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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

2
Context of Advanced Study

There are approximately 36,0001 public and private high schools in the United States (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2001a). As a result of the U.S. tradition of local control of education, these schools vary widely along many dimensions, such as size, availability of facilities and resources, student and teacher characteristics, staffing levels, teacher preparation and qualifications, and stated goals and missions. Public, private, and parochial schools set their own educational standards2 and are accountable to different oversight agencies. They implement widely varying curricula and administer different assessments, which are selected by their districts’ or states’ boards of education or boards of trustees. Local school boards organize their schools and implement policies related to ability grouping, course offerings, and staffing patterns in ways that reflect their differing missions, educational goals, and local political concerns and priorities. Thus, “high school” in the United States must be understood as a diverse array of institutions in which students, even those attending the same school, may have vastly differing opportunities and experiences, depending on their course of study.

Students’ school experiences and academic achievement are most affected by the overall culture and atmosphere of their school, the organization and content of their school curriculum, and the training and qualifications of the teaching force they encounter during the course of their educational career (NCES, 2000b). It has been consistently demonstrated that disparities among schools along these dimensions have a profound effect on students’ abilities to prepare for and fully participate in advanced study opportunities.

1  

This figure excludes special education, alternative, and other schools not classified by grade span.

2  

Public school standards are usually established by local boards of education, which follow polices established by state boards of education.

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

Advanced study does not exist in isolation. As advanced study programs are currently structured in the United States, they have wide-ranging effects on the curricula, teachers, and students in the schools where they are offered. In turn, they are affected by political, educational, and social contexts that shape their implementation in schools. This chapter reviews the policy context of advanced study (including its financing), its educational context (including student preparation for advanced study in both middle and high school and teacher preparation), disparities in opportunities for different groups of students to pursue and succeed in advanced study, and the connections between advanced study and higher education.

POLICY CONTEXT

Immediately following the release of A Nation at Risk by the National Commission on Excellence in Education (1983), intense public interest was generated in improving the achievement of U.S. secondary school students by reforming and restructuring U.S. high schools. Although most states and school districts have adopted the commission’s recommendations for strengthening state and local high school graduation requirements,3 U.S. high schools still face intense criticism from those involved in higher education, policymakers, education reformers, and the public for continuing to graduate significant numbers of students who are neither well prepared for college nor able to enter the workplace with the technological and problem-solving skills demanded by the new economy (American Federation of Teachers [AFT], 1999; Kaufman, Bradby, and Teitelbaum, 2000; National Association of Secondary School Principals [NASSP], 1996; National Commission on the High School Senior Year [NCHSSY], 2001a, 2001b; Powell, Farrar, and Cohen, 1985; Sizer, 1992).

High schools may not be failing to the degree that some of these reports indicate (see for example, Berliner and Biddle, 1996). However, the Mathematics and Science Report Cards of the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)4 and data gathered from state education testing and the SAT I and II suggest that the schools are doing a less than stellar job in challenging all students to achieve at the same high levels.

In 1999 Richard Riley, then U.S. Secretary of Education, declared it was time to change U.S. high schools so they would be better aligned with the

3  

The Five New Basics recommended by the commission included 4 years of English; 3 years of mathematics; 3 years of science; 3 years of social studies; one-half year of computer science; and, for the college-bound, 2 years of foreign language.

4  

Available at http://www.nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/ (February 10, 2002).

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

demands and needs of modern times.5 The needed changes, according to Riley, must include high expectations for all students, rigorous curricula, support for students who need help in meeting higher standards, an educational structure that is flexible in meeting students’ needs, and well-prepared teachers who have adequate opportunities for professional development and the time to work together in achieving student and school goals. In light of all of the recent criticism leveled at high schools, many policymakers and educators have turned to AP6 and IB to improve their academic programs (see for example, The National Education Goals Panel, Promising Practices, Goal 3,7 and legislation in Virginia8 and California9). Rod Paige, current U.S. Secretary of Education, has continued the Department of Education’s support for AP in 2001–2002 by providing $6.5 million in grants to 18 states, the District of Columbia, and Guam so that thousands of students from low-income backgrounds can prepare for and take AP examinations.10 Several states also have adopted policies to support IB that are similar to those for AP.

In the view of many educators and policymakers, AP and IB complement the nation’s decentralized system of educational governance and the different approaches that states and districts have adopted with regard to academic standards, curriculum, and instruction. That is, AP and IB are national programs that are controlled locally. Both programs provide a basic structure, quality standards, and nationally recognized external measures of student achievement, but states and individual schools can decide which students are able to take the courses, who is qualified to teach them, and how the courses will be taught.

At least 26 states provide legislative support to AP programs in their schools by subsidizing examination fees or costs for teacher education, pro-

5  

Riley, 1999, available at www.ed.gov/Speeches/09-1999/990915.html (February 11, 2002).

6  

Secretary Riley called on all schools to add one AP course to their curricular offerings for each of the next 10 years (ending in 2010) so that every student in every high school in the United States could have access to at least ten AP courses. The Federal AP Incentive Act (1999) provided funds to help low-income students pay the fees for AP examinations.

7  

The National Education Goals Panel uses an increase in the number of AP examinations receiving a grade of 3 or higher per 1,000 students in grades 11 and 12 to recognize schools with promising practices (http://www.negp.gov [February 11, 2002]).

8  

Virginia’s Board of Education established an accountability system that requires every school division in the Commonwealth to offer at least two AP courses (www.pen.k12.va.us [February 11, 2002]).

9  

Spending $20.5 million to make at least one AP class available for every high school student by the fall of 2000, although at first this might mean the students’ going to a different location or watching the class on closed-circuit television (http://www.cisco.com/warp/public/779/govtaffs/people/issues/educational_reform.html [November 26, 2001]).

10  

Additional information about this support is available at http://www.ed.gov/PressReleases/10-2001/10012001b.html (October 26, 2001).

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

viding funds for materials and supplies for AP courses, offering incentives for initiating AP courses or hosting training sessions, encouraging or mandating publicly funded colleges and universities to accept AP credit, and/or supporting professional development opportunities. State policies related to IB are less well established.11

For many years, policymakers have focused on making advanced-level courses available to all students who are interested in participating. That goal has not yet been accomplished, but educators and policymakers have increased their efforts to provide many more students with equitable opportunities to learn and succeed in these courses. As discussed later in this chapter, the success of these efforts will depend on whether educational leaders assign top priority to increasing the number of underrepresented minority students who both are enrolled in advanced study and achieve at high levels.

The Role and Influence of Standards and Accountability

Reform is an ongoing and recurring theme in American education. The latest wave of educational reform, highlighted by calls for standards and accountability, began a little more than a decade ago. These efforts, which have garnered the broad-based support of education policymakers, business leaders, many educators, and the public, rest on three basic tenets: (1) all students should be held to the same high standards for learning; (2) high standards should serve as a basis for systems of assessment that can be used for the purpose of accountability; and (3) consequences should be imposed on schools, teachers, and sometimes students when students do not meet the established standards (Linn, 2000).

In the early 1990s, attempts at developing national standards for several subject areas met with varying degrees of success. The American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) published Benchmarks for Science Literacy (1993), which contains science content standards based on a previous publication, Science for All Americans (AAAS, 1989). These publications outlined what the citizens of the United States should know about science. In 1996, the National Research Council (NRC) published the National Science Education Standards (NSES), a consensus document based on input from hundreds of scientists, science educators, and professional societies. The NSES relate to science content, teaching, teacher development, assessment, and the infrastructure required to support effective science education.

11  

The committee noted that Florida has instituted a state scholarship program that allows Florida students who graduate with an IB diploma to attend any state university for free. California recently enacted legislation that grants sophomore standing in college to students who earn an IB diploma in high school.

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

Both documents call for fundamentally different approaches to teaching and learning science for students in grades K–12, with emphasis on inquiry and in-depth study of fewer topics than was characteristic of most science education programs at the time.

In mathematics, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) has taken the lead in developing content standards for grades K–12 (NCTM, 1989, 2000). Like their counterparts in science, the national mathematics standards emphasize teaching and learning concepts and helping students understand mathematics much more deeply. Both the national science and mathematics standards leave decisions about specific curriculum to the discretion of the teacher, school, or district.

Based in part on these efforts, during the past decade 49 states and the District of Columbia have established statewide academic standards for what students should know and be able to do in at least some subjects; many states also have developed curriculum frameworks to support their standards. All 50 states currently test how well their students are learning, and 27 states hold schools accountable for results (Education Week, 2001).

This expectation for academic standards and measuring of student achievement has again assumed national prominence with the passage in January 2002 of the No Child Left Behind Act, which requires all states to test children in reading and mathematics every year while they are in grades 3–8. National expectations for assessing science achievement will begin in the 2007–2008 school year. Schools will be held accountable for the results. The question now, after a decade of standards-based reform, is whether this approach achieves the results envisioned by policymakers and educators. Some contend that the assessments being used to measure achievement are narrowing the curriculum and discouraging high-quality instructional practices. These critics contend that greater gains in learning would occur if policymakers and educational decision makers focused more on equity in educational funding, teacher quality, and professional development, and less on testing. Supporters of standards-based reform point out that test scores are on the rise in a number of districts, including those that have shown low achievement in the past, and that a focus on accountability has forced teachers and schools to attend to the learning and achievement of all students, not just those at the top.

The AP and IB programs complement standards-based reform efforts at the advanced level. Both programs provide content-rich curricula and nationally recognized external measures of student achievement, but can be implemented by states and individual schools in ways that conform to local standards and link with other curricular offerings.

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

Financing Advanced Study Programs at the Local Level

Implementing, expanding, and supporting high-quality advanced study programs in science and mathematics requires resources that some school districts have difficulty providing. Such is the case particularly in rural areas and urban school districts that are supported by a limited property tax base and serve a large number of high-poverty or minority students. There is substantial variation in available fiscal resources across states, as well as among districts within states. For example, Rubenstein (1998) found that within some districts, schools with higher levels of student poverty sometimes receive lower allocations of both money and other educational resources than more affluent schools within the same district.12

Establishing and supporting high-quality advanced study programs also means that school districts must allocate sufficient resources for teacher professional development, instructional resources, and adequate student preparation at the middle school level. Indeed, disparities in school funding can exacerbate the already low level of access to advanced study courses for students who reside in high-poverty localities. Some states, such as Indiana, South Carolina, California, and Texas, have implemented state funding initiatives to ensure that advanced study opportunities will be equitably distributed across all of the states’ schools and school districts.

Teacher Qualifications, Certification, and Challenges

In the quest for greater student achievement, state governments have undertaken reforms that have as their goal better teaching and learning for all students (Council of Chief State School Officers [CCSSO], 1998). Despite these reforms and the hard work of school and school district personnel, gaps still exist between desired and actual student achievement. These gaps can be attributed largely to disparities in the qualifications and distribution of the teacher workforce (Darling-Hammond, 2000).

Teaching quality matters. Numerous studies of the effects of teachers on student achievement have revealed that the availability and effectiveness of qualified teachers are strong contributors to observed variances in student learning (Jordan, Mendro, and Weerasinghe, 1997; Sanders and Rivers, 1996; Wright, Horn, and Sanders, 1997). There is broad consensus that students learn more from teachers with strong academic skills than from those with

12  

Two reports by the NRC’s Committee on Education Finance (NRC, 1999a, 1999c) examine the link between school finance and student achievement and educational attainment. Readers interested in issues of school finance as they relate to student achievement are encouraged to review these reports.

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

weaker academic skills (see for example, Ballou, 1996; Ferguson and Ladd, 1996; Hanushek, 1996). Further, the effects of teachers on student learning appear to be additive and cumulative, and affected students may not be able to compensate for being taught by an unqualified teacher (NCES, 2000b). Results of a recent survey of secondary school teachers, students, school administrators, and parents also indicate that students who experience top-quality teaching are more likely than those who experience poor teaching to have high expectations for their futures (Markow, Fauth, and Gravitch, 2001).

Data drawn from the Fast Response Survey System (as cited in NCES, 2000b) show that the highest-poverty schools and those with the greatest concentrations of minority students have nearly twice the proportion of inexperienced teachers as schools with the lowest poverty levels and concentrations of minority students (20 versus 11 percent). Also troubling are studies showing evidence of strong bias in the assignment of students to teachers of different levels of effectiveness (Jordan et al., 1997). For example, African American students are nearly twice as likely to be assigned to the most ineffective teachers and half as likely to be assigned to the most effective teachers as white or Asian students (Sanders and Rivers, 1996). It also should be noted that new teachers, who increasingly are expected to have credentials in specific subject areas, leave high-poverty schools at a rate far greater than teachers in affluent suburban schools (NCES, 2000b).

High turnover rates and inexperienced teachers not only have an effect on student learning, but also deprive new teachers of mentors. A high proportion of experienced colleagues in a school can provide strong resources for advice and guidance to new teachers, as well as offer opportunities for experienced teachers to discuss their practices and learn from the experiences of others.

Darling-Hammond, Wise, and Klein (1999) discuss what is required of teachers if the gap in student achievement is to be closed and the goals of reform are to be met:

The new mission for education requires substantially more knowledge and radically different skills for teachers …. In order to create bridges between common, challenging curriculum goals and individual learners’ experiences and needs, teachers must understand cognition and the many different pathways to learning. They must understand child development and pedagogy as well as the structure of subject areas and a variety of alternatives for assessing learning … teachers must be prepared to address the substantial diversity in the experience children bring with them to school—the wide range of languages, cultures, exceptionalities, learning styles, talents and intelligences that in turn [require] an equally rich and varied repertoire of teaching strategies. (p. 2)

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×
Teacher Certification

All 50 states and the District of Columbia require public school teachers to be licensed. Requirements for regular licenses vary by state. However, all states require a bachelor’s degree with a minimum grade point average, completion of an approved teacher-training program with a prescribed number of subject and education credits, and supervised practice teaching. One-third of the states currently require training in the use of information technology as part of the teacher certification process. Other states require teachers to obtain a master’s degree in education, which involves at least a year of additional coursework after earning a bachelor’s degree with a major in a subject other than education.

Many states offer alternative teacher licensure programs for those who have a bachelor’s degree in the subject they will teach, but lack the education courses required for a regular license. Such programs were originally designed to ease teacher shortages in certain subjects, such as mathematics and science. Under other programs, states may issue emergency licenses to individuals who do not meet requirements for a regular license when schools cannot attract enough qualified teachers to fill positions. No states require special licensing for advanced study teachers. Further, the committee did not identify any colleges or universities that currently offer teacher preparation programs specifically designed for prospective teachers of advanced study.13

Teacher Shortages

Impending teacher shortages and the concomitant need to educate and retain more qualified teachers to staff the nation’s schools have been predominant legislative and policy themes. Recently, some education policy experts have stated that the problem is more the distribution of qualified teachers than a teacher shortage. For example, these experts say that while there is a teacher shortage in secondary and middle schools, there is no such shortage in elementary schools; while there is a strong need for more single-subject teachers, especially in mathematics, physical science, special education, and bilingual education, there is no shortage of multisubject teachers or teachers of English or social studies; and while fast-growing cities in the South and dense urban areas will have a need for more teachers, suburban and more affluent schools will experience few shortages (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1999; Eubanks, 1996; Ingersoll, 1999).

13  

According to Education Week (2001), the College Board is experimenting with developing a three-credit course colleges can offer to prospective AP teachers.

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

TABLE 2-1 Trends in Teacher Salaries Compared with Average Annual Salaries of Selected White-Collar Occupations, 1999

Teacher

Accountant III

Buyer/ Contract Specialist III

Attorney III

Computer Systems Analyst III

Engineer IV

Full Prof. Public Doctoral

Assistant Prof. Public Comprehensive

$40,574

$49,257

$57,392

$69,104

$66,782

$68,294

$78,830

$41,940

 

SOURCE: Adapted from http://www.aft.org/research/survey99/tables/tableII-5.html (January 29, 2002).

The committee takes the position that qualified teachers are the backbone of both high-quality advanced study programs and the gateway courses leading to advanced study. Consequently, teacher shortages in mathematics and science and the dearth of teachers willing to teach in high-poverty and rural areas have implications for both access to and the quantity and the quality of advanced study programs available to students across the country. Education policy experts agree with this appraisal and suggest that government agencies, colleges and universities, and school districts initiate and support efforts to attract and retain qualified teachers in specific subjects and for particular geographic regions (National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching for the 21st Century, 2000; National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future [NCTAF], 1996; NRC, 2000a).

Attracting the number of new teachers needed to the profession and retaining current teachers is a major challenge for the nation. In addition, given the challenges teachers face in the classroom (as discussed later in this chapter), the United States has not been willing to compensate teachers at levels comparable to those of people in other professions with similar levels of education, training, and expertise. The AFT reports that beginning teachers with a bachelor’s degree earned an average of $25,700 in the 1997–1998 school year; those with a master’s degree earned slightly more. The estimated average salary of all public elementary and secondary school teachers during the 1998–1999 school year was $40,574 (AFT, 2001). This salary is considerably less than that earned by other white-collar professionals (see Table 2-1).

EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT

Preparing for Advanced Study: Middle Schools

Academic preparation for advanced study begins in middle school. However, middle schools face a number of factors that compromise their ability to impart to as many students as possible the desire and preparation necessary to aspire to advanced study.

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

Educators, policymakers, and researchers have recently begun to focus considerable attention on middle-level education because of several widely held concerns. Specific concerns include a lack of focus on core academic courses; teachers without the appropriate training to teach young adolescents, especially those with special needs who are placed in general classrooms; appropriate approaches to teaching challenging academic material to students in this age group; and a much greater emphasis than in primary schools on ability grouping, which restricts high-poverty and minority students’ access to challenging curricula and high-quality instruction and effectively precludes many of these students from participating in advanced study in high school (NCES, 2000a).

Middle School Mathematics and Science

The mathematics and science curricula for middle school students vary widely both within and among states (CCSSO, 1999). In mathematics, two-thirds of the states report that fewer than half of their students are in the traditional grade 8 mathematics curriculum by the time they reach that grade; the majority are enrolled in algebra-based mathematics (CCSSO, 1999). States are moving toward providing eighth-grade students with greater exposure to algebra topics, whether in full-fledged Algebra I or in pre-algebra courses. However, McKnight et al. (1987), Porter, Kirst, Osthoff, Smithson, and Schneider (1993), and Shaughnessy (1998) all found that the course titles provide only a rough indication of the content students actually receive.

In science, most seventh-grade students are studying life sciences or a biology-based curriculum, while most eighth-grade students are focusing on a mix of earth science and physical science (Schmidt, McKnight, Cogan, Jakewerth, and Hourang, 1999). CCSSO reports that a growing proportion of middle schools are instituting integrated or coordinated science programs. Integrated science programs, which intentionally blur the disciplinary lines among biology, chemistry, earth science, and physics, treat science as an integrated whole, based on the position that science learning during the middle school years should not be separated by discipline. Coordinated science curricula treat the disciplines of biology, chemistry, physics, and earth science individually, for perhaps 9 weeks each, and focus on the overarching ideas in science that can be studied in terms of each discipline rather than focusing on facts and details, as is more typical of traditional courses in these subjects. Finding qualified instructors for integrated and coordinated middle school science courses is often difficult because many science teachers at this level have not been prepared adequately in even one area of science.

Schmidt, Finch, and Faulkner (1992) analyzed a random sample of eighth-grade state curriculum guides in mathematics and science and concluded

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

that the curricula lacked focus, covered too many topics, were repetitious from grade to grade, and were implemented inconsistently across schools and classrooms, resulting in highly uneven exposure to a range of important curricular topics. This lack of rigor and coherence can have enduring long-term consequences for students, whether or not they decide to pursue advanced study later in high school.

If middle school is one of the gateways to advanced study (the other being introductory high school courses), it stands to reason that middle school and high school mathematics and science teachers should have structured opportunities to plan together and make decisions about the content and focus of the science and mathematics curricula for grades 7–12. However, a majority of high school teachers never interact with their peers from elementary and middle schools on the crucial issue of curricular alignment.14 Fewer than 30 percent of middle school teachers report having had any contact with high school teachers in their discipline with regard to curriculum structure, content, or design (NCHSSY, 2001a, p.16).

Even where school districts encourage and facilitate such vertical integration, however, their efforts can be compromised by the fact that today’s students are far more mobile than ever before. The transience of the U.S. population will continue to confound efforts to provide well-defined academic pathways through the various grade levels that would enable more students to take advantage of advanced studies in high school.

Challenges of Middle School Teaching

A great deal of research conducted over the past 15 years has led to the conclusion that “in-field” teachers (those holding certification in the subject area to which they are assigned) not only know more content than their “out-of-field” colleagues, but also are better able to communicate that knowledge to students in their classrooms (Darling-Hammond, 2000). However, mathematics and science teachers in middle schools are far more likely to be teaching mathematics or science classes without certification in the subject area as compared with high school teachers (NCES, 2000b). This lack of certification in specific subjects can have profound effects on preparing middle school students for higher-level or advanced work in high school.

14  

Through its Vertical Teams Initiative, the College Board provides a vehicle for cross-grade contact (see Chapter 3, this volume). In the Vertical Teams approach, teachers from the middle school level up through AP work with one another to ensure that students are prepared to participate successfully at the advanced level by aligning curricula and developing content-specific teaching strategies.

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×
Ability Grouping in Mathematics

Schmidt et al. (1999) note that 82 percent of 13-year-olds in the United States are in schools offering two or more differently titled mathematics classes for students at the same grade level, each with different expectations for student learning. These students from different middle-grade courses sometimes funnel into the same high school courses, leading to a lack of continuity in their mathematics education. Of even greater concern is that this early mathematics placement contributes to sorting students into different “pipelines,” some of which lead away from rigorous academic courses and programs. As noted below in the discussion of disparities in opportunities to pursue and succeed in advanced study, this problem is compounded for minority students and those of low socioeconomic status.

Early ability grouping at the middle school level has the most pronounced effect in mathematics because of the cumulative and sequential nature of the curriculum. Once students are placed in a mathematics sequence, it is very difficult for them to move to a more advanced sequence without doubling up (taking two mathematics courses during the same year) or attending summer school for an intensive and fast-paced version of a typical yearlong course. Summer school courses, because they are compressed, often do not provide a solid foundation of understanding for further study (see the report of the mathematics panel).

Several recent reports indicate that the process of determining which students will take advanced courses in high school begins with their placement in the first algebra course (Gamoran, 1987; Horn, Nunez, and Bobbitt, 2000; NCHSSY, 2001a).15 Once considered a ninth-grade course, algebra is becoming an eighth-grade option in increasing numbers of school districts,16 and some districts offer it to a small number of seventh graders.17

Placement in algebra is based most often on the results of standardized tests, teacher recommendations, and parental requests. It is not uncommon, however, for parental requests to take precedence over test scores. Studies have shown that, although counselors and school administrators use test scores or current mathematics placement to bar low-income students from high-level courses, they permit middle-class students with similar qualifications to enroll when parents intervene on their children’s behalf (Orfield and

15  

Some research indicates that ability grouping begins much earlier than middle school, perhaps even as early as elementary school.

16  

In 1998, 18 percent of U.S. eighth-graders were enrolled in Algebra 1.

17  

This shift is beginning to place great strain on middle schools, as well as many of the teachers in those schools who may not have received appropriate preparation or professional development for teaching this subject well to younger students (NRC, 1998, 2000a).

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

Paul, 1995; Paul, 1995; Romo and Falbo, 1996), even though parents sometimes push for class options for which their children may not be prepared or ready.

While mathematics is often the subject in which students initially are separated by perceived ability, this division occurs throughout the curriculum. Because this system of matching students to courses begins even before high school, many low-income and minority students (as well as other students who have been inappropriately accelerated) enter high school unprepared for demanding science and mathematics courses.

During the last two decades, attempts have been made to dismantle formal “tracking” systems for students. Few principals today would admit to tracking in their schools. However, the differentiation of students by ability that tracking was intended to address persists in the form of nonacademic courses and varying levels of specific academic courses (such as Algebra 1, Honors Algebra 1, Algebra 1: Parts 1 and 2, Basic Algebra, Introduction to Algebra, Business Algebra [Lucas, 1999; Powell et al., 1985]), coupled with allowing students to choose which course or series of courses to take.

Preparing for Advanced Study: High School

Curriculum

The curriculum of most high schools is organized around subject areas: English, mathematics, science, social studies, and fine and performing arts. Typically, academic courses are offered at multiple levels of difficulty, and students are grouped for instruction on the basis of earlier performance, perceived ability, student persistence, or parental request. In most comprehensive high schools, there are fairly distinct curricula for those who are college bound and those who are not. Even among those headed for college, decisions are made continually about whether a particular student should take the more rigorous AP and honors courses or the traditional academic versions of those courses. These different “college preparatory” classes are often characterized by different grading scales18 and degrees of depth. Many

18  

In some schools, the four-point grade-point average (GPA) system has been replaced by a weighted system. In a weighted system, final letter grades earned in honors or advanced courses are assigned a higher number of points to be used in the calculation of GPAs. For instance, using a four-point system, A = 4, B = 3, C = 2, and D = 1, whereas in one type of weighted system, A = 4.5, B = 3.5, C = 2.5, and D = 1.5. Thus, grades earned in honors or advanced courses help increase students’ GPAs. Weighted grades were first devised to entice students to take more-rigorous classes without fear of hurting their class rank or GPA. Some colleges and universities readjust these weighted GPAs to their own systems when making decisions about which students to admit. There are many variations on this formula. Schools often devise a system that reflects their unique beliefs and goals.

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

students describe these alternative pathways as differing in tone and purpose, with the higher-level classes drawing more serious students who are more likely to stay on task (NCHSSY, 2001a; Office of Educational Research and Improvement [OERI], 1999).

Most comprehensive U.S. high schools offer a vast array of courses, and students are allowed to choose freely among them. This diversification and differentiation of curriculum is intended to address the differing abilities, interests, and preparation of the student body. However, diversification and freedom of choice also allow many students to choose poorly and consequently to leave school underprepared for either college or work (AFT, 2001; Frome, 2001; NCHSSY, 2001a).19 More-rigorous state high school graduation requirements have helped address these concerns, but the continuing availability of many low-level academic courses and their effects on students’ course-taking patterns and achievement remain a significant problem for students, schools, higher education, and prospective employers.

While most high schools organize their curriculum as described above, others take a different approach, offering a core curriculum. Such a set of course offerings is quite narrowly focused and composed mainly of academic courses, and the students have very few choices among them. Electives are typically academically oriented courses. A student is more likely to take academic courses if he or she is assigned to them, if enrolling in such courses is considered the norm among students at a school, or if there are few (or no) undemanding courses available. This core curriculum approach is one way schools might try to address disparities in course-taking patterns among students; research on other promising practices is greatly needed.

Lee and colleagues have evaluated the relative efficacy of the above alternative curriculum structures, defined as “differentiated” and “constrained,” respectively, in both public and Catholic schools (Lee, 2001; Lee, Burkam, Chow-Hoy, Smerdon, and Geverdt, 1998; Lee, Croninger, and Smith, 1997).20 Using two different nationally representative longitudinal datasets and multilevel analysis methods, they evaluated the effects of curriculum structure and other student- and school-related variables on two outcomes: (1) learning in mathematics during the high school years and (2) distribution of learning in a school according to students’ social class. The studies demonstrated that

19  

Although almost 70 percent of high school graduates now go on to college, only about 28 percent of them complete a bachelor’s degree, and only 8 percent complete an associate’s degree by the time they reach age 28 (NCES, 2001a). Of the high school graduates who go to college, approximately 30 percent need to take a remedial course in basic subjects such as English and algebra before they can begin college coursework (Kirst, 2000).

20  

The constrained curriculum model is more common in Catholic than in public schools in the United States (Bryk, Lee, and Holland, 1993; Lee, 2001; Lee and Bryk, 1989).

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

the constrained curriculum was both more effective (i.e., it induced higher levels of learning among all students in the school) and more equitable (i.e., socioeconomic status was less strongly correlated with learning in schools with a constrained curriculum). Indeed, holding all students to the same high standards and eliminating low-level academic courses is recommended by many organizations, including the NASSP (1996), the Southern Regional Education Board (Bottoms, 1998; Kaufman et al., 2000), the AFT (2000), the NCHSSY (2001a, 2001b), and the American Youth Policy Forum (2000).

A constrained curriculum does not imply an absence of differentiation among students. Rather, differentiation in constrained curricula is related to the pace at which students progress through the curriculum, not the content of the courses. As a result, some students may graduate from high school having completed calculus, while others may take longer to master algebra or geometry and graduate having completed only Algebra II. It is important to reiterate that both the path and the content of the courses along the path are the same, or nearly so, for all students, regardless of their future educational plans or perceived abilities (an exception might be made for classes designed to meet the needs of special education students). What differs is the time and support students need to move along the path and how far they progress. To be successful, some students will require additional academic support, such as “double dosing” (taking the same course over more than one class period). Such students may have to skip some other activity in their school day to do so, but after-school and Saturday academic classes, tutoring, and summer “bridge” classes can help them develop academic competencies (e.g., analytic reading and writing) or give them a head start on the curriculum they will be expected to learn should they pursue advanced coursework. The idea is that remediation is reduced as students demonstrate greater learning and achievement. Additionally, some school districts, understanding that students differ in the amount of time they may need to complete high school graduation requirements when expectations are high, have opted to allow their students to complete high school in 3, 4, or 5 years in accordance with individual achievement and educational needs (see, e.g., Johnston, 2000). This flexibility is consistent with recommendations made by the American Youth Policy Forum (2000).

High School Mathematics and Science

Many states have set 3 years of high school mathematics as a requirement for high school graduation, following the recommendation of the National Commission on Excellence in Education (1983) (Education Week, 2000). Research on patterns of student achievement in mathematics and science demonstrates that the amount of time spent in instruction and the number

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

TABLE 2-2 Percentage of All High School Students Taking Higher-Level Mathematics Courses by Graduation, 1998 and Change 1990 to 1998

Geometry or Integrated Mathematics 2

Algebra 2 or Integrated Mathematics 3

Trigonometry or Precalculus

Calculus or AP Calculus

1998

% Change 1990 to 1998

1998

% Change 1990 to 1998

1998

% Change 1990 to 1998

1998

% Change 1990 to 1998

72%

+11%

63%

+14%

39%

+10%

12%

+3%

 

SOURCE: Adapted from CCSSO (1999).

and level of courses taken are strongly related to achievement (Adelman, 1999; Jones, Davenport, Bryson, Bekhuis, and Zwick, 1986; Jones, Mullis, Raizen, Weiss, and Weston, 1992).

The typical progression of courses in high school mathematics leading to calculus begins with Algebra I and is followed (although not always in this order) by geometry, Algebra II, trigonometry, analysis or precalculus, and calculus.21Table 2-2 indicates the number of students taking higher-level mathematics classes in 1998 and the changes in the percentage of students doing so between 1990 and 1998.

National consensus standards for mathematics and science have been available for the past decade (American Association for the Advancement of Science [AAAS], 1993; NCTM, 1989, 2000; NRC, 1996) and frequently have served to guide individual states in developing their own standards, curriculum frameworks, and assessments to improve learning in these subjects. In many states, however, standards in mathematics and science have been developed in the context of local political considerations and needs rather than with an eye to regional or national cooperation and consensus, or remain enmeshed in debates about the appropriate ways in which students should learn these subjects. Thus, expectations for what students should know and be able to do vary greatly among states (Gandal, 1997).

It should be noted that instructional time and course taking in mathematics and science vary widely among U.S. schools. Such variation relates to ability (Benbow and Stanley, 1982; Benbow and Minor, 1986), but also is correlated with students’ socioeconomic status (Goodlad, 1984; Horn, Hafner, and Owings, 1992; Lee, Bryk, and Smith, 1993; McKnight et al., 1987; Oakes, 1990). While the data reported in Table 2-2 for mathematics and in Table 2-3 for science do not reveal differences in course taking among students of different racial and ethnic groups, such is the case primarily because many

21  

There are numerous remedial and basic mathematics courses below Algebra I, and some 10 percent of public high school graduates in 1998 never progressed beyond them (NCES, 1998).

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

TABLE 2-3 Percentage of All High School Students Taking Higher-Level Science Courses by Graduation, 1998 and Change 1990 to 1998

Biology

Chemistry

Physics

1998

% Change 1990 to 1998

1998

% Change 1990 to 1998

1998

% Change 1990 to 1998

92%

−3

54%

+9%

24%

+4%

 

SOURCE: Adapted from CCSSO (1999).

states do not report data in this fashion. Of the 13 states that do report mathematics enrollment by race/ethnicity, enrollment of African American and Hispanic students in higher-level mathematics courses lagged behind that of whites and Asians in the same courses in all cases.

Most state high school graduation requirements include the completion of at least 2 years of science (Education Week, 2000), although college-bound students traditionally take more. These students usually take science in the sequence of biology, chemistry, and physics, with some taking earth science before biology. Physics is the least frequently selected science, often because most students have completed their graduation requirements in science by the junior year.

Table 2-3 indicates the number of high school students who had taken a specific science course by the time they graduated in 1998 and the changes in the percentages of students in those courses between 1990 and 1998. Although the increases in enrollment in upper-level science courses are not as dramatic as those for higher-level courses in mathematics, Table 2-3 indicates that more students now enroll in chemistry and physics. Recently, there has been an effort to change the order in which science courses are taught, with physics serving as the introduction to the science course sequence (Roy, 2001). Should this effort gain momentum, the numbers of students who graduate with a credit in physics could rise dramatically during the next decade.

Several states have recently implemented integrated or coordinated science programs for ninth- or ninth- and tenth-grade students. Students leaving an integrated or coordinated science program often go on to more specialized or advanced science courses during their last 2 years of high school (CCSSO, 1999). This move toward integrating science during the first 2 years also may account for the small decrease in the number of students who have taken biology, since that course is typically offered to ninth or tenth graders.

Challenges of High School Teaching

There are approximately 1.4 million teachers of grades 9–12. These secondary school teachers see themselves primarily as subject area specialists.

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

In general, high school teachers are members of subject-based departments that operate quasi-independently within a high school. Most academic departments are directed by department chairs, who make decisions about curriculum, instructional materials, textbooks, and teaching assignments.

Secondary school teachers typically are responsible for five periods of instruction per day.22 Teaching responsibilities for high school teachers generally exceed 100 students and in some districts reach nearly 175 students. With such high enrollments, it is difficult for many high school teachers to know their students well or to adjust pedagogy to meet individual students’ needs, particularly when there are special needs. Within the average school day, most high school teachers have 13 minutes of instructional planning time for every assigned teaching hour, and consequently have little opportunity to work with colleagues on curricular or instructional planning (Darling-Hammond, 1999b; NCTAF, 1996).

In a study of teachers’ work, Louis (1992, p. 150) reports that what matters most to secondary school teachers is time. To be effective, teachers need time to remain abreast of changes in their subject areas and in the pedagogy related to their disciplines. They need time to plan effectively and collaboratively, to receive and analyze feedback about their teaching, and to reflect on their own teaching practice. However, many high school teachers report that they have little time during the school day to interact with other teachers (Choy et al., 1993, p. 128).

The National Institute on Student Achievement, Curriculum, and Assessment (OERI, 1999) describes two different teacher approaches to dealing with the lack of time for activities besides teaching. Some teachers indicate that they do what they can during school hours; what is not finished during the school day remains uncompleted. Others extend their working hours far beyond contract time to allow for collaboration and planning with other teachers, for grading, or for preparing for their own classes. In urban schools, teachers may not be able to remain in their buildings after hours because of safety concerns, making it even more difficult for any collaborative planning or collegial interactions to take place.

Secondary school teachers are more likely than teachers at other levels to report feeling isolated and unsupported (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1999; NCES, 2000b; OERI, 1999). They also report that there are many competing demands on their own and their students’ time that interfere with instruction. High school teachers who leave the profession frequently cite as their major reasons for doing so concerns about inadequate support from their school’s administration; nonacademic demands, such as cafeteria duty; poor student motivation to learn; and student discipline problems (National Sci-

22  

This varies in schools that use alternative scheduling options.

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

ence Teachers Association [NSTA], 2000). Isolation is an especially frequent complaint of advanced study teachers, who are often the only members of their departments assigned to teach particular classes, such as AP physics or IB chemistry. Efforts to combat this isolation have led both the College Board and the International Baccalaureate Organisation (IBO) to establish online teacher education and support networks.

Students

The U.S. Department of Education (NCES, 2001a) estimates that there will be more than 15 million students in grades 9–12 in public and private high schools in the United States in the fall of 2002 and an additional 235,000 home-schooled students in these grade equivalents (Parent Survey of the National Household Education Surveys Program, as cited in Basham, 2001). The majority of secondary school students say that seeing friends is the most important reason for going to school; only a quarter of secondary school students cite academics as the most important reason (Hart Research Associates, 1999).

The popular media have reported on the stress many high school students feel because of the competing demands placed on their time—demands that both detract from and enrich their academic endeavors (see for example, Hart Research Associates, 1999; Schneider, 1999; Springer and Peyser, 1998; Noonan, Seider, and Peraino, 2001; Hong, 2001; Gratz, 2000). For example, in the United States approximately 60 percent of high school sophomores and 75 percent of seniors are employed (Bachman and Schulenberg, 1993; Steinberg and Dornbusch, 1991). It is now commonplace for students, particularly those bound for college, to work 15–20 hours per week during the academic year to earn spending money. In addition, as compared with their counterparts in other countries, U.S. teenagers spend a disproportionate amount of their free time each week in activities that not only fail to support learning, but may actually undermine it. On average, U.S. teens spend 20–25 hours socializing, 5 hours participating in extracurricular activities, and 15 hours watching television during each week of the school year (NCHSSY, 2001a).

Students in advanced study programs are more frequently caught between competing demands on their time as compared with other U.S. high school students. They are involved in field trips that take them out of their academic classes. They are also tapped regularly for academic competitions, honor society committees, student government planning and activities, and fundraising for clubs, all of which remove them from the classroom or impinge on needed study time after school. These students often also play in school orchestras or march in school bands, and they frequently assume leadership positions with school clubs or serve as editors for school publica-

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

tions.23 Many of these students consistently carry the maximum number of academic subjects allowed by their schools’ schedules, often starting on their homework as late as 10:00 pm. Added to all of this activity is a rushed school schedule that includes a 25–30 minute lunch period in a crowded cafeteria as the only break in the day. Problems at home and with friends and concerns about school safety and personal well-being distract many secondary school students from their academic pursuits. Fully 25 percent of secondary school students report that it is difficult for them to concentrate in class because they are worried about problems at home. This finding is most prevalent among low-income students: 55 percent of these students versus 17 percent of students whose families have few economic worries report that they think so much about home that they cannot concentrate in school (Hart Research Associates, 1999).

Moreover, 40 percent of students say that students who interrupt classes with bad behavior are a major problem that interferes with learning. Indeed, many parents and students view advanced study courses as temporary havens from such disruptions. Almost a quarter of the students surveyed said that teachers not knowing or caring about them as individuals is a big problem as well.

DISPARITIES IN OPPORTUNITIES TO PURSUE AND SUCCEED IN ADVANCED STUDY

Students’ educational opportunities and achievement are strongly tied to the beliefs and values of those who educate them (Rosenthal, 1987; Rosenthal, Baratz, and Hall, 1974; Rosenthal and Rubin, 1978; Rutter, McNaughan, Mortimore, and Ouston, 1979). Offering advanced courses in most if not all academic subjects is one way to give students the message that teachers and administrators view participation in higher education as expected and attainable, and that they value the efforts and persistence required to prepare for college.

Most students perform poorly when their teachers do not believe in their abilities, in large part because such beliefs translate into fewer learning opportunities (Lee, 2001; Lee and Smith, 1996; Raudenbush, 1984; Rosenthal and Jacobson, 1968). Many teachers set different learning objectives for students according to perceptions of their abilities. For example, mathematics and science classes taught by teachers who report that their students are of “high” ability focus on developing reasoning and inquiry skills, whereas

23  

While these activities are voluntary, and many more students than those in advanced study participate, advanced study students are disproportionately represented among participants. Some attribute this situation to the public’s perception of college admission practices.

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

classes in which teachers report that their students are of “low” ability emphasize instead the importance of mathematics and science in daily life (Gamoran, Nystrand, Berends, and LePore, 1995; Oakes, 1990; Raudenbush, Rowan, and Cheong, 1993; Weiss, 1994). All too often, students who are seen as being of low ability are disproportionately poor or of color (Ingersoll, 1999; Oakes, 1990). Differentiation of coursework and content by the perceived ability of students is characteristic of both formal and informal tracking in most U.S. secondary schools.

Disparities in Participation

High school students can take an advanced class in science and mathematics only if (1) their school offers such classes, (2) the school provides them access to the courses, and (3) they are prepared for such courses. A recent study in California revealed that AP offerings in that state’s 1,100 high schools vary greatly (Oakes et al., 2000): 13 percent offer multiple sections of more than 15 different AP courses; 30 percent provide only single sections of 2 or 3 different AP courses; and 16 percent offer no AP classes at all (Carnevule, 1999; Hebel, 1999). Although these differences in AP offerings are associated with several factors, such as school size and location, there also is a clear correspondence between the availability and breadth of a high school’s AP course offerings and its racial composition. Regardless of the size of the school, the availability of AP courses decreases as the percentage of African Americans, Hispanics, or students of low socioeconomic status in the school population increases, as compared with comprehensive public high schools that serve predominantly white and middle-class students (see Table 2-4). This differential access to AP classes is most stark and most consequential in mathematics and science. The problem also is compounded by the fact that even when schools do offer high-quality advanced mathematics and science courses, students of color and those of low socioeconomic status are much less likely to enroll in them (Atanda, 1999; Horn et al., 2000; Ma and Willms, 1999; Oakes, 1990).

As noted earlier, parental involvement can play a strong role in students’ course selections. Students are more likely to take higher-level mathematics and science courses if their parents are highly educated and knowledgeable about the college admission process and help guide their children’s course selection (Ekstrom, Goertz, and Rock, 1988; Horn et al., 2000; Lee and Ekstrom, 1987; Useem, 1992). When asked to explain the disproportionate enrollment of whites and Asians in advanced classes as compared with other racial or ethnic groups, however, educators attributed this disparity to students’ ability or wise choice of courses without considering the influence of parents on these decisions (Oakes and Guiton, 1995). Some faculty members dismissed

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

TABLE 2-4 School Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Mathematics and Science Offerings in California, 1998-1999

Proportion African American and Hispanic

Number of AP Math/Science Offerings

Greater than 70 percent

3.8

Less than 30 percent

5.3

 

SOURCE: Adapted from Oakes et al. (2000).

the disproportionate representation of Hispanics in lower-level courses, even those whose test scores were comparable to the scores of higher-placed white and Asian students, attributing the disparities to differences in students’ motivation and choices or to cultural differences in educational values or family support. And studies of schools under court-ordered desegregation have found them to have course placement practices that result in consistently skewed enrollments in favor of white or Asian students over and above what can be explained by measured achievement (Welner, 2001).

Disparities in Outcomes

Even when minority students participate in high-level courses such as AP, end-of-course test results reveal significant differences in outcomes for students from different racial and ethnic groups (see Table 2-5). The disparity in scores on AP assessments between African American, Hispanic, and Native American students on the one hand and white and Asian students on the other are large (as they are for most standardized tests). Additionally, the proportion of minority students who earn scores of 4 and 5 on AP assessments is small (AP examinations are scored on a scale of 1–5, with 5 being the highest score).

It is unclear whether these disparities result from assessments that are biased or reflect others factors, such as the multiple inequities that affect minorities long before they are able to take AP courses or assessments. In any case, education policymakers, school officials, and college leaders must evaluate and implement educational reforms that will improve the academic achievement of economically and educationally disadvantaged students. As a means of improving outcomes, the College Board and many school districts are focusing on improving teaching and learning in the courses that lead to advanced study. As described earlier, this means school districts must redesign the organization and structure of their schools and the allocation of resources to meet the educational needs of all students.

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

TABLE 2-5 Mean Scoresa and Standard Deviationsb on Selected Advanced Placement Examinations, Categorized by Subject and Racial/Ethnic Group

Subject

American Indian/ Alaskan

Black/ African-American

Chicano, Puerto Rican, and Other Hispanicc

Asian/ Asian American

White

Other and Not Statedd

National Average

AP biology

2.68

[1.23]

2.12

[1.17]

2.32

[1.29]

3.28

[1.31]

3.15

[1.26]

3.18

[1.32]

3.08

[1.30]

AP chemistry

2.17

[1.21]

2.00

[1.14]

2.08

[1.24]

3.07

[1.36]

2.86

[1.33]

2.94

[1.36]

2.84

[1.35]

AP Physics B

2.44*

[1.23]

1.77

[1.05]

1.98

[1.20]

2.75**

[1.32]

2.82

[1.28]

2.77**

[1.31]

2.73

[1.30]

AP Physics C: Mechanics

3.05**

[1.54]

2.33

[1.32]

2.62

[1.41]

3.26**

[1.38]

3.32

[1.34]

3.21**

[1.37]

3.25

[1.37]

AP Physics C: E&M

3.11**

[1.63]

2.52

[1.26]

2.74

[1.39]

3.30**

[1.43]

3.35

[1.39]

3.13*

[1.37]

3.29

[1.40]

AP Calculus AB

2.54

[1.33]

2.12

[1.23]

2.41

[1.33]

3.09

[1.34]

3.11

[1.30]

3.09

[1.33]

3.03

[1.33]

AP Calculus BC

3.20*

[1.55]

2.77

[1.42]

3.10

[1.48]

3.66

[1.38]

3.63

[1.36]

3.65**

[1.38]

3.60

[1.38]

SOURCE: Adapted from College Entrance Examination Board (2000c).

aThe differences between any given group mean and the national mean are significant at .01 except where indicated:

*difference between group mean and national mean is significant at .05;

**difference between group mean and national mean is not significant.

bGiven in brackets.

cThis column shows the weighted mean and standard deviation as calculated from three groups reported by the College Board—Chicano/Mexican American, Puerto Rican, and Other Hispanic.

dThis column shows the weighted mean and standard deviation as calculated from two groups reported by the College Board—Not Stated and Other and Not Stated.

Some of the most effective strategies for improving student success in advanced study go far beyond merely adding more advanced study classes in high schools with underserved student populations (although access to these classes is important). Strategies that have proven effective include reducing class size (Grissmer, 1999); eliminating low-level academic courses that do not prepare students academically (Frome, 2001; NASSP, 1996); enhancing professional development to help teachers incorporate research-based instructional, curricular, and assessment strategies in their classrooms (see Chapter 7, this volume); hiring and retaining qualified teachers to teach in rural and inner-city schools; providing information to parents about the long-term benefits of students’ participation in rigorous academic programs

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

(Dornbusch, 1994; Eccles and Harold, 1996);24 implementing and supporting supplementary educational opportunities; and increasing student access to skilled counselors and mentors who can help them plan and implement strategies for educational attainment and achievement.

CONNECTIONS BETWEEN ADVANCED STUDY AND HIGHER EDUCATION

High School–College Interface Coordination and Articulation

Most people agree that an important goal of high school is to prepare students for further education and future work. However, a high school diploma currently does not guarantee success in either domain. This situation derives partly from a decentralized and disconnected system of K–12 education in which students encounter differing sets of requirements and expectations as they move from elementary school to the middle grades and on to high school. The disjuncture is exacerbated further by the lack of articulation and coordination between secondary and higher education in terms of what students need to succeed academically in college (Kirst, 1998).

In 1999 almost 66 percent of high school graduates nationwide had completed some college by the time they reached age 28. This number represents an enormous increase as compared with the proportion of 28-year-olds who had completed some college in 1971 (43 percent). Yet despite this increase in matriculation, the proportion of high school graduates who have completed a baccalaureate degree by the time they reach age 28 has risen by only 10 percentage points (NCES, 2000a).

Many policymakers and higher education faculty view students’ inadequate preparation for the rigorous demands of college as a failure on the part of high schools. Others contend that the situation represents not a failure on the part of high schools, but a misunderstanding of what it means to be prepared. The diverse nature of colleges and the corresponding diversity of their academic offerings and expectations contribute markedly to this lack of understanding. Given this diversity, teachers and guidance counselors can be unclear about what students should know and be able to do before they begin college work.

A cursory review of the placement examinations administered to incoming freshmen at many institutions is all that is required to reveal just how varied these expectations are. Even in the same state, each public institution

24  

See also The National Coalition for Parent Involvement in Education at http://www.ncpie.org/Resources/Subject_HigherEducation.html (February 11, 2002).

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

of higher education often has a different set of expectations for placement of students in its system, making it doubly difficult for high schools to know just what preparing their students for college means (Kirst, 1998). This lack of understanding may leave some students with limited college options many years before they are ready to make such a choice.

What is clear, however, is a pervasive and enduring belief that AP or IB courses offer an advantage to students in the college admission process. This belief has led to ever-increasing numbers of students enrolling in multiple AP courses or seeking IB Diplomas (see Chapters 3 and 4, this volume). The popular media, college guidebooks, and even the colleges themselves promote the potential positive edge in admission gained from participation in these programs.

Advanced Study as a Link Between High School and College

Advanced study programs such as AP span the boundaries of secondary and higher education. The content and structure of advanced study programs and the learning experiences they offer to high school students can provide one of the foundations for academic success in higher education. Students and their parents look to these programs to facilitate students’ admission to college, to help them succeed in college-level work once admitted, and to yield college credit and the possibility of proceeding directly to more advanced courses when the students matriculate in college. High school teachers expect these programs to provide motivated and well-prepared students with opportunities to gain the prerequisite content knowledge and habits of mind that will make them successful in college.

In turn, colleges and universities want to enroll highly qualified students who have the background and motivation to succeed in college courses. They want students who are well prepared and well educated. Colleges and universities look to and rely on advanced study to prepare students for the rigors of higher education. High school advanced study courses in science and mathematics are particularly important in establishing a foundation on which to build further study in these disciplines. Students, parents, high school guidance counselors, and even some college faculty may view these introductory courses in science and mathematics as “gatekeepers.” Science and mathematics are among the most hierarchical subjects in higher education and typically require sequential courses of study extending over many years. If the advanced study programs that serve as introductions to these disciplines are not well constructed, subsequent learning is likely to be adversely affected.

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

The availability of both government and private funds has begun to catalyze fundamental changes in the ways science and mathematics are taught at the undergraduate level, especially in introductory courses (see, for example, NRC, 1999d; Rothman and Narum, 1999). Cutting-edge concepts and skills from the disciplines are being integrated into introductory classes and laboratories. Information technologies increasingly are being woven into the fabric of teaching and learning for large numbers of undergraduates. However, this teaching and learning revolution has yet to reach many campuses, and advanced high school courses in the sciences continue to be modeled on traditional approaches. This tendency is reinforced in AP science courses by the College Board’s practice of basing its course outlines on surveys of institutions that accept large numbers of AP students. This practice can reinforce the status quo for AP courses instead of encouraging change to reflect emerging best practices in the disciplines involved.25

The Role of Advanced Study in College Admission Decisions

How Admission Decisions Are Made. Although much is known about how colleges make admission decisions, there is clearly a limit to what can be known about actual practices across institutions. The committee recognizes that many different individuals ultimately make these decisions, and that the decisions they make are based on particular circumstances and available information of varying quality. Thus, the discussion below can explore only in part the full range of processes and practices involved.

The primary role of admission officers at all colleges and universities is to assemble a class from among the qualified applicants. In some states, legislative mandates determine who must be admitted to public colleges and universities. For example, the Top 10 Percent Law (officially House Bill 588) guarantees that Texas high school graduates who rank in the top 10 percent of their senior class will be admitted to any state institution of higher learning. At other postsecondary institutions, both public and private, admission decisions are made primarily on the basis of numerical formulas that include a student’s high school grade-point average (GPA), class rank, completion of specified numbers of courses, and performance on the ACT (American College Testing Program) or SAT I and sometimes one or more SAT II subject tests. Some of these institutions also consider information on applicants’

25  

An exception to this trend is in AP calculus, which is based on emerging research about teaching and learning in that subject. This difference between calculus and the science subjects that were investigated by the committee is considered in greater detail in Chapter 10 and in the panel reports prepared for this study (a summary of these reports is provided in Appendix A; the full reports can be found at http://www.nap.edu/catalog/10129.html).

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

experiences, extracurricular activities, talents, and backgrounds. Students who meet established standards are typically admitted as long as space is available. This approach to admissions allows institutions to identify qualified applicants efficiently from a very large pool. With this approach, AP and IB play a role only when grades earned in those classes are given extra weight in computing GPAs or establishing class rank. Students who do not have access to AP or IB courses are at a disadvantage in this type of admission process unless provisions are in place to give equal weight to other kinds of advanced courses available to them. Thus, colleges and universities that use a formula to make admission decisions often give special consideration to grades earned in honors or college preparatory courses as well as to AP and IB grades.

In contrast with both of the systems described above, some institutions, particularly those interested in shaping their incoming classes in accordance with institutional goals and priorities, use a very different approach. Admission officers at these colleges individually read applications (sometimes more than once), consider information about students that is more subjective in nature, and examine how each student might contribute to the values and goals of the institution. Evaluations of students in these situations usually take into account both what an individual applicant has accomplished and the context of the high school from which he or she will graduate. For example, students who take no honors or AP classes at schools that offer such programs are viewed differently from those who take no such classes at schools where they are unavailable. Similarly, those who attend schools where participation in extracurricular activities is limited by school policy are not evaluated with the same expectations for participation as those who attend high schools that encourage participation in a wide variety of activities. School profiles,26 reports of admission officers who visit many high schools, and the academic reputations of particular schools are used to pro

26  

A profile is a concise overview of the high school and its offerings. Profiles vary in quality, but a good one will indicate the highest-level courses offered in each academic area, describe the levels available (for example, honors, gifted and talented, college preparatory, remedial) for each grade, and make clear the degree of challenge. This profile allows an admission reader to compare the applicant’s transcript against the offerings of the school. In addition to course-level information, a profile also includes demographic information about both the school and the community; economic information, including percentage of school population on free or reduced lunch; the diversity of the student body; the percentage of graduates attending 4-year colleges; educational options in the community (mentorships or access to college courses taught on local college campuses, for example); college acceptance lists (where previous graduates were accepted or matriculated); SAT/ACT ranges; GPA distribution; and AP or IB score distributions by subject that serve as important indicators of how well the high school classes are aligned with the AP or IB program syllabi.

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

vide admission officers with needed information about the high schools attended by applicants.

The Roles of AP and IB in the Admission Process. To better understand the role played by AP and IB courses and examination results in college admission decisions, the committee conducted an informal survey of deans of admission from 264 U.S. colleges and universities.27 Approximately half responded. The survey was designed to shed light on three broad issues related to the college admission process: (1) how AP and IB courses on an applicant’s transcript are used in admission decisions, (2) the extent to which applicants’ chances for admission are affected if they do not take IB or AP courses because the courses are not offered at their high schools, and (3) the role played in admission decisions by AP and IB examination grades or by a lack of reported results.

The survey revealed that, regardless of their specific goals, the most important priority for admission officers at selective schools is to admit students who can take advantage of the academic strengths of the institution as well as contribute to the education of their peers. Because past performance is deemed a strong predictor of future performance, admission officers carefully review applicants’ transcripts to determine how well and to what extent the applicants have taken advantage of the school- and community-based opportunities available to them in high school.28 Admission personnel generally view the presence of AP or IB courses on a transcript as an indicator of the applicant’s willingness to confront academic challenges.29

The presence of AP and IB courses on a student’s transcript (if such courses are available at the applicant’s high school) is of greatest importance for admission to highly selective schools seeking students who have taken

27  

Using the 1994 Carnegie classifications for ranking undergraduate institutions, schools were placed into four broad categories: national universities, national liberal arts colleges, regional universities, and regional liberal arts colleges. Institutions from these four categories were then sorted by their selectivity in the admission process, as defined by the percentage of applicants admitted. Surveys were sent to the 50 most selective national liberal arts colleges and the 50 most selective national universities, as well as every seventh school on the remaining lists (a total of 264 institutions). Reminders were sent to deans who had not returned their survey forms by the deadline. This process resulted in a return of surveys from 133 institutions. Admission selectivity among the sample of surveys that were completed ranged in percentage of applicants accepted from a low of 11 percent to a high of 100 percent.

28  

Admission officers use two primary sources of information for determining what was available to students at different high schools: first-hand information gathered by admission staff during recruiting trips, and the high school profile, discussed above.

29  

AP and IB courses may also serve as indicators of the quality of the academic program offered by the applicant’s high school and hence assist in comparing students from different schools.

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

maximum advantage of the academic opportunities available to them. AP and IB courses are somewhat less important factors for admission at colleges where a larger percentage of applicants are admitted. Nonetheless, many of these colleges use the presence of AP and IB courses as an indicator of the strength of the applicant’s academic preparation. AP and IB play little to no role in admission decisions at colleges where the vast majority of applicants are accepted.

There are generally two types of high schools that do not offer AP or IB courses. First are both public and private schools that, for institutional reasons, elect not to offer AP and IB and instead provide their own rigorous curricula. Many of these high schools have national reputations for excellence, and admission officers know the levels of challenge the students in these schools experience. Second are schools typically located in areas where sufficient resources or qualified personnel are not available to mount such a program or where the demand for such courses is deemed to be low. The committee was concerned primarily with the outcome for students from this second group.

When asked what the effect on admission decisions is if AP or IB classes are not available at an applicant’s high school, deans from virtually every college or university replied that a lack of AP or IB courses at an applicant’s high school would not have an adverse effect on a student’s gaining admission to their institution if the student had taken the most challenging courses that were available and done well in them. Some admission officers indicated that they might look for evidence that students lacking access to rigorous opportunities in school tried instead to participate in similar kinds of academic opportunities outside of school. A very small number of deans indicated that there might be indirect consequences for students from schools with limited advanced course offerings. For example, a small number of deans reported that they are more likely to “dip deeper” into a class (i.e., accept students with a lower class rank) in high schools with solid academic programs than in schools with less solid programs. Thus, the number of AP and IB courses is sometimes used as an indicator of a school’s academic commitment. Of course, while offices of admission consciously avoid penalizing students who do not have access to advanced study courses or programs in their high schools, the lack of access to such courses also could result in students’ from these schools being less prepared and less successful if they are admitted to selective institutions.

The survey also addressed the issue of students who have access to AP and IB courses at their high schools but choose not to enroll in them. Deans from the most selective schools responded consistently that this decision would likely place an applicant at a disadvantage. When evaluating a student’s program against a high school’s course offerings, the most selective schools effectively require, in the absence of some compelling reason, that success-

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

ful applicants take the most demanding curriculum available to them. For some students, this may mean they are expected to take four to six AP courses during their high school years or three higher-level IB courses during their senior year. It also implies that students who attend schools where AP and IB courses are offered as junior year options are expected to have taken such courses in their junior year as well.

AP and IB Examination Grades and the Admission Process

AP and IB examinations are administered each May, and scores are not usually available until July. Therefore, final examination grades for AP and IB courses taken during the senior year of high school are not a factor in admission decisions, although they are a factor in credit and placement decisions. Many educators contend that this makes it easy for seniors to reduce their level of commitment to academics once admission letters have been mailed, sometimes as early as December of the senior year for those students who have applied for early decision or rolling admission.

If an applicant has taken AP or IB classes in tenth or eleventh grade but has not submitted scores, deans at most of the more selective colleges and universities included in the committee’s survey indicated that they interpret the student’s decision cautiously. Many observed that AP examinations are expensive and that applicants may not have taken them for financial reasons. Others noted that teaching is uneven from school to school and that it would be unfair to make assumptions about an applicant on the basis of information not provided. If, however, a student fails to submit scores, he or she has, in the words of one respondent, “missed a chance to strengthen the application.” A few of the most selective schools actively search for AP or IB scores on an applicant’s transcript; deans from these schools mentioned that the lack of an examination score would be addressed in a student interview if the opportunity arose.

Given the increase in the number of examinations being administered to sophomores and juniors, it is anticipated that examination scores may play a greater role in the admission process in the future. Deans from colleges and universities familiar with the IB program noted to the committee that the practice of some high schools of providing predicted scores30 was helpful in the evaluation of an applicant.

30  

IB teachers are required to submit “predicted grades” for each student before the year’s end. Predicted grades are used for a variety of purposes, including teacher evaluation and determination of grade distributions. The decision whether to release predicted grades to students, and presumable to colleges, is left to the individual high schools (IBO, 2000d). See additional details in Chapter 4, this volume.

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

College Credit and Placement Based on Advanced Study

The College Board and the IBO do not award credit or mandate specific placements, although both provide some guidance about appropriate practice. Thus individual colleges and universities (or departments within them) decide whether to award credit for AP and IB examination scores they regard as sufficiently high.

More than 2,900 colleges and universities accept AP test scores, and approximately 750 postsecondary institutions recognize IB scores. IB students traditionally have more difficulty than their AP counterparts obtaining college credit or placement for their scores. This situation is changing somewhat as colleges become more familiar with IB course content and requirements and gain more experience with IB students. However, because of the lingering reluctance of some schools to grant credit or placement for IB, some IB students also take AP assessments. This is a challenging undertaking for IB students because both sets of examinations are administered in May, and the dates may overlap.

Reducing Time to Degree

One of the factors contributing to the rapid increase in AP and IB enrollments is the perceived potential benefit of earning inexpensive college credits that can reduce time to degree and consequently decrease overall tuition costs.31 The extent to which students actually take advantage of this opportunity for acceleration in college and the resulting savings in tuition, is not well documented, however. Some students spend the same amount of time as other undergraduates, using these credits instead to reduce overall course loads, to pursue coursework that their schedules would not otherwise allow, or to take additional courses in a subject area.

Using AP and IB for Placement or Exemption from Required Courses

As noted above, in addition to being able to graduate early, students can use their AP and IB credits to reduce overall course loads or to meet college prerequisite or distribution requirements, freeing time in their schedules to

31  

Approximately 1,400 institutions offer sophomore standing to students with sufficient AP credit (College Board, http://www.collegeboard.org/ap/students/benefits/soph_standing.html [November 27, 2001]). Increasing numbers of colleges (for example, state universities in California, Florida, and Washington) are awarding credit and sophomore standing to IB students with IB diplomas.

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

take courses they find more interesting or challenging.32 Indeed, for many high-achieving students, the opportunity to place out of introductory courses and move directly into upper-level classes is a greater motivator than early graduation. Some colleges explicitly support this use of AP and IB scores by offering upper-level course placement to students who earn qualifying scores even if the institution does not award credit. Many high school counselors and teachers encourage their students to use their AP and IB credits in this manner when they enter college, especially when the introductory courses they would otherwise be required to take are large lecture classes or are perceived not to be sufficiently challenging.

At the same time, using credits from these examinations to fulfill distribution requirements means that students can potentially graduate from college without ever having taken courses in certain subject areas. For example, a student with AP biology credits may never have to take another course in science. Some institutions have attempted to minimize this practice, requiring that students address the school’s distribution requirements by enrolling in courses that are at higher levels than those taken in high school.

In contrast, some students decide not to use their AP or IB credits to place out of introductory courses because they believe they will benefit from taking the subjects again in college. The biology, physics, and chemistry panels that provided information for this study agreed that most students would benefit from retaking these courses in college. The mathematics panel did not agree, suggesting that there is typically little benefit for qualified AP or IB students in retaking introductory calculus in college unless their institutions require them to do so.

Students also may forego upper-level placement because they want to avoid the risk of doing poorly in upper-level courses during their first year in college or because they believe retaking a course in college would result in their receiving a higher grade than if they enrolled in a more advanced course. Deans from a very small number of institutions participating in the committee’s survey indicated that they offer transitional courses to students who place out of introductory-level courses but do not advance to the next course because of either the student’s own decision or that of the institution.

It may also be noted that students who take AP and IB courses and then repeat those same courses in college present a particular challenge to college faculty. It can be difficult to teach these students in the same class with those who may have only a basic understanding of the subject.

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Some colleges do not allow students to use AP or IB credits to fulfill distribution or major requirements; others grant AP or IB credit for first-year courses only after students have successfully completed a second-level course in the same subject.

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×
Institutional Decisions

In general, colleges and universities make decisions about granting AP and IB credit and placement in the same way they decide about accepting credits from other colleges. That is, university or department officials consider the content of the course, its perceived difficulty, associated laboratory activities (in the case of science courses), and the student’s level of achievement. They compare the course with similar offerings at their own institutions. Placement (rather than credit) decisions also may take into account the capabilities of the particular student and may be aided by the use of a department’s own placement test. This process is consistent with recommendations made by the College Board to its member institutions. In some publicly funded institutions,33 the granting of credit for a given AP or IB score may be legislatively mandated or set by institutional policy.

The IBO does not provide guidelines for colleges to use in making decisions about credit or placement. IB is an international program, and consequently IB students attend colleges in many countries, each with its own standards and examination policies. However, the IBO offers to assist administrators and department heads at U.S. colleges or universities who are unfamiliar with the IB program in making appropriate decisions with regard to the acceptance of IB examination scores for credit or placement.

In science, decision making at the department level may involve interviewing the student and reviewing his or her high school course syllabus and laboratory notebooks. In other departments, examination scores alone may suffice. In mathematics, most departments accept an AP examination score in calculus without question. This practice is the result of faculty experience with what AP students know and are able to do, and the similarity between AP and college calculus courses.

Denial of Credit or Placement

Although the College Board encourages colleges to award academic credit for an AP score of 3 or higher, and the American Council for Education endorses this stance (College Entrance Examination Board, 2000a), nearly half of the colleges in the United States that accept AP credits do not abide by the College Board’s standards (Lichten, 2000). Lichten found that while most 4-year colleges accept 4’s and 5’s for credit, only 55 percent accept 3’s. Overall, only 49 percent of AP test takers receive college credit, even though

33  

This point applies only to publicly funded institutions.

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×

two-thirds of them are qualified for college credit according to the College Board.34

There are various reasons for the reluctance of some colleges to award college credit as generously as entering students have come to expect and as frequently as the College Board recommends. For example, university faculty and administrators may not believe that students taking AP courses have undertaken work that is equivalent to the courses at their institution or that students have engaged the concepts of the discipline as deeply as they would in college.

Variability of Credit and Placement Decisions

Survey of Mathematics and Biology Departments. To gain a better understanding of the ways in which postsecondary institutions make credit and placement decisions about AP and IB, the committee sent an informal questionnaire about these issues to the departments of biology and mathematics at 131 colleges and universities.35 The respondents represented national universities and liberal arts colleges, as well as regional colleges and universities located in the Midwest, North, South, and West. The institutions that responded included research universities, colleges, highly selective institutions, and institutions with open-admission policies.

It is important to note that a precise interpretation of the survey data was difficult. Response rates were less than ideal. The survey questions unfortunately did not probe sufficiently for detail or allow respondents to qualify their answers. Nevertheless, the data do provide useful information about how placement decisions are actually made.

The majority of the biology departments that responded to the survey offer two different introductory biology courses—one designed for potential majors and the other for everyone else. Other survey findings include the following:

34  

The College Board is currently studying the validity of a grade of 3 on AP examinations.

35  

Departments of biology and mathematics to which survey forms were sent were selected from a list of schools gathered from the Gourman Report: A Rating of Undergraduate Programs in American Universities (Gourman, 1999). Also selected were departments in every third school from the alphabetical list of the Oberlin Conference schools and every seventh school from the Carnegie Foundation’s listings of institutions of higher education by institutional type (Bachelors I and II, Masters I and II, and Doctoral I and II institutions—available at http://www.carnegiefoundation.org). This process resulted in the selection of 131 schools. The chairs of the biology and mathematics departments from these institutions were sent the questionnaire by electronic mail. Responses were received from 43 chairs (33 percent) from departments of biology and 59 chairs (45 percent) from departments of mathematics.

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×
  • The vast majority of these departments award college credit for AP, and sometimes for IB.36

  • The amount of credit awarded almost always depends on the score earned. For example, a student with an AP score of 5 or an IB score of 7 might earn up to eight credits (the equivalent of two semester courses with laboratory), while a student with a score of 3 or 4 might earn only earn four credits.

  • Some departments are willing to accept an AP score of 3 or an IB score of 5, but the majority look for 4’s or 5’s on AP tests and 6’s or 7’s on IB tests. Two institutions grant credit or placement only for an AP 5 or an IB 7.

  • Credit and placement policies at most institutions do not vary significantly between majors and nonmajors.

  • A small proportion of the schools reported using indicators other than the test scores in making placement or credit decisions. In order of descending frequency, these additional factors are student interviews, placement tests, the high school’s reputation, and the student’s laboratory manual.

  • Only two of the schools that responded have developed a special course as a transition to higher-level science for students with AP or IB credits.

Approximately half of the mathematics department chairs that responded to the survey indicated that their departments offer only one sequence of calculus. The others offer different sequences—one for mathematics, engineering, and physical science majors and the other for life science and other majors. A variation on this last organizational structure is a third sequence for business majors. Additional survey findings are as follows:

  • A large majority of the mathematics departments offer credit to students with qualifying AP scores without considering any additional factors. However, almost a third require a departmental test and/or an interview with the student before determining placement in courses beyond the introductory level.

  • Mathematics departments routinely offer credit for scores of 4 and 5 on AP Calculus AB or BC examinations. Among the schools that accept IB, most consider a score of 5 or higher on the Higher Level examination to be acceptable.37

36  

Many of the biology departments were unfamiliar with the IB program and had never been asked to consider an IB score for credit or placement. These institutions restricted their responses to AP.

37  

Many respondents did not know of a policy for accepting IB credits, and some of the departments reported that they do not award IB credit.

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×
  • Very few departments indicated that they would accept any scores from the IB Standard Level course in Mathematics Methods.

  • Special sections of mathematics (both higher-level calculus and other areas of mathematics) are sometimes offered to students who score 4 or higher on an AP calculus examination. This practice is most common among schools that emphasize mathematics and engineering.

EPILOGUE

From the perspective of higher education, advanced study in mathematics and science has both advantages and disadvantages. In theory, both the AP and IB programs should lead to learning of science and mathematics content at a more advanced and deeper level than would occur if students had taken only introductory high school courses in these subjects. Furthermore, by creating de facto standards for the kinds of knowledge and skills students are expected to learn in a subject area, these programs allow colleges and universities to gauge more easily the academic experiences that applicants and entering students have had during their high school years as compared with students who did not enroll in these courses or programs.

As detailed in Chapters 3 and 4, however, the academic experiences of the students in these programs can be highly variable. Additionally, some college-bound students may not have access to such opportunities even where they do exist. Therefore, it remains a challenge to provide appropriate college courses for this broad array of first-year students. This is a concern in particular for smaller institutions that cannot offer a large number of options for incoming students in each discipline.

Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
×
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Page 59
Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Page 60
Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Page 61
Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Page 62
Suggested Citation:"2. Context of Advanced Study." National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129.
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Page 63
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This book takes a fresh look at programs for advanced studies for high school students in the United States, with a particular focus on the Advanced Placement and the International Baccalaureate programs, and asks how advanced studies can be significantly improved in general. It also examines two of the core issues surrounding these programs: they can have a profound impact on other components of the education system and participation in the programs has become key to admission at selective institutions of higher education.

By looking at what could enhance the quality of high school advanced study programs as well as what precedes and comes after these programs, this report provides teachers, parents, curriculum developers, administrators, college science and mathematics faculty, and the educational research community with a detailed assessment that can be used to guide change within advanced study programs.

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