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Electronic Travel Aids: New Directions for Research (1986)
National Research Council (NRC)

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REFERENCES Airasian, P.W. 1973 Evaluation of the binaural sensory aid. AFB Research Bulletin July(26~:51-71. Allen, D. 1977 Orientation and mobility for persons with low vision. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 71~11:13-15. Allen, W., A. Griffith, and C. Shaw 1977 Orientation and Mobility: Behavioral Objectives for Teaching Older Adventitiously Blind Individuals. New York: Center for Independent Living. Allen, W., A. Griffith, and M. Yablonski 1976 Realistic orientation and mobility for the elderly blind person 53IL1959L5~e tew~Iet·~ (Winter). American Medical Association 1984 Guides to Permanent Impairments. Chicago: AMA. Anderson, J.R. 1978 Arguments concerning representations for mental imagery. Psychological Review 85:249-277. Appleyard, D. 1970 Styles and methods of structuring a city. Behavior 2:100-117. Environment and 1976 Armstrong, J.D. 1973 Summary Report of the Research Programme on Electronic Mobility Aids. Department of Psychology, University of Nottingham, England. Planning a Pluralistic City. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. 1975 Evaluation of man-machine systems in the mobility of the visually handicapped. In R.M. Pickett, and T.J. Triggs, eds., Human Factors in Health Care. Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath. 1977 Bach-y-Rita, P. Mooz~ty alas and tne Limitations of technological solutions. New Beacon 61:113-115. 1972 Brain Mechanisms in Sensory Substitution. New York: Academic l Press. Bach-y-Rita, P., and B. Hughes 1985 Tactile vision substitution: Some instrumentation and perceptual considerations. In D. Warren and E. Strelow, eds., 81

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82 Electronic Spatial Sensing for the Blind. The Hague: Martinus-Nijhoff. Bach-y-Rita, P., C.C. Collins, F. Saunders, B. White, and L. Scadden 1969 Vision substitution by tactile image projection. Nature 221:963-964. Bailey, I.L. 1984 Low Vision: Principles and Practice. Berkeley: University of California, School of Optometry. Bailey, I.L., A.T. Hall, L.S. Kekelis, T.W. Raasch, G.D. Goodrich, and O. Morrissette 1984 Telescope use by low vision patients: A survey. Amer ican Journal of Optometry and Physiological optics 61~10~:79P. Baird, A.S. 1977 Electronic aids: Can they help blind children? Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 71~3~:97-102. Barth, J.L. 1979 The Effects of Preview Constraint on Perceptual Motor Behavior and Stress Level in a Mobility Task. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Louisville. Barth, J.L., and E. Foulke 1979 Preview: A neglected variable in orientation and mobility. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 73:41-48. Beck, R., and D. Wood 1976 Comparative developmental analyses of individual and aggregated cognitive maps of London. In G.T. Moore and R.G. Golledge, eds., Environmental Knowing: Theories, Research, and Methods. Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson, & Ross. Berson, E., L. Mehafley, and A.R. Rabin 1973 A night vision device as an aid for patients with retinitis pigmentosa. Archives of Ophthalmology 90:112-116. Blasch, B.B., and L.E. Apple 1975 Workshop in Low Vision Mobility. Washington, D.C.: Veterans Administration, Department of Medicine and Surgery. Bledsoe, C.W. 1963 For parents looking ahead to future mobility needs of their children. International Journal for the Education of the Blind 13:13-15. Brabyn, J.A. 1978 Laboratory Studies of Aided Blind Mobility. Ph.D. thesis. University of Canterbury. 1982 Mobility aids for the blind. Engineering in Medicine and Biology December:36-38. 1985 A review of mobility aids and means of assessment. In D.A. Warren and E.R. Strelow, eds., Electronics Spatia1 Sensinu for the Blind: Contributions from Perception, RehabilitatiOn, and Computer Vision. The Hague: Martinus-Niskoff. Brabyn, J.A., and E.R. Strelow 1977 Computer-analyzed measure of characteristics of human locomotion and mobility. Behaviour Research Methods and Instrumentation 9:456-462.

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83 Brabyn, J.A., C.C. Collins, and L. Ray 1981 A wide bandwidth CTFM scanning sonar with tactile and acoustic display for persons with impaired vision (blind, diver, etch. Proceedings: Ultrasonic Interational Conference (July). Brighton, England. Brambring/ M. 1985 Perceptual and Cognitive Processes of Blind Pedestrians. Presentation to Symposium on Spatial Cognition, University of Louisville. Brewer, W.F., and J.C. Treyens 1981 Role of schemata in memory for places. Cognitive Psychology 13:207-230. Burton, R. 1976 A guide for training clients to utilize low vision distance aids for mobility. Low Vision Abstracts 2~4~:10. Cahill, J., and T. Woolsey 1976 Summary and Critique of Available Data on Prevalence and Economic and Social Costs of Visual Disorders and Abilities. Rockville, Md.: Westat, Inc. Campbell, D.W., and G. Jansson 1979 Localization of Objects with the Aid of a Laser Cane for the Blind: The Effect of Search Method in a Stationary Situation. Report #262. University of Uppsala, Department of Psychology. Carney, J. 1970 An orientation and mobility program for the geriatric blinded adult. New Outlook for the Blind 64:286-287. Clarke, N.V., G.F. Pick, and J.P. Wilson 1975 Obstacle detection with and without the aid of directional noise generator. American Foundation for the Blind Research Bulletin 29:67-85.- Colenbrander, A., and B. Spivey 1976 Classification of visual performance. New Outlook for the Blind 70(4):156. Collins, 1967 Tactile image projection. Information Display 8:290. Collins, C.C., and J.M.J. Madey 1974 Tactile sensory replacement. Biomedical Symposium 15-26. Collins, C.C., and M.F. Deering 1984 A microcomouter-based bl Abstract. National Tempos ium Proceedings: San Dieqo - _ind mobility aid. Proceedings: IEEE EMB Conference. Washington, D.C.: IEEE. Corballis, M.C. 1982 Mental rotation: Anatomy of a paradigm. In M. Potegal, ea., Spatial Abilities: Development and Physiological Bases. New York: Academic Press. Cory, D., and J. Prince 1976 A report on the incorporation of low vision aids into the orientation and mobility program of low vision clients. Low Vision Abstracts 2~4~:8.

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84 Crossman, E.R. 1960 The information capacity of the human motor system in pursuit tracking. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 12:1-16. Darling, N.C., G.L. Goodrich, and J.K. Wiley 1977 A follow-up study of electronic travel aid users. Bulletin of Prosthetics Research 10~271:82-91. Deering, M.F. 1985 Computer vision requirements in blind mobility aids. In D.H. Warren and E.R. Strelow, eds., Electronic Spatial Sensinq for the Blind: Contributions from Perception, Rehabilitation and l Computer Vision. The Haque: Martinus-Nijhoff. Dodds, A.G. 1985 Evaluating mobility aids: An evolving methodology. In D.H. Warren and E.R. Strelow, eds., Electronic Sensing for the Blind: Contributions From Perception, Rehabilitation and Computer Vision. The Hague: Martinus-Nijhoff. Dodds, A.G., D.C. Carter, and C.I. Howarth 1983 Improving objective measures of mobility. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 77~9) (November):438-442. Easton, R.D. 1985 Sonar sensor aid and blind children's spatial cognition. In D. Warren and E.R. Strelow, eds., Electronic Spatial Sensing for the Blind. The Hague: Martinus-Nijhoff. Easton, R.D., and R.M. Jackson 1983 Pilot test of the Trisensor, a new generation of sonar sensory aid. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 77 :446-448 . Evans, G.W., D. Marrero, and P. Butler 1981 Environmental learning and cognitive mapping. Environment and Behavior 13:83-104. Farmer, L.W. 1975 Travel in adverse weather using electronic mobility guidance devices. New Outlook for the Blind 69~10~:433-439,451. 1978 Mobility devices. Bulletin of Prosthetics Research (Fall):47-118. Fasman, K.H., S. Hsiao, C. Connor, J.R. Phillips, and K.O. Johnson 1985 Roughness perception: A psychophysical and neurophysical investigation. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts Vol. 11, Part 2. Ferrell, K.A. 1979 Orientation and mobility for preschool children: What we have and what we need. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 7 3 ~ 4~: 147-150. Fletcher, J. 1981 Spatial representation in blind children: 3. Effects of individual differences. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 75:46-49. Fluharty, W., J. McHugh, M. McHugh, P. Willits, and J. Wood 1976 Anxiety in the teacher-student relationship as applicable to orientation and mobility instruction. New Outlook for the Blind 70: 153-156.

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85 Foulke, E. 1971 The perceptual basis for mobility. American Foundation for the Blind Research Bulletin 23:1-8. 1982a Reading Braille. In W. Schiff and E. Foulke, eds., Tactile Perception: A Source Book. New York: Cambridge University Press. 1982b Perception, cognition and the mobility of blind pedestrians. In M. Potegal, ea., Spatial Abilities: Development and Physiological Foundations. New York: Academic Press. 1983 Spatial ability and the limitations of perceptual systems. In H.L. Pick, Jr., and L.P. Acredolo, eds., Spatial Orientation: Theory, Research, and Application. New York: Plenum. Fraiberg, S. 1977 Insights from the Blind. New York: Basic Books. Franks, F.L., and C.Y. Nolan 1970 Development of geographical concepts in blind children. Education of the Visually Handicapped 2:1-8. 1971 Measuring geographical concept attainment in visually handicapped students. Education of the Visually Handicapped 3:11-17. Genensky, S.M., S.H. Berry, T.H. Bikson, and T.K. Bikson 1979 Visual Environmental Adaptation Problems of the Partially Sighted: Final Report. Santa Monica, Calif.: Center for the Partially Sighted. Geruschat, D.R. 1980 Orientation and mobility for the low functioning deaf-blind child. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 74~1~:29-33. Gibson, J.J. 1979 The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. Gillman, A.E., and E.P. Simon 1980 Mobility follow-up survey: Who travels and where do they go? Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 74~81:302-304. Goldie, D. 1977 Use of the C-5 Laser Cane by school age children. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 71(8):346-349. Hapeman, 1967 Developmental concepts of blind children between the ages of 3 and 6 as they relate to orientation and mobility. International Journal for the Education of the Blind 17:41-48. Harley, R.K., and J.B. Merbler 1980 Development of an orientation and mobility program for multiply impaired low vision children. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 74~1~:9-14. Hershman, R.L., and W.A. Hillix 1965 Data processing in typing: Typing rate as a function of kind of material and amount exposed. Human Factors 7:483-492. Heyes, A.D. 1982 A n Polaroid. ultrasonic travel aid for the blind? Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 76~51(May):199-201.

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86 1984 The sonic pathfinder: A new electronic travel aid. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 78~5~(May):200-202. Heyes, A.D., J.D. Armstrong, and P.R. Williams 1976 A comparison of heart rates during blind mobility and car driving. Ergonomics 19:489-497. Hill, E.W., and P.T. Ponder 1976 Orientation and Mobility Techniques. New York: American Foundation for the Blind. Hirtle, S.C., and J. Jonides 1985 Evidence of hierarchies in cognitive maps. Memory and Cognition 13:208-218. Hollyfield, R.L. 1981 The spatial cognition of blind pedestrians. International Journal of Rehabilitation Research 4:399. . . Hoover J R.E. 1950 The cane as a travel aid. Pp. 353-365 in N.P.A. Zahl, ea., Blindness. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. Hoover, R. 1968 The Valley Forge story. In I.S. Diamond, ea., Blindness, 1968. Washington, D.C.: American Association of Workers for the Blind. Hubbard, J. 1969 A program of orientation and mobility for the aged blind in the community. New Outlook for the Blind 63:211-213. Hughes, R.K. 1967 Orientation and mobility for the partially sighted. International Journal for the Education of the Blind (May):119-120. Iniui, T., and M. Kensaku 1984 The effect of changes in visible area on facial recognition. Perception 13:49-56. Johnson, K.O. 1983 Neural mechanisms of factual form and texture discrimination. Federation Proceedings 42:2542-2547. Kay, L. 1964 An ultrasonic sensing prove as a mobility aid for the blind. Ultrasonics April-June. 1966 Ultrasonic spectacles for the blind. In R. Dufton, ea., Sensory Devices for the Blind. London: St. DunstanS. 1974 Towards a mobility theory for the blind. AFB Monograph. 1982 Spatial Perception Through an Acoustic Sensor Christchurch, . New Zealand: University of Canterbury. Kelley, G.W. 1981 Sonic orientation and navigational aid (SONA). Bulletin of Prosthetics Research 1 {Spring):189. Kirchner, C. 1985 Data on Blindness and Visual Impairment in the U.S. New York: American Foundation for the Blind. Legge, G.E., G.S. Rubin, D.G. Pelli, and M.M. Schleske 1985 Psychophysics of reading II: Low vision. Vision Research 25:253-266.

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87 Leonard, J.A. 1968 Towards a unified approach to the mobility of blind people. AFB Research Bulletin (18~:1-21. 1972 Studies in blind mobility. Applied Ergonomics 3:37-46. Leonard, J.A., and A. Carpenter 1973 The evaluation of blind mobility. AFB Research Bulletin 26:73-76. Levin, H., and E.L. Kaplan 1969 Listening, reading, and grammatical structure. In D.L. Horton and J.J. Jenkins, eds., Perception of Language: Part I. Proceedings of a Symposium of the Learning Research and Development Center. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh. Lockman, J.J., J.J. Rieser, and H.L. Pick, Jr. 1981 Assessing blind travelers' knowledge of spatial layout. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 75~8~:321-326. Loughborough, W. 1979 Talking lights. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 73~6~:243. Lynch, K. 1960 The Image of the City. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Malamazian, J., and L. Farmer 1979 Clinical application study of mobility aids for the blind. Bulletin of Prosthetics Research (Fall):421-429. Marr, D. 1982 Vision. San Francisco: Freeman. Marron, J.A., and I.A. Bailey 1982 Visual factors and orientation mobility performance. American Journal of Optometry and Physiological Optics 59:413-426. Mar ran, J.A., and I.L. Bailey 1982 Visual factors and orientation--mobility performance. American Journal of Optometry and Physiological Optic S 59(5):413-426. Maure, D.R., C.M. Mellor, and M. Uslan 1979 AFB's computerized travel aid: Experimenters wanted. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 73~9~:380-381. McLean, J.R., and E.R. Hoffman 1973 The effects of restricted preview on driver steering control and performance. Human Factors 15:421-430. McReynolds, J., and P. worchel 1954 Geographic orientation in the blind. Journal of General Psychology 51:221-236. Mills, R.J., and D.R. Adamshick 1969 The effectiveness of structured sensory training experiences prior to formal orientation and mobility instruction. Education of the Visually Handicapped 1~1~:14-22. Morrissette, D.L., and G.L. Goodrich 1983 The night vision aid for legally blind people with night blindness: An evaluation. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 77~2~(February):67-70.

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88 Morrissette, D.C., G.L. Goodrich, and J.J. Hennessey 1981 A follow-up study of the Mowat Sensor's applications, frequency of use, and maintenance reliability. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 75~6~:244-247. Mountcast~e, V.B., R.H. LaMotte, and G. Carli 1972 Detection thresholds for stimuli in humans and monkeys: Comparison with threshold events in mechanoreceptive afferent nerve fibers innervating the monkey's head. Journal of Neurophysiology 35:122-136. Mountcastle, V.B., W.H. Talbott, and A.H. Kornhuber 1966 The neural transformation of mechanical stimuli delivered to the monkey's hand. Pp. 325-344 in A. de Reuck and J. Knight, eds., Touch, Heat, and Pain. Boston: Little, Brown. Murphy, T.J. 1965 Motivation for mobility. New Outlook for the Blind 59:178-180. National Society to Prevent Blindness 1980 Visual Problems in the United States. New York: National Society to Prevent Blindness. Nye, P.W., ed. 1973 A Preliminary Evaluation of the Bionic Instruments-Veterans Administration C-4 Laser Cane. National Research Council. Washington, D.C.: National Academy-of Sciences. ., and J.A. Leonard The use of heart rate as an index of stress in blind pedestrians. Ergonomics 14:189-204. Pelli, E., and D. Pelli 1984 Image enhancement for the visually impaired. optical Enhancement 23:47-51. Pelli, D., and J.A. Serio 1984 Supplement. Investigative Ophthamology and Visual Science - 25:72. Phillips, J.R., and K.O. Johnson 1981 Tactile spatial resolution II: Neural representation of edges and gratings in monkey afferents. Journal of NeurophysiologY 46:1192-1203. Poulton, E.C. 1952 The basis of perceptual anticipation in tracking. British Journal of Psychology 43:295-302. 1954 Eye-hand span in simple serial tasks. Journal of Ex~erimental Psychology 47:403-410. 1957 On prediction in skilled movements. Psychological Bulletin 54:467-478. Pressey, N. 1977 Mowat sensor. Focus 3:35-39. Primrose, M. 1981 Orientation and mobility training for deaf-blind adults. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 75~3~:147-149. Pylyshyn, Z.W. 1973 What the mind's eye tells the mind's brain: A critique of mental imagery. Psychological Bulletin 80:1-24. Peake, P 1971

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89 Quillman, R.D. 1977 Utilization of telescopic lenses in low vision mobility. Long Cane News 10~2~:3-9. Raymond, J. and H.W Leibowitz 1985 Viewing distance and the sustained detection of high spatial frequency gratings. Vision Research 25:1655-1659. Rieser, J.J., J.J. Lockman, and H.L. Pick, Jr. 1980 The role of visual experience in knowledge of spatial layout. Perception and Psychophysics 28:185-190 . Russell, L. 1965 Travel path sounder. In Proceedings: Rotterdam Mobility Research Conference. New York: American Foundation for the Blind. Russo, J.C. 1985 Assessing the Spatial Knowledge of Blind Pedestrians. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Louisville. Schulz, P.J. 1972 Psychological factors in orientation and mobility training. New Outlook for the Blind 66:129-134. 1977 Mobility and Independence for the Visually Handicapped: Psychological Dynamics of the Teaching Process. Los Angeles: Muse Ed Company. Shagen, J. 1970 Kinaesthetic Memory, Comparing Blind and Sighted Subjects. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, George Washington University. Shaw, J.A. 1970 Mobility and the aging process. The New Beacon 54:315-317. Shingledecker, C.A. 1983 Measuring the mental effort of blind mobility. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 77~7~. Shingledecker, C.A., and E. Foulke 1978 A human factor approach to the assessment of the mobility of blind pedestrians. Human Factors 20:273-286. Simon, E.P. 1984 A report on electronic travel aid users: Three to five years later. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness (78~:478-480. Snyder, J.C. r M.A. Clements, C.M. Reed, N.I. Durbach, and L.D. Braida 1982 Tactile communication of speech. I: Comparison of Tadoma and a frequency-amplitude spectral display in a consonant discrimination task. Journal of the Acoustical society of America 71:1249-1254. Spungin, S.J. 1985 Corridors of insensitivity: Technology and blind persons. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 79~3~:113-116. Strelow, E.R. 1985 What is needed for a theory of mobility: Direct perception and cognitive maps--Some lessons from the blind. Psychological Review 92:226-248.

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90 Strelow, E.R., and D.H. Warren 1985 Sensory substitution in blind children and neonates. In D.H. Warren and E.R. Strelow, eds., Electronic Spatial Sensing for the Blind. The Hague: Martinus-Nijhoff . Tanaka, I., T. Murakami, and O. Shimizu 1981 Heart rate as an objective measure of stress in mobility. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 75~2~:55-60. . Tou, J.T., and M. Adjouadi 198S - Warren, 1984a Computer vision for the blind. In D.H. Warren and E.R. Strelow, eds., Attic Spatial Sensing for the Blind. The Hague: Martinus-Nijhoff. D.H., and E.R. Strelow Dimensions with a visual sensory aid: Molyneaux revisited. Perception 13:331-350. 1984b Learning spatial dimensions with a visual sensory aid: Molyneux revisited. Perception 13:331-350. Warren, D.H., and E.R. Strelow, eds. 1985 Electronic Spatial Sensing for the Blind: Contributions from Perception, Rehabilitation, and Computer Vision. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. Warren, D.H., and J.A. Kocon 1974 Factors in the successful mobility of the blind: A review. American Foundation for the Blind Research Bulletin 28:191-218. Warren, D.H., L.J. Anooshian, and J.B. Bollinger 1973 Early vs. late blindness: The role of early vision in spatial behavior. American Foundation for the Blind Research Bulletin 26:151-170. Weisberger, R., and A. Hall 1985 Environmental, Sensing Skills and Behaviors. Palo Alto. Calif.: American Institute for Research. Welsh, R.L. 1972 Cognitive and psychosocial aspects of mobility training. Blindness:99-111. 1981 Promoting adult independence through orientation and mobility. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness Worchel, P. 1951 Space perception and orientation in the blind. Psychological Monographs 65:1-28. Wycherley, R.J., and B.H. Nicklin 1970 The heart rate of blind and sighted pedestrians on a town route. Ergonomics 13:181-192.

Representative terms from entire chapter:

low vision