similar to the other professions studied.

Some of the seven professions allow individuals to practice without a license, but they place limitations on what unlicensed individuals are allowed to do. Unlicensed architects can design certain structures, although only licensed architects can seal a design. Unlicensed individuals can work as accountants, although they cannot use the CPA designation. In some jurisdictions, registered nurses and physical therapists who have completed the education requirements can receive temporary licenses prior to fulfilling the examination requirements (Schmitt, 2000). Teaching is similar to other professions in this regard. Unlicensed teachers can work in private schools in some states (National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 2000b; U.S. Department of Education, 2000b). Also, many states allow unlicensed individuals to teach in public schools for a fixed period when there are too few licensed teachers to staff existing classes.

TEACHER LICENSURE

The teaching profession and individual states impose standards through program approval, teacher education admission and course requirements, testing, and initial licensure to promote quality practice.

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
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TABLE 3–1 Comparison of Licensing Requirements for Teaching and Other Professionsa

 

Requirements

 

Profession

Education

Experience

Examination

Teaching

All states require a bachelor’s degree in teacher education or a content area; most have post-baccalaureate alternative routes to enter teaching.

Most states require student teaching; length of student teaching experience varies from 9 to 18 weeks.b

Over 600 exams in use; most states require one or more tests of basic skills, general knowledge, subject matter knowledge, or pedagogical knowledge.

Architectse

About one-quarter of the states require a five-year degree from an NCARB-accredited program; others accept alternative ways of satisfying the education requirements.

Most states require that the Intern Development Program standards be met (5,600 hours of defined experience)

One exam with nine sections: predesign; general structures, lateral forces, mechanical and electrical systems, materials and methods; construction documents and services, site planning, building planning, and building technology.

Certified public accountantsf

Most states require a bachelor’s degree. Most require 150 hours of education prior to taking the test.

Most states require experience, generally between one and three years.

Four exams: Auditing, Financial Accounting and Reporting, Business Law and Professional Responsibility, and Accounting and Reporting; must pass all parts; over half the states require an exam or professional course in ethics.

Professional engineersg

Most states require a bachelor’s degree in engineering.

All states require experience along with engineering degree, generally four years.

Two-part exam; Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) is first step and can be taken before degree completion; Principles of Engineering (PE) is the second step and is usually taken after degree completion; about half the states also require jurisprudence, ethics, or specialty exams.

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

Exam Format/Cost

Experience Accepted in Place of Education Requirements

Practice Without Completing All Licensing Requirements

Continuing Education (CE) Requirements

Primarily multiple-choice and constructed-response.

B.A. is a minimum requirement for all states. Experience and education requirements for states’ alternative licensure programs vary widely.

Most states allow unlicensed individuals to waive one or more licensing requirements to teach temporarilyc

Most states require CE.d

Computer simulation; six multiple-choice sections; three vignette sections with graphics problems; $981; sections can be taken at different times.

Less than one-quarter accept training in lieu of education; typically need combination of 8 years’ education and experience.

Unlicensed individuals can work as architects, but limitations are placed on the types of work permitted (e.g., size of structure, type of structure); unlicensed individuals cannot seal a design or use the title.

Not required in most states; a few require 12 hours per year.

Multiple-choice, essay, matching, short-answer, fill-in the-blank; 15 hours, two days; test fee varies from state to state.

A few states allow a combination of experience and education to be substituted for the bachelor’s degree in order to sit for the exam.

Unlicensed individuals can work as accountants but cannot use the CPA designation or perform the attest function.

Most states require 40 hours CE per year.

Multiple-choice and problems; 16 disciplines; eight hours per part; open book for PE exam but restrictions vary across states; $50 to $75 for FE; $100+ for PE.

About half the states allow experience to be substituted for an engineering degree; most require over 10 years.

Unlicensed individuals can work as engineers, but limitations are placed on the types of work permitted; unlicensed individuals cannot seal a drawing or use the title.

Less than half of the states require CE requirements.

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

 

Requirements

 

Profession

Education

Experience

Examination

Land surveyorsg

Most require a bachelor’ degree in land surveying.

Over half the states require those with a degree from an accredited program to also have field experience.

Two tests: Fundamentals of Land Surveying (FLS) and Principles and Practice of Land Surveying (PLS); most states also require a jurisprudence exam.

Physical therapistsh

All states require graduation from an accredited PT program; after 2002, only postbaccalaureate programs will be accredited.

A few states require clinical practice.

One exam; a few states require oral or practical exam prior to licensure.

Registered nursesj

Most states require either an associate’s degree, a bachelor of science in nursing, or graduation from NY Regents external degree program.

No states have experience requirements.

One exam.

Social workersk

Four categories of practice; states vary in the level(s) of practice they regulate. Requirements vary according to level of practice. Most states require at least a bachelor’s in social work for the basic level of practice, although some accept nonsocial work degrees.

Experience requirements vary according to the level of practice.

Four levels of exams: Basic, Intermediate, Advanced, and Clinical; candidates take only one exam for each level of licensure.

aThis table summarizes information in a paper prepared for the committee by Kara Schmitt. The full electronic version of the paper can be obtained by contacting the author at karaschmitt@hotmail.com.

bFrom National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification (2000b:Table B-22).

cFrom Education Week, Quality Counts (2000:52).

dFrom National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification (2000b:E-1).

eFrom National Council of Architectural Registration Boards (1998); NCARB member board requirements. Washington, DC: National Council of Architectural Registration Boards; and <www.ncarb.org>.

fFrom American Institute of Certified Public Accountants and National Association of State Boards of Accoun

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

Exam Format/Cost

Experience Accepted in Place of Education Requirements

Practice Without Completing All Licensing Requirements

Continuing Education (CE) Requirements

Multiple-choice; eight hours for FLS, $175; six hours for PLS, $265.

A few states accept experience in place of education.

Unlicensed individuals can work as surveyors, but limitations are placed on the types of work permitted; unlicensed individuals cannot seal a drawing or use the title.

About half the states require CE, generally 6 to 15 hours per year.

Computer-based multiple-choice; four hours; $285.

Experience cannot be substituted for education.

About half of the states allow individuals who have completed the educational requirements to practice (temporarily) prior to passing the test.

About half the states require CE (one to four CE units).

Computer-adaptive; multiple-choice; five hours; $120

No states accept experience in lieu of education.

About half of the states allow individuals who have completed the educational requirements to practice (temporarily) prior to passing the test; some states allow individuals to take the LPN exam while training for RN and to practice as an LPN until becoming an RN.

About half of the states require CE for license renewal.

Computer-based multiple-choice; four hours; $110 per level

Most states do not accept experience in lieu of education.

Four levels of practice that define a progression of education/experience requirements.

Most states require CE, usually 15 to 20 hours every two years.

tancy (1998). Digest of state accountancy laws and state board regulations. New York: American Institute of Certified Public Accountants and <www.aicpa.org>.

gFrom National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying (2000) <www.ncees.org>.

hFrom American Physical Therapy Association. (1997). State licensure reference guide. Washington, DC: American Physical Therapy Association and <www.fsbpt.org>.

jFrom Yocom et al. (1999) <www.ncsbn.org>.

kFrom American Association of State Social Work Boards (1998) <www.aswb.org>.

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

Accreditation and Approval of Teacher Education Programs

As in other fields, accreditation of teacher education programs is a mechanism for examining and attesting to the quality of programs (National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education, 1997). However, unlike other professions, national professional accreditation is not required in teacher education. The majority of states recognize only teacher preparation programs from institutions that are regionally accredited. Fewer than 40 percent of teacher education programs are nationally accredited (U.S. Department of Education, 2001).

All states require teacher preparation programs to obtain state approval based on policies and standards set by them. These standards establish criteria that, if met, authorize the program to prepare and recommend teacher candidates for state licensure. The teacher preparation approval standards often also incorporate specific state-required courses or competencies necessary to obtain a state license. These approval standards and license requirements are unique to each state. Fourteen states have established independent professional standards boards or commissions with responsibility for establishing licensure standards, and all but three of these boards have authority to approve teacher preparation programs (National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 2000b).

The process for approving programs varies by state. Some states conduct a paper review of the curriculum. Others do an on-site review based on adopted standards, primarily process measures organized around students, faculty, and program resources (e.g., number of faculty, degree status, student admission criteria, diversity of students and faculty, professional development funds). Some states (such as Indiana, Connecticut, Ohio, North Dakota, and Minnesota) have approval criteria that are performance or competency based; they examine how a program endeavors to ensure that teacher candidates acquire specific knowledge and skills. Sometimes they also examine program outcomes, such as teachers’ and employers’ perceptions of their adequacy of the programs, graduation rates, and job placement rates.

In over 40 states, teacher preparation programs in colleges and universities may obtain both state approval and national accreditation or may substitute national accreditation by the National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) for state approval. NCATE began accrediting teacher education programs in 1954 (NCATE, 2000a). It represents 33 specialty professional associations of teachers, teacher educators, content specialists, and local and state policy makers. NCATE introduced new outcome-based accreditation standards in 2000 (see Chapter 2 and Appendix B). Currently, 12 states require accreditation using the NCATE standards and more than 40 states have partnerships that encourage professional accreditation.

A new organization called the Teacher Education Accrediting Council (TEAC) has proposed to take a different approach to accreditation. TEAC proposes to conduct academic audits against institutions’ own standards using evidence collected by the institution and to use those standards to judge program

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

quality. TEAC has applied to the U.S. Department of Education and the Council for Higher Education Accreditation for recognition as an accrediting agency but has not yet received this recognition.

State-Specified Admission Requirements for Teacher Education

Some states also address teacher quality by specifying standards for admission to teacher education programs. Thirty-five states specify entrance requirements for their teacher preparation programs (National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 2000b). Almost all include meeting a basic skills standard. Additional requirements may include minimum grade point averages, subject area majors, and certain coursework.

State-Specified Course Requirements in Teacher Education

States specify the coursework their teacher candidates should take and the competencies they must demonstrate. Thirty-seven states specify some required coursework in English, humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and mathematics, although the specific course requirements may differ for elementary or multiple-subject teachers and single-subject teachers (National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 2000b). Some states require that a subject area major be completed prior to entering teacher preparation.

Most teacher preparation programs include a mix of courses and field experiences (National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 2000b). The coursework usually includes teaching strategies and methodology, social foundations, development and learning, curriculum and instruction, classroom management, and student assessment. Some states also include the teaching of reading, use of technology, cultural diversity, school organization, and school improvement course requirements.

Instead of specifying course requirements, some states have identified competencies or performance standards to be demonstrated by program completers (Alaska, Alabama, California, Minnesota, North Dakota, Texas, West Virginia, Connecticut and Ohio; National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 2000b). These competencies generally follow the tenets of the states’ teaching standards or the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC) and other nationally developed standards statements.

Although most states also specify the type and amount of supervised teaching experience candidates must complete, there is variability in state requirements. Some states require some experience in schools before the student teaching experience begins; others do not. Thirty states have field experience requirements before student teaching. For student teaching, states require between 9 and 18 weeks of supervised teaching (National Association of State Directors of Teacher Educa

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

tion and Certification, 2000b). Most professions, including medicine, architecture, psychology, and engineering, require more extensive supervised clinical experience (Darling-Hammond et al., 1999).

Tests

As noted earlier, in addition to these requirements, 42 states require candidates to pass one or more tests of basic skills, general knowledge, subject matter knowledge, or teaching knowledge (National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 2000b). Among states that use tests, the type and number of required tests run the gamut from one test of basic skills (e.g., Alabama) to four different types of tests, including basic skills, subject matter knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge tests (e.g., Michigan, Colorado). Within types, more than one test may be required. For example, California requires two subject matter tests for high school teachers who have not completed an approved subject matter program.

In some states, licensing tests are tied to the granting of a degree; in others they are not. In states where tests are not required for graduation, candidates can successfully complete a teacher preparation program and graduate, but if they fail a state’s test(s), they cannot get a standard teaching license. In states where tests are required for degree conferral, candidates can successfully complete all of the institutional requirements for graduation but leave without a degree because they fail the licensing test; these candidates also lack a license to teach in that state’s public school system.

States’ Alternative Preparation Programs for Teachers

A majority of states also have supplemented college and university preparation programs for licensure with postbaccalaureate alternative routes for candidates to enter teaching from other fields (Feistritzer and Chester, 2000). These routes are called alternative because they provide options to the four-year undergraduate programs that were the only routes to licensure in many states until the 1990s. Although varying greatly, these routes generally include an entrance requirement for content expertise and experience in the field. The programs range from requiring a preservice program of teacher education (usually 9 to 15 months) to programs offering 3 to 12 weeks of instruction prior to granting a limited teaching license, such as an intern license or a temporary or emergency license, while other requirements are completed. Some states also provide individually tailored programs based on reviews of the academic and professional backgrounds of each candidate. Alternative programs are provided by states, local districts, or institutions of higher education. In most cases, teachers from these programs are required to pass the same tests as those who become teachers through traditional routes.

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

Other State Licensing Requirements

Additional state licensing requirements can include U.S. citizenship, minimum age, character recommendations, or oaths of allegiance (National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 2000b). A small number of states require criminal background checks. Each state has guidelines governing the types of prior offenses that would prohibit licensure. Generally, prospective teachers with misdemeanors can be licensed, while those with felony records cannot.

Types of State Teaching Licenses

The majority of states have a two- or three-tiered licensure process with additional requirements tied to obtaining each type of license (National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 2000b). Thirty-one states require an initial license (valid for two to five years) and the attainment of a standard professional license based on fulfillment of additional requirements. Another 13 states offer an optional advanced certificate. Only three states grant a lifetime license at the advanced level. Although most of the additional licensing requirements center around completing advanced degrees or continued professional development, some states (such as Ohio, North Carolina, and Connecticut) require demonstration of competent teaching practice to obtain the next level of license. Awarding licenses based on progressively increasing education, experience, and performance requirements is another way that states try to improve the quality of teaching.

By their nature, licensure requirements reduce the supply of credentialed teachers. In some subjects and jurisdictions, given current hiring practices and current levels of teacher compensation, the supply of credentialed teachers is below the numbers needed to staff existing classes (U.S. Department of Education, 2000b, 2001). This is particularly true in mathematics, science, bilingual education, and special education and in some urban and rural communities.

In responding to these conditions, almost all states issue various kinds of restricted licenses, allowing districts and schools to hire teachers on a temporary or emergency basis for a number of reasons. Some require a demonstration that the district cannot find credentialed teachers (National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 2000b; U.S. Department of Education, 2000a, 2001). Some states issue emergency or temporary licenses to individuals who have met some requirements, such as holding a bachelor’s degree, passing a basic skills test, or holding a license from another state, yet who have not fulfilled all of the licensure requirements for that state. State rules differ as to which licensure requirements may be waived for teachers using temporary or emergency credentials.

In all but three states requiring basic skills testing, basic skills test require-

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

ments may be waived or delayed for temporary or emergency licenses (National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 2000b). Subject matter test requirements may be waived or delayed in all but one of the states that require them. In some cases these waiver policies may mean that districts can hire teachers who have failed licensure tests. However, most available data do not indicate which requirements temporary or emergency credentialed teachers have met and which they have not met.

Although the numbers of employed teachers who have temporary or emergency credentials vary across states, the numbers are substantial in some states and some districts or fields within states. In the Initial Report of the Secretary on the Quality of Teacher Preparation (U.S. Department of Education, 2000a), 39 states provided data on the numbers of individuals in 1998 who were teaching with waivers. Using their own definitions for teaching waivers, 16 of the 39 states had waiver rates greater than 2 percent. Eight of these had waiver rates higher than 5 percent, and some were just over 17 percent.

States’ Provisions for Licensure Portability

Currently, 40 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico participate in the National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification Interstate Contract (National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 2000a). The purpose of the contract is to help new teachers obtain licenses in other states based on their completion of a state-approved teacher education program or conferral of a state license. States participating in the contract will issue a license to candidates trained or licensed elsewhere but may specify additional requirements such as tests or courses to be completed within a given time period. States do have the option of granting full reciprocity through the contract. There also are regionally specified portability agreements that may stipulate additional licensing requirements to be met over time (e.g., Missouri, Oklahoma, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, South Dakota, and Arkansas have a regional compact; Maryland, the District of Columbia, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware have a reciprocity agreement; New York and the six New England states also have a portability agreement).

Beginning Teacher Support Programs

The support provided to beginning teachers varies nationwide. Although 28 states report providing beginning teachers with a support system, the process is voluntary in 10 states, and state funding is provided only in 10 to 12 states (National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 2000b). Mentors and support teams are usually selected at the district level based on state or local criteria, and the amount of training provided also varies greatly.

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

The role of beginning teacher support programs is to provide help and guidance during the first few years of teaching, generally through the first stage of licensure. Only a few support models include an assessment component that determines continuation of a teacher’s license based on a set of performance standards (such as Connecticut, Indiana, Oklahoma, and Mississippi). The majority of models provide support only or include a formative evaluation of the beginning teacher, usually conducted by the support team, including the school principal.

Hiring

Public school districts generally select their teachers from available pools of licensed candidates. Most districts use additional information about the quality of applicants to make hiring decisions. Such information sometimes includes evidence of teaching performance (e.g., videotape, demonstration lesson), the ability to develop lessons that reflect diverse student needs, and responses to interview questions about teaching specific to the culture and community of the district.

CURRENTLY USED LICENSURE TESTS

The states that require teachers to pass one or more tests to earn a license vary widely in their practices (National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 2000b). States have chosen different examinations based on conceptions of the knowledge and skills they expect teachers to demonstrate. Within teaching areas, states also use different tests because they work with different test developers or because, at the time a state specified its testing requirements, it chose from among existing tests, and newer-generation tests were introduced later (Angus, 2001). Different examinations test different aspects of teacher knowledge. Some measure basic skills or liberal arts knowledge, others test subject matter knowledge in teaching areas, and still others test knowledge of teaching strategies. States also vary in the way they use licensure tests to evaluate teacher candidates. In some states, tests are used for admission to teacher education programs and for graduation, while in other states testing is required only for initial licensure.

As is the case with the licensing tests used in other professions, teacher licensure tests focus on the knowledge and skills identified by panels of educators as critical for entry into the profession. They cover the material considered to be minimally necessary for beginning teaching. Teacher licensure tests are not designed to distinguish moderately qualified teachers from highly qualified teachers. They are not constructed to predict the degree of teaching success a beginning teacher will demonstrate. The tests focus on the knowledge and skills necessary for competent beginning teaching, not on advanced levels or on the

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

full set of knowledge and skills that licensing boards might like candidates to have. Thus, initial licensing tests are designed to discriminate at the score level that separates minimally competent from incompetent beginning practitioners. They do not possess the kinds of measurement qualities needed to make distinctions at the higher performance levels.

The following descriptions of initial teacher licensure tests and their uses rely on recent reports by the U.S. Department of Education (2000a), the National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification (2000b), and the Council of Chief State School Officers (2000). These reports describe the state of practice one to two years ago; current practices may differ.

Types of Tests Used by States

There are two primary commercial producers of teacher licensure tests—the Educational Testing Service (ETS) and National Evaluation Systems (NES). Thirty-two states use one or more components of the ETS-produced series called Praxis (U.S. Department of Education, 2000a; National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 2000b). When the committee began its work, eight states used tests specifically designed by NES for their prospective teachers (National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 1999); additional states are now developing tests with NES. Some states develop their own tests, and some use a combination of state-developed and contractor-produced tests. Table 3–2 shows the number of states that require each of five different types of licensure tests—basic skills, general knowledge, subject matter knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and subject-specific pedagogical knowledge tests—as well as the test producers.

Table 3–3 presents the numbers of tests in use in 1998/1999 and shows that states use over 600 different tests. ETS administers 144 different tests (Educational Testing Service, 1999e). NES has developed over 400 different teacher tests for its client states (U.S. Department of Education, 2000a). Again, some states develop their own tests. The data show that there are 40 different basic skills tests in use. Over half of these are custom developed by NES. ETS offers paper-and-pencil and computer-based versions of its basic skills tests. Currently, only a few general knowledge tests are being used by states. There are over 500 different subject matter tests. Three-quarters of these are specifically developed for or by states. ETS provides 126 different subject matter tests, covering over 50 different subject areas. Presently, there are 17 pedagogical knowledge tests in use, in addition to a small number of subject-specific pedagogical knowledge tests. Appendix C lists the tests offered by each test developer. The content and format of these tests are described next.

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

TABLE 3–2 Numbers of States Using Different Types of Initial Licensure Tests, by Test Developer, 1998–1999a

 

Test Type

Test Developer

Basic Skills

General Knowledge

Subject Matter Knowledge

Subject-Specific Pedagogical Knowledgeb

Pedagogical Knowledgeb

Total Number of Statesc

ETS

28d

10e

20

20

7

32

NES

9

4

9

6

 

8f

Stateg

1

 

2

2

 

2

Total

38

14

31

28

7

42

aData are from the U.S. Department of Education (2000), the National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification (2000b), and Educational Testing Service (1999d). There are data discrepancies across sources and across tables within sources. The data in this and the next table represent our understanding of the data from these sources and from information obtained from state web sites and licensing officials.

bState tests were classified as subject- specific pedagogical knowledge tests only if test titles indicated they were. Other tests may include items testing both content and pedagogical knowledge.

cRow totals show the numbers of states working with ETS, NES, and developing their own tests. The data in the cells of the rows do not sum to the totals because some states use several types of tests.

dIncludes Pre-Professional Skills Test, Computer-Based Test, and one Core Battery test.

eThe General Knowledge test is one component of the Core Battery test.

fTen states were listed as NES, states in the 2000b National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education & Certification Guide. However, Oregon is not included here because it primarily uses ETS tests; and Oklahoma’s test development program was in transition when our study began.

gSeveral states and higher-education institutions have chosen to develop some or all of their teacher licensure tests.

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

TABLE 3–3 Numbers of Different Initial Licensure Tests, by Test Type and Test Developer, 1998–1999a

 

Test Type

Test Developer

Basic Skills

General Knowledge

Subject Matter Knowledge

Subject-Specific Pedagogical Knowledge

Pedagogical Knowledgeb

Total Number of Statesc

ETS

7c

1d

126

4d

6

144

NES

27

4

362

12

 

405

Statee

6

 

69

1

 

76

Total

40

5

557

17

6

625

aData are taken from the U.S. Department of Education, (2000a), the National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, (2000b), and Educational Testing Service, (1999d). There are data discrepancies across sources and across tables within sources. The data in this table represent our understanding the data from these sources and from other information obtained from state websites and licensing officials.

bState tests were classified as subject-specific pedagogical knowledge tests only if test titles indicated they were. Other tests may include items testing both content and pedagogical knowledge.

cIncludes Pre-Professional Skills Test, Computer-Based Test, and one Core Battery test.

dIncludes Principles of Learning and Teaching test and one Core Battery test.

eSeveral states and higher-education institutions have chosen to develop some or all of their teacher licensure tests

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×
Basic Skills

As can be seen in Table 3–2, more states use tests of basic literacy, communication, and mathematics skills than any other type of test. Thirty-eight states require teacher candidates to meet minimum state requirements on a basic skills test before earning initial licenses (U.S. Department of Education, 2000a; National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 2000b). Twenty-eight of these use Praxis I, the first part of the Praxis series (Educational Testing Service, 1999d), which measures basic knowledge in mathematics, reading, and writing. There are both paper-and-pencil and computer-based versions. Ten other states have chosen basic skills tests specifically developed for their teacher candidates. In nine of these states the basic skills test is designed by NES (U.S. Department of Education, 2000a; National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 2000b). Five other states require candidates to fulfill the basic skills requirement before entering teacher education but give higher education institutions leeway in selecting which tests to use.

General Knowledge

Fourteen states administer tests of general knowledge, which are generally tests of undergraduate-level liberal arts content. New York, for example, administers the Liberal Arts and Sciences Test (LAST) <www.highered.nysed.gov>. LAST covers scientific and mathematical processes, historical and social scientific awareness, artistic expression and the humanities, communication skills, and written analysis and expression. New Mexico gives the Teacher General Knowledge test, and Oklahoma requires the Oklahoma General Education Test. The Praxis II series includes Core Battery tests, which have three parts: General Knowledge, Professional Knowledge, and Communication Skills. The General Knowledge test includes social studies, mathematics, literature and fine arts, and science items. The Professional Knowledge and Communications Skills tests, which are tests of teaching skill, are described below.

Subject Matter Knowledge

Twenty-one states require teacher candidates to take one or more tests of subject matter knowledge (U.S. Department of Education, 2000a; National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 2000b). As with the basic skills tests, states can choose from among several options for this purpose. The Praxis II series includes some 126 subject-area examinations, including accounting, biology, driver education, French, mathematics, physical education, and psychology (Educational Testing Service, 1999d). The states that use tests designed for them by NES also cover a range of subject areas (U.S.

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

Department of Education, 2000a; National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 2000b). For example, New York offers 24 subject exams, while Michigan administers over 70. NES has developed over 360 different subject matter tests, including tests in social studies, art, Russian, music, reading, and agriculture.

ETS recently announced that it will be collaborating with the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education to revamp the Praxis II subject area Tests (National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 1999). The goal of the revisions is to more closely align the content of Praxis tests with the teaching standards written by subject matter associations and to include more items on pedagogy.

Pedagogical Knowledge

Pedagogical knowledge tests examine prospective teachers’ knowledge of learning and development, educational psychology, classroom management, instructional design and delivery techniques, and evaluation and assessment. They cover such topics as organizing content knowledge for student learning, creating an environment for learning, teaching for student learning, and teacher professionalism. Twenty-eight states use tests to assess candidates’ subject-specific knowledge of teaching strategies (U.S. Department of Education, 2000a; National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 2000b). Two states require teacher education programs to assess pedagogical knowledge. Twenty states use a component of Praxis II called the Principles of Learning and Teaching tests, which are designed for three grade levels: grades K-6, 5–9, and 7–12 (Educational Testing Service, 1999d).

The Professional Knowledge test of the ETS Core Battery tests examines candidates’ knowledge of four teaching functions: planning instruction, implementing instruction, evaluating instruction, and managing the learner and the learning environment. The Communication Skills test assesses candidates’ knowledge of aspects of the teacher education curriculum and their ability to listen, read, and write well.

NES has also developed pedagogical knowledge tests for several states, including Arizona, Colorado, New York, Texas, and Illinois (National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 2000b). In New York, teachers must pass the Assessment of Teaching Skills-Written, which measures candidates’ knowledge of the learner, instructional planning and assessment, instructional delivery, and the professional environment <www.highered.nysed>. The Examination for the Certification of Educators in Texas (ExCET) combines subject matter knowledge with the professional knowledge expected of entry-level teachers <www.excet.nesinc.com>.

Florida has designed its own test for assessing prospective teachers’ pedagogical knowledge <www.firn.edu/doe>. Candidates for initial certification take

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

the Florida Professional Education Test, which covers five content areas: personal development, appropriate student behavior, planning instruction, implementing instruction, and evaluating instruction. Alternatively, candidates can take the Praxis Professional Knowledge Test.

California has a new pedagogical test for prospective reading teachers called the Reading Instruction Competence Assessment (RICA) <www.ctc.ca.gov>. RICA assesses the knowledge and skills essential for providing effective reading instruction to students. It includes four domains, which cover planning and organizing reading instruction based on ongoing assessment, developing phonological and other linguistic processes related to reading, developing reading comprehension and promoting independent reading, and supporting reading through oral and written language development. RICA is offered as a paper-and-pencil test and as a video-based performance assessment.

INTASC states are developing a new pedagogical knowledge test called the Test of Teaching Knowledge (TTK) for teacher candidates. This test is scheduled for administration in 2002 (J.Miller, INTASC, personal communication, 2000). Field test materials for the TTK include open-ended items about learning, development, and motivation; teaching scenarios and artifacts; and samples of student work that attempt to evaluate whether teacher candidates understand the fundamentals of child development, motivation and behavior, learning theory, the identification of common learning difficulties, principles of classroom management, and strategies for assessment.

The field test version of the TTK includes a case study exercise and a folio review as well as constructed-response questions based on INTASC principles. In the case study a detailed narrative about a classroom situation is described, while the folio review exercise presents a collection of documents related to one particular classroom instructional sequence. Questions following the exercises ask candidates to describe appropriate instructional strategies that address and support different learning styles or to describe effective classroom management styles of individual, small-group, or whole-class work. Other items ask candidates to write letters to parents explaining plans for organizing classroom work for their students, considering curriculum goals, and knowledge about child and adolescent development.

Subject-Specific Pedagogical Knowledge

Another kind of teacher knowledge that includes dimensions of content and pedagogy is called subject-specific pedagogical knowledge (Shulman, 1986). Subject-specific pedagogical knowledge goes beyond knowledge of subject matter to include ways of representing and formulating topics that make them understandable to students. It also includes an understanding of what makes learning a topic easy or difficult for students—for example, misconceptions about the solar system that might impede learning about astronomy.

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

The Praxis II series includes subject-specific pedagogical content knowledge tests in biology, foreign language, mathematics, physical science, social studies, and Spanish (Education Testing Service, 1999d). Only seven states require prospective teachers to take tests of pedagogical knowledge.

Concerns About Current Tests

A number of questions have been raised by the field about whether current tests measure what they purport to measure. For example, while requiring a basic skills test might seem like a straightforward matter, there are substantial differences in which skills various tests actually measure, in how different they are, and in how much consensus there is about the importance of tested skills. Recent controversy about the Massachusetts Educator Certification Test (MECT) provides a case in point (Haney et al., 1999). The MECT included an item that asked candidates to transcribe an excerpt of the Federalist papers dictated to them by audiotape. This test question produced widespread debate about the job relatedness of the test (Melnick and Pullin, 2000; Haney et al., 1999).

Tests of subject matter knowledge raise additional questions. For example, should a test of subject matter knowledge for teacher candidates measure the content that candidates will be expected to teach in the K-12 curriculum or should it measure a more ambitious set of understandings achieved at the college level? Should content be tested through multiple-choice items that sometimes demand recall of specific facts or should candidates demonstrate that they can generate information and apply knowledge in situations that demand reasoning and integration of ideas? Different tests currently in use resolve these questions in different ways with different results for who passes and what they know (Darling-Hammond et al., 1999; Shulman, 1987).

Several tests of pedagogical knowledge have been criticized for their inability to evaluate how teaching knowledge would be applied in complex contexts, favoring instead items requiring the recognition of facts within subject areas, knowledge of school law and bureaucratic procedures, and recognition of the “correct” teaching behavior in a situation described in a short scenario of only one or two sentences. Tests that rely on multiple-choice or short-answer responses to brief statements of professional problems may fail to represent the complexity of the decision-making process. The example in Box 3–1 from the Praxis II series illustrates this problem (Educational Testing Service, 1996:15).

It is possible from the question’s wording and an understanding of the test’s expectations that B is the “right” answer, but in reality the answer would likely depend on the curriculum and student context. A thoughtful teacher making real-world decisions would need to know many things not treated in the question. What was the point of the assignment? Was the drawing the central task or a peripheral aspect of a task focused more centrally on writing or science? Did the curriculum goals and the use of class time really allow the teacher to go out

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

BOX 3–1 Sample Praxis II Item

A third-grade student who is attempting to draw a spaceship stops drawing and asks the teacher to draw it. Of the following teacher responses, which would best provide for this student’s continued learning and growth?

  1. Drawing the spaceship for him so that he can continue his picture.

  2. Having the student observe models of spaceships and giving him some pointers about drawing.

  3. Asking the best student artist to provide help.

  4. Having another student draw the spaceship for him.

  5. Assuring the student that the drawing is fine for his purpose.

SOURCE: Educational Testing Service, 1996:15.

and find spaceship models and give a mini art lesson? What are the opportunity costs of this approach? What caused the student’s question? Did he really have difficulty with drawing or did he simply want the teacher’s attention at that moment? Depending on the social and academic goals of the class, the teacher might want to encourage peer tutoring (answer C) rather than devoting time to this herself.

Aside from the fact that intelligent and thoughtful teacher candidates could think of circumstances under which any of the given answers might be the most appropriate, it is not clear what value getting the “right” answer here has in demonstrating important knowledge or skill for teaching. Furthermore, suggesting to teacher candidates that there is one right answer to such a question could be counterproductive rather than supportive of developing a sophisticated practice since it fails to treat the important issues of curriculum goals, context, and student needs. Others have questioned the way current tests separate questions about subject matter from questions about teaching knowledge. This is viewed as problematic by some who see the interrelations between subject matter knowledge and knowledge of learning as critical to teaching. Some tests that have tried to examine subject matter knowledge as it is applied to teaching have had difficulty doing so in a manner viewed as closely related to the act of teaching.

TEST RESULTS SUPPORT DIFFERENT DECISIONS ABOUT CANDIDATES

States vary in the way they use initial licensure tests to evaluate teacher candidates (National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 2000b). The differences reflect the decisions that test information

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

supports. As noted earlier, some states use the tests for admission into teacher education, others as a prerequisite for student teaching or as a condition of graduation, and others for the initial licensure of teachers. Many teacher candidates take multiple tests. Table 3–4 shows the different decisions that states and institutions support with teacher licensure test results.

Initial Licensure Requirements in Seven States

To help illustrate the different ways that licensure tests are used to make decisions about teacher candidates, initial teacher licensure systems in seven states are described below. The cases demonstrate the different ways in which initial licensure tests are used to make decisions about teacher candidates. Two states have no testing requirements for licensure (Idaho and Wyoming); two require only basic skills testing; three require basic skills and subject matter tests for licensure (California, Maryland, and Connecticut). Table 3–5 summarizes the seven systems, showing the initial licensure requirements for teacher candidates in elementary education. More complete descriptions of teacher licensure in these states appear in Appendix D. Some states also have induction programs.

TABLE 3–4 Numbers of States Using Initial Teacher Licensure Tests to Support Varied Decisions About Candidates in 1998–1999a

 

Basic Skills

Subject Matter Knowledge

Pedagogical Knowledge

Subject-Specific Pedagogical Knowledge

Admission to teacher educationb

19

3

0

0

Eligibility for student teaching or degree conferralc

1

3

2

2

Licensure

18

25

26

5

Total

38

31

28

7

aData are from the National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification (2000b), especially Tables G-1 and G-3. In some cases, contradictory information appeared across the guide’s tables; data were reconciled here to the extent possible. In some cases, states reviewed and revised policies after supplying information for the guide. The National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification guide does not document the uses of general knowledge tests. Some data also came from Educational Testing Service (1999d).

bACT, SAT, or state precollege tests are required for admission to teacher education programs in some states or at some institutions in states without entry testing requirements.

cThese data appeared in comment fields in the National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification guide (2000b) and were not systematically gathered. More states may use current tests for these purposes, and states and institutions may use test results for additional purposes.

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

In addition to differences in the use of tests, these case studies suggest some of the multiple criteria that states use to award initial licenses as well as the variations among states in their views of the knowledge and skills required for beginning teaching. Like six other states, Idaho and Wyoming have no testing requirements. Table 3–5 shows that candidates in Connecticut and Nebraska must pass a basic skills test to enter teacher education. In California, candidates take a basic skills test for diagnostic purposes before entering teacher education and must pass the same test before obtaining an initial license. In Alaska and Maryland, teacher candidates must pass a basic skills test before earning a license. Several of the states with basic skills test requirements use Praxis I. Alaska, Nebraska, Maryland, and Connecticut all do so, but they set different passing scores. There is a seven-point difference, for example, in the reading passing scores required in Nebraska and Maryland. Similarly, there is a difference in the math passing scores required by Alaska and Maryland, although both states require teacher candidates to pass Praxis I for initial licensure. California requires teacher candidates to pass the California Basic Educational Skills Test, developed by NES.

Teacher candidates in California, Connecticut, and Maryland also must pass relevant subject matter tests to earn an initial license. As illustrated in Table 3–5, elementary teacher candidates in California must pass the Multiple Subjects Assessment for Teachers, which includes content knowledge and content area exercises and measures knowledge in seven content areas. Connecticut and Maryland both use tests from the Praxis II series to test elementary teacher candidates, with Connecticut requiring candidates to pass Elementary Education: Curriculum, Instruction and Assessment, and Elementary Education Content Area Exercises. Maryland also requires candidates to pass Elementary Education Content Area Exercises (with a different passing score than Connecticut) but uses a different test to assess content knowledge; Maryland uses the Elementary Education: Content Knowledge test.

Although Idaho and Wyoming have no testing requirements for initial teacher licensure, they have other requirements for earning a teaching license. Like the other five states, they require teacher candidates to have completed an approved teacher education program and to have met specific coursework requirements. Idaho asks teacher candidates to demonstrate computer competency before obtaining an initial license. Wyoming requires a course on the U.S. Constitution and on its state constitution. Alaska and California also require U.S. Constitution courses. Several states require teacher candidates to complete special education courses (Nebraska, Maryland, and Connecticut) or a multicultural course prior to earning an initial teacher license (Alaska). Some states also require candidates to fulfill residency requirements and to verify recent teaching experience. Most states require candidates to demonstrate good moral character and/or the absence of a criminal record.

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

TABLE 3–5 Initial Licensure Requirements in Seven Statesa

States

Required Tests

Passing Scores

Decisions About Students Supported by Test Scores

Other Requirements for Initial Licensure

Idahob

None requiredc

 

 

• Graduation from an approved teacher education program

• Meet state coursework requirements

• Demonstrate computer competency

• Good moral character

Wyomingd

and

None requiredc

 

 

• Graduation from an approved teacher education program

• Completeon of a course on the U.S Constitution the Wyoming constitution

Alaskae

Praxis I

Paper/Pencil or Computer-Based Tests (CBT) accepted

reading=175;

writing=174;

math=173

[CBT: reading=322; writing=321; math=318]

Licensure

• Graduation from an approved teacher education program

• Fulfill recency/residency requirement

• Completion of a course in Alaska studies and multicultural/cross-cultural education

• Good moral character

Nebraskaf

Praxis I

Paper/Pencil or Computer-Based Tests (CBT) accepted

reading=170;

writing=171;

math=172

[CBT reading=316; writing=318; math=316]

Entry into teacher education program

• Graduation from an approved teacher education program

• Complete a special education course

• Adhere to Nebraska’s standards of Conduct and Ethics

• Fulfill training requirement in human relations

• Fulfill recency/residency requirement

• No criminal record (no felony convictions or misdemeanor convictions involving abuse, neglect, or sexual misconduct)

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

 

Or

Content Mastery

Exam for Educators

(CMEE)

CMEE=850 (composite score)

 

 

Californiag

California Basic Educational Skills Test (CBEST)

Composite score of 123, with a minimum score of 37 in each section: reading, math, and writing

Entry into teacher education program (most traditional teacher education programs)

• Completion of an approved teacher preparation program

• Completion of a course or an exam on the U.S. Constitution

• Completion of a teaching of reading course

• Completion of a health education course, including nutrition and cardiopulmonary resuscitation

 

Reading Instruction Competence Assessment (RICA) Elementary Teachers: Multiple Subjects Assessment for Teachers (MSAT)

(a) Content Knowledge

(b) Content Areas Exercises

RICA Composite score =311

Content knowledge=156

Content area exercises=155

 

 

Marylandh

Praxis I

Paper/Pencil or Computer-Based Tests (CBT) accepted

reading=177;

writing=173;

math=177

[CBT: reading=325; writing=319; math=322]

Licensure

• Graduation from an approved teacher education program

• Completion of a special education course

• Good moral character

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

States

Required Tests

Passing Scores

Decisions About Students Supported by Test Scores

Other Requirements for Initial Licensure

 

Praxis II for elementary teachers: Elementary Education Content Knowledge

Elementary School: Content Knowledge=136

Licensure

 

 

Elementary Education Content Area Exercises

Content exercises =150

 

 

Connecticuti

Praxis I (CBT only)

reading=324;

writing=318;

math=319

Entry into teacher education programs

• Graduation from an approved teacher education program

• Completion of a special education course

• Completion of a U.S. history course

 

Praxis II (for elementary teachers): Elementary Education: Curriculum, Instruction and Assessment

163

Licensure

 

 

Elementary Education Content Area Exercises

148

 

 

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

aTable includes tests and other requirements for initial licensure only. Connecticut and other states have induction and beginning teacher support programs that have additional assessment requirements.

bHigher education institutions in the state require students to pass a basic skills test before entering teacher education, although this is not a state requirement. Idaho State Department of Education, Certification Department <www.sde.state.id.us/certification/>.

cHigher education institutions in the state require students to pass a basic skills test before entering teacher education, although this is not a state requirement.

dWyoming State Department of Education, Certification Department <www.k12.wy.us/ptsb/index>.

eAlaska State Department of Education, Certification Department <www.eed.state.ak.us/TeacherCertification>.

fNebraska State Department of Education, Certification Department <www.nde.state.ne.us/TCERT/TCERT.html>.

gCalifornia Commission on Teacher Credentialing <www.ctc.ca.gov>.

hMaryland State Department of Education, Certification Department <www.msde.state.md.us/certification/index.htm>.

iConnecticut State Department of Education, Certification Department <www.state.ct.us/sde/dtl/cert/index.htm>.

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

The admission criteria for teacher education programs also can differ at institutions within a state and in some cases even exceed the state’s requirement for initial licensure. For example, Maryland does not require basic skills testing for entry to teacher education, yet some institutions in the state require students to pass Praxis I (at the state’s established passing score for licensure) to enter their programs. In Idaho and Wyoming, where there are no testing requirements, some higher-education institutions require a basic skills test for admission to their teacher education programs; different tests are used by different institutions.

A review of the case studies in Appendix D also reveals some variation in the curriculum of teacher education programs across states. Several states (Idaho, Maryland) have adopted the National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification standards as the basis for the curriculum in their teacher education programs, while other states (California, Nebraska) require that the curriculum of teacher education programs be aligned to standards adopted by the state. Additionally, states vary in the amount of education required to earn an initial teaching license. For example, in California most traditional teacher education programs require completion of a baccalaureate program before admission to a one-year preparatory program. In most states a teaching license can be obtained after completion of an undergraduate program.

In most of the states reviewed by the committee, initial licensure is contingent on institutional recommendations for candidates; this is especially true in states without testing requirements. Yet in some states (California and Maryland) alternative routes to initial licensure have been established that allow individuals to begin teaching (with supervision) without having completed a teacher education program. Candidates are typically granted an emergency or intern teaching certificate for the academic year. The alternative routes can include university internship programs, district internship programs, preinternship programs, and resident teacher programs. In some programs, candidates need to meet state testing requirements before beginning the alternate program and entering the classroom, while in other programs candidates can teach while fulfilling state testing requirements for the initial license.

SETTING PASSING SCORES

Passing scores on licensure tests are important because they help determine access to the profession. States set their own passing scores The passing scores currently required by different states are given in Appendix C (National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 2000b; U.S. Department of Education, 2000a). The standard-setting models used to estimate minimally competent performance are discussed below. Information used by policy makers to set final passing scores also is described.

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

Standard-Setting Methods

Most states set passing scores on teacher licensure tests by asking panels of educators to identify the level of content and teaching knowledge that they judge to be minimally necessary for beginning practice. Several methods for setting passing scores are currently used (Jaeger, 1989; Mills, 1995; Plake, 1998; Horn et al., 2000). The modified Angoff (1971) model is the most widely used method for setting standards on multiple-choice tests. It is used by ETS states. With this method, panelists estimate the proportion of minimally qualified candidates who would be able to answer each test question correctly. The standard is established by summing these proportions across questions. Though this approach is widely used in licensure testing, its methods and the meaningfulness of the standards it produces have been questioned (National Research Council, 1999b). Analysts argue that the estimation task given to panelists is too difficult and confusing, that the results vary significantly by question type, and that the method sometimes yields results that are not believable.

Other methods are used to set standards on open-ended test questions. Estimating the performance of minimally competent candidates on questions for which responses are graded along a continuum (i.e., not just right or wrong), such as on essay questions, is more complex (Educational Testing Service, 1999b). The methods used on these items are not as well researched as those used with multiple-choice items, and there is less agreement in the field about which methods are appropriate.

States using ETS exams either use item-level pass/fail procedures or a benchmark paper selection approach (Educational Testing Service, 1997). For the former, panelists look at the scoring tables for open-ended items and make estimates of the numbers of points minimally competent candidates can be expected to earn on each question. Then they are given input on the actual performance of the candidate population. Experts are given an opportunity to revise their initial estimates. The final averages across panelists are used as the recommended passing scores for open-ended questions.

The benchmark paper selection approach calls for panels of educators to examine a preselected range of candidate responses and judge which work is indicative of the minimally competent candidate; often, panelists select the two papers that best represent this work. Sometimes panelists are given data on the actual performance of candidates after their first selection of papers and are allowed to make revised selections if they wish to after seeing the data. The scores of benchmark papers are averaged across panelists to generate the recommended passing score for the open-ended questions.

In some states the results of these standard-setting studies are then provided to state officials for the final determination of passing scores (Educational Testing Service, 1999b). The panelists recommend passing scores to a policy body, such as the state board of education or the commissioner’s office. That body

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

usually makes the final decision based on the panelists’ recommendations and other information, including the standards of neighboring states, historical passing rates in their own state, eventual passing rates (as distinct from first-time passing rates), possible decision errors for candidates scoring at or near the proposed passing score, the impact of different standards on the passing rates of minority groups, and a desire to raise or lower standards in response to concerns about teacher quality and supply (Horn et al., 2000). These factors are similar to those influencing standards in other fields (Jasanoff, 1998).

The extent to which states follow the standard-setting models described here is not known. It is known that research on standard-setting methods indicates that passing scores may vary as a function of several factors, such as the methods used to set the standard, the particular panelists who participate in the process, and the training and instructions the panelists receive (Kane, 1994; Horn et al., 2000). Indeed, on different occasions even the same panelists may arrive at different standards for the same test (Norcini and Shea, 1992). Various criteria, such as high agreement among different panels, have been suggested for evaluating the quality of standard-setting processes (Kane, 1994; Cizek, 1996). The professional Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing say that technically-sound standard-setting studies are systematic, both in the procedures used and in the way the panelists are chosen (American Educational Research Association et al., 1999). Standard-setting studies all should be well-documented, providing information on the panelists, the methods, and the results.

No data were found in the published literature to document states’ particular practices. In order to better characterize and discuss states’ various standard-setting procedures, the committee fielded a survey on standard-setting methods in teacher licensure as part of its study. State licensing officials were asked about the methods used in their standard-setting studies, about the composition of their standard-setting panels, and about the decision models and data used by policy makers in setting final passing scores. The questions appear below in Box 3–2.

The committee did not get enough responses to its survey to support useful descriptions of states’ practices. Responses to questions about the standard-setting methods that states use and about their panels were low. Responses to questions about the methods and data used by policy bodies in setting final passing scores were particularly low. Little is known about how states arrive at final decisions about passing scores.

It is known, however, that several state policy bodies have recently raised passing scores on their licensure tests (Educational Testing Service, 1998b, 2000). Others have reported setting passing scores on newly adopted tests that exceed those set by other states using the same tests (Archer, 1998; The Ohio Wire, 2/18/98; Education World, 2000). These policies have accompanied teacher quality initiatives and make the standards for passing more stringent.

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

BOX 3–2 Survey of Standard-Setting Methods for Initial Teacher Licensure Examinations

1. There are several methods used to set performance standards, or cut scores, on tests. Which method most closely describes the method used by your state to set a passing standard for your initial teacher licensure examination(s)? If your state uses different methods for different tests, please mark all methods used:

___ Modified Angoff. For each item or exercise, panelists indicate the proportion of minimally competent examinees who would be able to answer the item satisfactorily. The standard is established by summing these proportions across all items or exercises.

___ Bookmarking. This method is used for both multiple-choice and constructed-response tests. Test items are arranged in descending order of difficulty and panelists place “bookmarks” immediately after the last item that all minimally competent examinees should be expected to know.

___ Judgmental policy capturing. This method is used for tests such as performance assessments and test batteries that contain items or exercises that have a score scale of three or more points (rather than simply right/wrong). Panelists review profiles of scores and provide judgments about the performance level of each examinee. Statistical analysis is used to yield a recommended standard for each panelist.

___ Nedelsky’s method. This method is used with multiple-choice tests. For each item, panelists eliminate all response options that the minimally competent examinee should be able to eliminate and records the reciprocal of the remaining number of responses. (If a panelist eliminates two out of five response options, three options would remain and the panelist would record “1/3”).

___ Ebel’s method. This method is used with multiple-choice tests. Test items are classified in a two-dimensional grid of item difficulty and item relevance. Each cell of the grid indicates how many items are at a given level of difficulty and relevance. Panelists indicate the proportion of items in each cell that a minimally competent examinee should answer correctly.

___ Contrasting groups. Panelists engage in discussion and agree on what constitutes minimally acceptable performance. They then identify candidates who, in their judgment, are clearly above the standard and those who are clearly below the standard. The examination is administered to both groups of examinees, score distributions are plotted for the two groups, and the performance standard is set at the point of intersection between the two score distributions.

___ Other (please describe)

Composition of the Standard-Setting Panel

2. How many panelists typically serve on your state’s standard-setting panel? ___

3. What is the composition of your state’s standard-setting panel? Please indicate the approximate percentage of your state’s standard-setting panel represented by each type of person listed below.

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

___ Teachers

___ Principals

___ District-level curriculum specialists

___ University-level content experts

___ Teacher educators

___ Professional association representatives (e.g., National Council of Teachers of English, National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, International Reading Association, etc.)

___ Business representatives

___ Parents

___ Other (please describe)

Review of the Recommended Passing Standard

4. After the standard-setting panel recommends a passing standard, what happens next?

___ Nothing. The panel’s recommended standard is adopted as the final standard.

___ An automatic adjustment based on the standard error is applied to the panel’s recommended standard.

___ The panel’s recommended standard is reviewed by a technical advisory committee.

___ The panel’s recommended standard is reviewed by the state department of education.

___ The panel’s recommended standard is reviewed by a professional standards board.

___ Other (please describe)

Changes to the Recommended Standard

5. If you indicated that the technical advisory committee, state department, professional standards board, or other body has the authority to modify the standard-setting panel’s recommended standard, which of the following best describes the experience in your state?

___ The standard has not been changed.

___ The standard has been adjusted upward based on the standard error.

___ The standard has been adjusted upward based on other considerations.

___ The standard has been adjusted downward based on the standard error.

___ The standard has been adjusted downward based on other considerations.

Current Standards

Current passing scores on several widely used Praxis tests appear in Table 3–6 . For each test, the lowest passing score currently in use by a state is shown in the first data column. The percentiles associated with these passing scores in the national candidate population are given in the second data column. Column

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

TABLE 3–6 Range of Passing Scores for States Using Selected Praxis Tests, 1998–1999

Praxis Testa

Lowest Passing Score

National Percentile Equivalent for Lowest Score

Highest Passing Score

National Percentile Equivalent for Highest Score

PPST: Reading

169

10

178

43

PLT: K-6

152

6

169

34

Middle School English/Language Arts

145

6

164

29

Mathematics: Proofs, Models & Problems, Part 1

139

22

154

46

Biology Content Knowledge, Part 1

139

4

161

32

Biology Content Knowledge, Part 2

135

25

156

68

aThese tests were selected because currently they are widely used; they represent a range of test types, content, item types, and levels of schooling; and they are not currently scheduled for retirement. Scores range from 100 to 200 on these tests.

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

three shows the most stringent passing scores set by states for each of the tests, and data column four shows the associated national percentiles.

Table 3–6 shows substantial variation among states in the passing scores set for teacher examinations. For example, state passing scores on the Principles of Learning and Teaching (PLT): K-6 test range from 152 to 169 on a scale of 100 to 200. A score of 152 on the test places candidates at about the 6th percentile on the national distribution; a score of 169 places examinees at about the 34th percentile. That is, in one state, teacher candidates can pass the PLT testing requirement for licensure by scoring slightly above the 6th percentile of candidates in the national distribution. In another, applicants for licensure must score above the bottom third of the national candidate population on the PLT to satisfy the licensing requirement.

Variations in passing scores for states using the same tests show the states’ differing minimum requirements for entry-level teaching. It is not known whether differences in passing scores on current tests reflect methodological differences in the standard-setting process, differences in the judgments of state panels about the minimum requirements for beginning teachers, or policy makers’ adjustments to panelists’ recommendations. Also not known is the extent to which differences in states’ teaching and learning standards or differing concerns about decision errors, teacher quality, or teacher supply influence variability across states.

The large variation in passing standards that occurs among states that use the same test is not a phenomenon unique to teacher tests. For example, the differences in passing standards among states are larger for the law bar exam than they are on Praxis I, and these differences occur even though virtually every state claims that its bar exam is testing for minimum or basic competency to practice law (Wightman, 1998). States differ in the specific bar exam test score level of proficiency that they believe corresponds to this standard. The same is true in teaching.

CONCLUSION

The primary goal of licensing beginning teachers is to ensure that all students have competent teachers. Teacher licensing is under the authority of individual states. There are 51 unique licensure systems in the United States, with some commonalties however. As in other professions, teacher licensing relies on more than tests to judge whether candidates have the knowledge, skills, abilities, and dispositions to practice responsibly. Teacher candidates generally must fulfill education requirements, successfully complete practice teaching, and receive the recommendations of their preparing institutions. These requirements help ensure that a broad range of competencies are considered in licensing new teachers.

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×

Initial teacher licensure tests are designed to identify candidates with some of the knowledge and skills needed for minimally competent beginning practice. The tests currently used measure basic skills, general knowledge, content knowledge, and knowledge of teaching strategies. The tests are designed to separate teacher candidates who are minimally competent in the areas assessed from those who are not. Initial teacher licensure tests do not provide information to distinguish moderately qualified from highly qualified teacher candidates nor are they designed to test all of the competencies relevant to beginning practice.

States decide whether to use tests and what tests to use to license beginning teachers. Each of the 42 states that requires tests uses a different combination of them, uses them at different points in the candidate’s education, and sets its own passing scores on them. Several hundred different initial licensure tests are in current use. Two test developers, Educational Testing Service (ETS) and National Evaluation Systems (NES), develop the vast majority of these tests.

States set passing scores on licensure tests based on judgments about the levels of knowledge and skill needed for minimally competent beginning teaching in their state. Although many states rely on commonly used standard-setting procedures, there is little documentation about these procedures and how states actually use this information in arriving at a final decision about passing scores. In attempts to raise teacher standards, some states have recently raised their passing scores on particular tests. Some report having set passing scores that are higher than those of other states.

The committee draws the following conclusions from these findings:

  • Because a teacher’s work is complex, even a set of well-designed tests cannot measure all of the prerequisites of competent beginning teaching. Current paper-and-pencil tests provide only some of the information needed to evaluate the competencies of teacher candidates.

  • States have gradually adopted tests for teacher licensure, and test developers have made various tests available over time. Therefore, it is not surprising that states have adopted a variety of tests to license beginning teachers.

  • States differ in how high they set passing scores. The committee does not know the extent to which this variation in passing scores reflects differences among states in standard-setting methods; state teaching and learning standards; the characteristics of applicant pools; or different concerns about measurement error, teacher quality, or teacher supply.

  • Appropriate, technically sound tests are difficult and costly to develop. Collaborations among states participating in the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium and other states, professional associations, and test developers bring the intellectual and financial resources of several organizations to this difficult work.

Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
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Suggested Citation:"3. Testing and Licensing Beginning Teachers." National Research Council. 2001. Testing Teacher Candidates: The Role of Licensure Tests in Improving Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10090.
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Americans have adopted a reform agenda for their schools that calls for excellence in teaching and learning. School officials across the nation are hard at work targeting instruction at high levels for all students. Gaps remain, however, between the nation's educational aspirations and student achievement. To address these gaps, policy makers have recently focused on the qualifications of teachers and the preparation of teacher candidates.

This book examines the appropriateness and technical quality of teacher licensure tests currently in use, evaluates the merits of using licensure test results to hold states and institutions of higher education accountable for the quality of teacher preparation and licensure, and suggests alternatives for developing and assessing beginning teacher competence.

Teaching is a complex activity. Definitions of quality teaching have changed and will continue to change over time as society's values change. This book provides policy makers, teacher testers, and teacher educators with advice on how to use current tests to assess teacher candidates and evaluate teacher preparation, ensuring that America's youth are being taught by the most qualified candidates.

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