Growing Populations, Changing Landscapes: Studies from India, China, and the United States (2001)

Page 107

Page 108

~ enlarge ~
FIGURE 6-1 Districts of Haryana.

maximum of 156 centimeters in the district of Ambala. The average annual rainfall is 59 centimeters.

Based on its agroclimatic conditions, Haryana can be divided into two homogeneous regions: the eastern semiarid zone and the western arid zone. These regions show marked differences in patterns of land use, especially in the agricultural sector, and in levels of development. Intensity of land use in the two regions does not differ significantly, yet agriculture in the semiarid region is dominated by the cultivation of high-yielding, high-value crops such as rice and wheat, which accounted for 58.3 percent of the gross cropped area in 1991–1992. By contrast, in the same year a large proportion of the cropped area (63.4 percent) in the arid zone was allocated to lower-yielding, lower-value crops such as bajra (millet), pulses, oilseeds, and cotton.¹ As a result, the per-hectare quantity and value of output in the two regions differ significantly.

¹This contrast was even sharper in 1971–1972 when bajra (millet), pulses, oilseeds, and cotton together occupied 72.6 percent of gross cropped area in the arid zone and 34.2 percent in the semiarid zone. Rice and wheat together accounted for only 12.6 percent and 40.2 percent of gross cropped area in the arid and semiarid zones, respectively.

Page 109

Haryana has well-developed agricultural and industrial sectors, and its economy is growing rapidly—per capita income is the third highest among the sixteen major states in India. Haryana's outstanding agricultural development has been attributed primarily to the Green Revolution. Initiated over the period 1967–1978, it resulted in the intensification and expansion of agriculture in many developing countries and was very successful in India. Major aspects of the Green Revolution were the expansion of farmland and the adoption of double-cropping systems (two crop seasons per year) and seeds that had been improved genetically—that is, high-yielding varieties (HYV) of wheat, rice, corn, and millet. These practices continue to shape land use in Haryana today.

This study examines changes in land use in the arid and semiarid agroecological regions of Haryana and the extent to which such changes are consistent with the goals of sustainable development. More specifically, it explores land use patterns in the context of the roles of population, technology, prices, and public policies, and analyzes the ecological consequences, particularly on water resources, of the intensification of agriculture. This study also examines socioeconomic indicators to determine whether the success brought by advanced agricultural technology has been translated into social benefits. Finally, it looks at the role of Haryana in providing food security for the nation, contrasting the demand for agricultural commodities for local consumption with the demand from markets outside the region.

Page 110

SOURCE: Srinivasan, K., ed. 1996. Population Policy and Reproductive Health. New Delhi: Population Foundation of India.

growth rate has declined from 2.85 percent for the period 1951–1971 to 2.47 percent for the period 1971–1991, the latter growth rate is still much greater than the national annual growth rate of 2.17 percent for the same period. The rapid decline in mortality in the last half-century is commonly ascribed to improvements in nutrition and sanitation in some urban areas and better health care.

Haryana's crude annual birth rate for the period 1991–1996 was 31.9 per thousand persons compared with 29.2 for India ( Table 6-2). Its death rate for the same period was 8.6 per thousand persons, which is lower than the national average of 9.8. Combining these rates results in a natural growth rate for 1991–1996 of 23.3 per thousand persons for Haryana compared with 19.4 for India.

Life expectancy at birth in Haryana is 59.5 years for females, 61.5 years for males. The state ranks third among the major states in life expectancy for males, after Kerala (65.9 years) and Punjab (63 years). Its life expectancy for females, however, is unimpressive; Haryana ranks eighth among the major states.

The increase in population has led to greater population density, because the land area remains unchanged. The population density of Haryana rose from 227 persons per square kilometer in 1971 to 372 in 1991, an increase of 64 percent. This density is much higher than the 1991 national average of 257 persons per square kilometer. Although the rate of increase of population density has been declining since the 1950s, it is projected to rise in the twenty-first century—to as high as 455 persons per square kilometer in the year 2001 and 530 by the year 2011 ( Table 6-3). Such high densities, in spite of the decline in population growth rates witnessed in recent years, stem from the high population growth main-

Page 111

SOURCES: All figures for 1971–1991: Nutrition Foundation of India. 1992–1993. National Family Health Survey-Haryana. New Delhi: Nutrition Foundation of India; all figures for 1996–2016: Population Projections—India and the States, 1996–2016, Census of India, 1991; 1951 and 1961 crude birth and death rates for India: Pathak, K. B. 1996. Fertility and mortality transition in India: Policy perspectives and priorities. In: Population Policy and Reproductive Health, K. Srinivasan, ed. New Delhi: Population Foundation of India.

Page 112

SOURCES: Figures for 1996, 2001, and 2011: Population Projections—India and the States, 1996–2016 and Census of India, 1991. Other figures:Statistical Abstract of India (various issues).

Page 113

^aRefers to people residing in Haryana whose last place of residence was outside Haryana (all durations)—that is, in-migration is net of migration across districts within Haryana.

SOURCE: Prepared by the author based on data from: Census of India 1971, Haryana, Series 6-Haryana, Part II-D, Migration Tables; Census of India 1991, Haryana, Series 6-Haryana, Part II-D, Vol. 1, Migration Tables.

earners grew at a rate of −1.51 percent and 0.40 percent a year, respectively, over the period 1971–1991. Overall, in-migrants account for 12.57 percent and 11.15 percent of Haryana's population in 1971 and 1991, respectively ( Table 6-5).

The employment of a substantial proportion (24–31 percent) of inmigrants in cultivation and agricultural wage earning has contributed to a decline in net sown area per capita, thereby increasing the population pressure on land for the livelihood of the rural population. For the period 1971–1991, the net sown area per primary sector worker declined from 2.99 hectares to 2.03 hectares, and the decline in net sown area per capita of rural population was even greater—from 0.43 hectares to 0.29 hectares

Page 114

^aRefers to people residing in Haryana whose place of last residence was outside Haryana (all durations)—that is, in-migration is net of migration across districts within Haryana.

SOURCES: (1) Census of India, 1971 & 1991, Series VI, Part II-D, Migration Tables, Haryana for migrant population data; (2) Census of India, 1971 & 1991, Series VI Part V-A & B, Vol.1, General Economic Tables, Haryana; (3) Statistical Abstract of Haryana (various issues) for rural and urban population, net sown area, landholding, and household data; (4) the rest of the figures were generated by the auther from these categories.

( Table 6-5). In addition, the number of landholdings increased at the rate of 2.15 percent a year, resulting in net sown area per rural landholding declining from 3.57 hectares to 2.34 hectares, a decline of 2.10 percent a year.

Haryana, with only one-fourth of its population residing in urban areas, is less urbanized than many developed states of India. However, urbanization is on the rise: the urban population, which constituted

Page 115

approximately 10 percent of the net population before 1951, had grown to 18 percent by 1971 and 25 percent by 1991 ( Table 6-5). The increasing rate of urbanization is clearly revealed by the difference in the growth rates of the rural and urban populations. Between 1971 and 1991 the urban population of Haryana grew at an average rate of 4.22 percent a year, while the rural population grew at an average rate of 2.05 percent a year.

The urban density of Haryana in 1991, at 5,309 persons per square kilometer, was greater than that in almost all states of India. From 1981 to 1991 urban density increased by 40 percent. According to the 1991 census, approximately 60 percent of Haryana's urban population is concentrated in metropolitan areas with populations equal to or above 100,000. Nearly 40 percent of the rural population is concentrated in villages with populations under 5,000.

Page 116

SOURCE: Statistical Abstract of Haryana (various issues).

Page 117

With the adoption of the double-cropping system, cropping intensity increased from 116 percent in 1950 to 135 percent in 1960. Public investments in canal irrigation systems also played an important role in creating favorable physical conditions for the intensification of agriculture. The net irrigated area, as a percentage of net sown area, increased from 30 percent in 1960 to 38 percent in 1966 ( Table 6-6). During this early phase, canals irrigated most of the net irrigated area; wells irrigated a smaller portion.

These activities benefited the economy of Haryana. The government expedited creation of the necessary infrastructure by increasing the number of regulated markets and opening branches of commercial banks outside large towns. Surplus supplies of wheat were sold mainly to public procurement agencies, and any remaining was sold in the open markets. Government intervention in the food market ensured that producers would receive fair prices and prevented wheat prices from crashing at the regional level.

During this phase the Green Revolution played a prominent role in land use change in Haryana. With the implementation of Green Revolution technology and the introduction of the high-yielding crop varieties over the period 1966–1971, the net sown area expanded by 5 percent and the irrigated area by 21 percent ( Table 6-6).

³In 1971 government agencies procured 709,000 tonnes of wheat from Haryana, or 29.5 percent of Haryana's wheat production and 13.9 percent of the total wheat procured at the national level.

Page 118

Tanwar (1994) has pointed out that during the 1980s about 60 percent of the area of Haryana faced a declining water table. Thus overutilization of groundwater was a major concern. The decline was more conspicuous in areas where freshwater was available (approximately 40 percent of the land area of the state). Almost 50 percent of the state area depended on groundwater that was marginal in quality; 9 percent depended on water that was brackish (Tanwar, 1995).

Another concern is soil degradation. According to the National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (NBSS&LUP), which classifies soil by its physical and chemical degradation, one-third of the land area of Haryana has degraded soil, of which 23 percent suffers from medium-level degradation and 5 percent from high-level degradation ( Table 6-8). Chemical degradation, probably from the excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, accounts for 6 percent of soil degradation.

Page 119

~ enlarge ~
FIGURE 6-2 Indices of yield, value, and price of rice and wheat, 1966–1997. NOTE: Nominal value (rupees/hectare at current prices) is computed from yield and price and converted to “real value” (rupees/hectare at constant 1981–1982 prices) using NSDPagr as a deflator. All four categories were then measured relative to their 1971–1972 levels. SOURCES: Statistical Abstract of Haryana (various issues); Agricultural Prices in India, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India (various issues).

ready exhausted more than 20 years ago. A related yet striking feature of the land use pattern in Haryana is the very small proportion of the reported area under forest cover, 2.3 percent in 1970 and 2.5 percent in 1995. Such low forest cover values indicate extensive use of land for cultivation. Although the area under forest cover increased slightly in the 1980s from efforts to promote environmental preservation, Haryana's percentage of land under forest cover remains far below the national norm of 33 percent. The Ninth Plan (1997–2002) of India specifies that not less than 2 percent of the land area of each district should be classified as forest cover.

A combination of government policies, population pressures, and available technological options are responsible for other types of changes

Page 120

^a
Refers to displacement of soil material principally by wind and water.


^b
Refers to internal soil deterioration resulting from the accumulation of chemical substances such as salt and loss of nutrients.

SOURCE: National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning. 1996–1997. Soil of India. NBSS Publication 44, Series 3.

Page 121

Page 122

in land use. For example, an increase in the area devoted to nonagricultural uses is the direct result of increasing urbanization, industrialization, and the state government's policy of creating industrial estates.⁴ The area under nonagricultural uses increased from 309,000 hectares in 1970 to 338,000 hectares in 1990, a change that can be attributed to increased land use for housing, industrial estates, and infrastructure (such as roads).

By contrast, barren and uncultivated land, land used for grazing and as permanent pasture, and cultivable wasteland have all decreased. The decrease in land area in the “barren and uncultivated” category (it declined from 4.1 percent of the reported area in 1970 to 2.2 percent in 1990) is a result of land reclamation policy. The availability of technology for reclaiming land affected by severe salinity and sodicity has made such reclamation feasible and financially viable. Reclamation of barren land for cultivation has in part mitigated the negative effects of the expansion of the area under nonagricultural uses.

The decline in area classified as permanent pastures and grazing land is a direct result of the increased population pressure from both humans and animals. Permanent pastures and grazing land declined by 30,000 hectares between 1970 and 1990. As a proportion of reported area, they declined from 1.2 percent in 1970 to only 0.5 percent in 1990. Fallow lands increased by about 20,000 hectares from 1970 to 1990, while net sown area declined by about 25,000 hectares (a small proportion of the total) in the 1980s, possibly indicating the retirement of cultivated land deficient in soil nutrients or suffering from increased salinity. Unacceptable salinity levels may be related to the combined effects of inappropriate agricultural practices, lack of proper drainage, and exploitation of groundwater.

Page 123

have occurred within categories of land use. The most notable of these have been within the agricultural sector. For example, the absolute area and proportion of cropped area allocated to traditional crops such as jowar, bajra, maize, barley, and gram have declined, and the area allocated to rice, wheat, and cotton has increased. While some of these increases in area have stemmed from the increased availability of cropped area, most of the changes have resulted from crop switching.

Significant changes in cropping patterns have been implemented in Haryana over the years. The proportion of cropped area allocated to cereals increased from 45 percent in 1960 to more than 57 percent three decades later ( Table 6-10). The proportion of area allocated to oilseeds and cotton also increased over this period, while that allocated to sugarcane declined very slightly. Finally, there has been a notable decline in the proportion of area allocated to pulses, from 33 percent in 1960 to 7 percent in 1990.

As a result of shifts in cropping area and technological progress, wheat production increased from 2.4 million tonnes in 1971 to 6.5 million tonnes in 1991 ( Table 6-11). Likewise, rice production increased from 536,000 tonnes in 1971 to 1.8 million tonnes in 1991. Pulse production, however, declined—from 682,000 tonnes to 273,000 tonnes over the same period.

In Haryana, where more than 80 percent of the total reported area is utilized by cropping systems, farmers individually own and operate small

SOURCE: Statistical Abstract of Haryana (various years).

Page 124

SOURCE: Statistical Abstract of Haryana (various years).

Page 125

SOURCE: Prepared by the author on the basis of detailed information provided by: National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning. 1992. Agro-Ecological Regions of India. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Nagpur.

SOURCE: Prepared by the author based on district-level data obtained from Statistical Abstract of Haryana (various issues).

Page 126

Expansion of irrigated area and a price policy favoring oilseeds and cotton were common factors in the pattern shifts. In the arid region both oilseeds and cotton gained at the cost of pulses, while in the semiarid region only oilseeds replaced pulses. Higher prices as well as the technological thrust to raise productivity for oilseeds were mainly responsible for making this crop more profitable. As for pulses, although prices rose significantly over the period 1971–1991, the lack of technological breakthroughs in yield kept it a low-priority crop, even in the arid region.

One marked difference in the cropping patterns of the two regions is that the semiarid region uses a much higher percentage of area for water-intensive crops ( Table 6-14). For example, in 1991 in the arid region cereals accounted for about 43 percent of the gross cropped area (GCA), pulses 11 percent, oilseeds 18 percent, and cotton 18 percent. By contrast, in 1991 in the semiarid region cereals accounted for 68 percent of the GCA, pulses 4 percent, oilseeds 9 percent, and cotton 2 percent. Rice cultivation occupied only a small portion of the GCA—3 percent—in the arid region in 1991 and 18 percent of the GCA in the semiarid region ( Table 6-13). The expansion of area used for cultivating rice in the semiarid region has been impressive, increasing from 9 percent in 1971 to 18 percent in 1991.

SOURCE: Prepared by the author based on district-level data obtained from Statistical Abstract of Haryana (various issues).

Page 127

SOURCE: Prepared by the author based on district-level data obtained from the National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning. 1996–1997. Soil of India. NBSS Publication 44, Series 3. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Nagpur.

Both the arid and semiarid regions suffer from soil degradation of one kind or another ( Table 6-15). About one-third of both regions are categorized as degraded area. In the central tract of the semiarid region, the heart of Haryana's rice production, 39 percent of the land suffers from degradation; the water table in this region also is markedly low.

SOURCE: Prepared by the author based on district-level data obtained from Statistical Abstract of Haryana (various issues).

Page 128

The overall difference in productivity between the arid and semiarid regions is narrowing over time ( Table 6-16). While the semiarid region has attained much higher yields of cereals and pulses than the arid region, the latter has performed better with crops that require relatively little water such as oilseed and cotton. In 1971 cereal yields in the semiarid region were 57 percent higher than in arid region. By 1991 this difference in yield had declined to 17 percent. By contrast, in 1971 the cotton yield in the arid region was greater than that in the semiarid region, and the difference had increased further by 1991.

The semiarid region has more advanced irrigation and agricultural technology than the arid region as indicated by the number of tube wells and tractors per thousand hectares of net sown area utilized by the semiarid region from 1971 to 1991. But in both regions the amount of fertilizer applied per hectare and the percentage of irrigated area increased signifi-

SOURCE: Prepared by the author based on district-level data obtained from Statistical Abstract of Haryana (various issues).

Page 129

cantly during this period ( Table 6-17). The level of adoption of high-yielding rice varieties did not differ significantly between the two regions.

While differences in the pattern of crop allocations and agricultural development between the two regions can be attributed in part to differences in their climatic and natural resource endowments, the regional differences also have been accentuated by policies that tend to favor the better-endowed regions. Although several public policies influence the pace and pattern of development, two of these policies—on infrastructure development and the pricing of crop inputs and outputs—appear to be critical.

The policies on crop input and output pricing, unlike the infrastructure policies, do not have an apparent regional bias. Most of these policies are decided at the national level and do not vary much across states. Within the state, the pricing of inputs and outputs does not differ between regions, but the pricing policies tend to favor the better-endowed regions indirectly by offering more remunerative prices for crops suitable for cultivation in such regions. Because these crops use large amounts of fertilizer, water, and electricity, input subsidies prove more beneficial to farmers in the better-endowed regions. Even research and extension activities favor the crops suitable for cultivation in such regions. Thus unintended biases emerge from the actual implementation of such policies. The better-endowed regions gain relatively more, although not at the expense of the less-well-endowed regions.

Page 130

1991). After remunerative price policies for paddy rice were initiated in the late 1970s, the area devoted to rice cultivation expanded, resulting in exploitation of groundwater resources. Subsidies for the use of electricity in the rural sector and the lack of regulatory measures for the use of groundwater only exacerbated the exploitation and encouraged inefficient use of groundwater. As a result, the water table declined rapidly, especially in the semiarid region.

At the state level, more groundwater could be harnessed, because only 68 percent of the resources are being utilized (M. C. Agarwal, 1995). The semiarid region, however, is experiencing an average fall in the water table of 0.3–0.6 meters annually, indicating that groundwater utilization is exceeding recharge. The districts of Yamunanagar, Karnal, Kurukshetra, and Ambala have shown signs of overextraction, and in other districts the rate of decline of the water table is alarming. In Kurukshetra the water table declined from 8.2 meters in 1974 to 17.8 meters in 1994 ( Table 6-18). The phenomenon of a declining water table is not confined to the semiarid region. In Mahendragarh, in the arid region, the water table declined from 19.7 meters in 1974 to 30.4 meters in 1994. The cost of replenishing groundwater in these locations will be enormous if the trend continues. For example, according to the Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI), the cost of replenishing groundwater in districts like Karnal and Panipat is likely to be Rs. 371 million ($8.5 million) and Rs. 169 million ($3.9 million), respectively.

The overdependence on subsurface sources of groundwater stems from low natural recharge, meager tanks and surface water reservoirs, and uncertain and low canal water supplies in good-quality groundwater zones (R. P. Agarwal, 1995; Singh, 1995; Tanwar, 1994). Researchers and

SOURCE: The figures on water table depth in October 1974 and October 1994 were obtained from the State Groundwater Board, Chandigarh, Haryana.

Page 131

others fear that overuse has lowered the water yield from tube wells. Lower yield may affect overall irrigation efficiency at the farm level, thereby increasing energy consumption and operating costs as farmers must pump water for longer hours to irrigate the same area. Otherwise, they must increase operating costs by purchasing high-powered electric motors. This situation often leads to conflicts and competition over the use of the resource.⁵ In addition, the falling water table already has contributed toward a nutritional imbalance, deterioration in soil health and texture, and the emergence of weeds and insects (Tanwar, 1994).

The falling water table in Haryana does not result entirely from the overuse associated with paddy cultivation and maintaining the rice–wheat rotation. It also results from faulty drainage operations, leading to a diminished recharge. This situation was brought about by the increased drainage efficiency achieved by the large-scale construction of river control works and lined drains, which had the secondary effect of reducing recharge of the aquifer (Tanwar, 1994). Thus the environmental problems related to the falling water table must be addressed on two levels: at the policy level, by discouraging the rice–wheat rotation, and at the operations level, by dealing with the engineering aspects of drainage operations. The underlying problem is that profit-driven farmers are making excessive use of groundwater through tube wells. The problem of faulty drainage calls for appropriate technical solutions.⁶

Page 132

Overall, an estimated 18 percent (8,000 square kilometers) of the state is waterlogged, of which 3,500 square kilometers are highly saline (Tanwar, 1997). The waterlogging will degrade some areas, and flooding could be more frequent and severe in the future. Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University (1996–1997) has estimated the loss in agricultural production from waterlogging and soil salinity at Rs. 270 million ($6.2 million). The amount may increase to Rs. 860 million ($20 million) in 2000 if no remedial measures are taken to rectify the situation.

Page 133

decline at the annual rate of 11 centimeters over the period 1997–2007, 9.4 centimeters over 2007–2017, and 7.9 centimeters over 2017–2027. If it is assumed that land allocation in Haryana is more responsive to the price of rice-wheat relative to the price of sugarcane, more land will be allocated to the cultivation of rice, thereby contributing to the overuse of water.

As long as farmers are able to manage the declining water table by incurring higher capital costs to pump water from greater depths, and as long as they continue to reap profits from farming, they will likely continue the existing rice–wheat cropping sequences.⁸ Nevertheless, the growing shortage of water may defeat the goals of achieving higher levels of foodgrain production and productivity and endanger efforts to achieve sustainable use of the resources.

Page 134

Changes in the state-level commodity pricing policies are another avenue toward conserving resources. The output pricing of products can, at best, encourage the substitution of less water-intensive crops for wheat and paddy, but in light of the present trend toward adopting the highly profitable rice–wheat production sequence, such a substitution may not be feasible in Haryana. Farmers could increase the area used to cultivate vegetables and fruits, but, because storage facilities for these perishable commodities are not available, farmers often do not fetch higher returns for these crops.

An increase in input prices could have a substantial impact on efficient use of available resources. At present, the state government provides subsidized electricity to farmers based on a flat rate structure. The government might consider following a more rational pricing policy, based on a unit rate, that would prevent exploitation and misuse of water resources.⁹ Moreover, if consumers were aware of the growing water scarcity in the region, they might find higher electricity charges more acceptable, provided the power supply is uninterrupted. In one of the studies done in the Karnal and Kurukshetra Districts of Haryana, water consumers were willing to pay one-third more than the present rate of Rs. 29 (0.67 cents) per BHP (break horsepower) per month for a dependable supply of electricity. Indeed, during kharif season, when rice is grown, they were willing to pay from Rs. 30.2 (0.70 cents) to Rs. 78.9 (2 cents) per BHP per month, or an average of Rs. 40.1 (0.9 cents) per BHP per month (Malik and Goldar, 1998).

A mix of these policy measures could be adopted to solve the emerging problem of water depletion in Haryana. Government intervention also is required to achieve a solution. India's Ministry of Water Resources has proposed a bill that would regulate and control the development of groundwater (Government of India, 1992). It proposes to set up a single, unified agency of the groundwater authority at the state level, which would operate under the jurisdiction of the Central Groundwater Authority.¹⁰ The former would regulate and manage groundwater resources through technical planning and also take the necessary remedial measures. Moreover, it would help to create awareness of the need for judicious use of water and promote education among farmers and other users. The canal irrigation system also should be reviewed in accordance with the irrigation demands of the existing cropping pattern across districts.

⁹Researchers have found that farmers are overirrigating rice and wheat to safeguard the crops against electric power disruptions.

¹⁰Personal communication with B. S. Tanwar, director, Haryana State Minor Irrigation and Tubewell Corporation, Karnal.

Page 135

Page 136

SOURCE: National Accounts Statistics 1998. Central Statistical Organization, Ministry of Planning, Government of India; State Domestic Product 1998, CSO (floppy).

45 percent in 1993 in rural regions and from 42 percent to 32 percent in urban regions. Conversely, the shares of other food products, especially fruits, vegetables, and livestock products, increased significantly. The substantial increase in the per capita monthly household expenditure in both rural and urban areas stemmed from large increases in prices. Expenditures on nonfood items increased more than expenditures on food. A decline in the fraction of income spent for food is customarily recognized as an indicator of improved economic well-being. It is interesting to note that this change occurred in both urban and rural areas.

In Haryana's expenditure on food from 1972 to 1993, the share of cereal grains, as expected, declined significantly in rural and urban areas, indicating a shift in consumption from cereal grains to other food products ( Table 6-21). An important feature of the food consumption pattern

SOURCE: Sarvekshana, Vol. 2 (January 1979) and Vol. 20 (October–December 1996), National Sample Survey Organisation.

Page 137

SOURCE: Sarvekshana, Vol. 2 (January 1979) and Vol. 20 (October–December 1996), National Sample Survey Organisation.

Page 138

the national average proportion, primarily because of the strong religious taboos on nonvegetarian food.¹²

Judging from the large increase in the consumption of livestock products observed over the last three decades, it appears likely that this consumption will continue to increase in Haryana and in India. Because Haryana fulfills a sizable portion of the demand for livestock products from Delhi and several other urban centers, increased consumption of livestock products may bring about significant changes in land use. Production of livestock products requires much more land than production of cereal grains, although currently only 2 percent of cereal grains produced in India are fed to livestock, compared with 20 percent in China, 50 percent in Japan, and 70 percent in the United States (Dunning and Brough, 1991).

Animal husbandry is an integral part of Haryana's agriculture. Several agroclimatic features, such as the dry climate, presence of lime in the soil, availability of abundant grazing land, and predominance of semifodder crops, have favored the rearing of quality livestock. Bovines, camels, horses, ponies, mules, donkeys, pigs, sheep, goats, and poultry made up the 1992 livestock census of Haryana. Changes in the livestock population in recent decades are attributable to several factors ( Table 6-22). Intensive cultivation of wheat and rice after the spread of the Green Revolution necessitated rapid completion of tillage and sowing operations. Thus farmers invested heavily in tractors and threshers, and the number of bullocks, which constituted about 85 percent of the draft animal force for cultivation, declined by 41 percent between 1972 and 1992. All in all, the number of working animals declined by 13 percent. Their share of total livestock (in terms of standard feed units) declined from 35 percent to 23 percent during this period.

Another factor affecting changes in the livestock population is the increased demand for milk, eggs, and meat caused by the 64 percent increase in the human population and rising incomes. As a result, the number of milch animals increased by 47 percent between 1972 and 1992. Because of the strong cultural taboo against consumption of beef, nonvegetarians depend on goat, sheep, chicken, and pigs for meat. Thus the population of these animals increased substantially over 1972–1992, though it continues to constitute only a small proportion (5 percent) of the total livestock population.

Page 139

SOURCE: Livestock Census, 1972 and 1992.

couraging results in reducing its population growth rate, which is currently 2.5 percent. The National Family Health Survey indicates that fertility rates are lower among women in urban areas than those in rural areas and are inversely proportional to the level of education of women ( Table 6-23). Furthermore, urban households have lower infant mortality rates than rural households. Infant mortality rates seem to decline with higher levels of education among women and with the availability of maternal and prenatal care.

High income standing and relatively high human development in Haryana do not appear to translate into improved welfare for all segments of society. Of the sixteen major states of India, Haryana ranks third

Page 140

SOURCE: National Family Health Survey (NFHS) 1992–1993: India, Haryana, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh. International Institute for Population Sciences, Bombay.

Page 141

Page 142

In fact, government policies are responsible for changes in land use patterns aimed at intensification of agriculture and development. These policies generally give priority to expansion of canals and groundwater irrigation through large-scale investments, the provision of subsidized electricity for tube wells, credit and marketing facilities, crop output price supports, and other institutional support. The policies related to infrastructure development and pricing of crop inputs and outputs seem to be the most crucial.

While the Green Revolution has contributed to achieving food security in Haryana as well as in the country at large, environmental constraints arising out of the shifts in cropping patterns in favor of crop rotation such as rice–wheat are beginning to surface. The development policies aimed at increasing the production of cereal grains did not take into consideration the possible effects of these policies on the environment and the use of natural resources. Some of the research results indicate that factor productivity and the input use efficiency of the system are declining and that crop yields in the system lack sustainability. Average crop yields have been increasing, yet the rate of increase in crop yields is on the decline; they have not been rising in proportion to the increased use of inputs. As a result, although the rice–wheat farming system is still financially profitable and economically viable, the profitability of the system is declining. Thus the sustainability of the Green Revolution in Haryana in economic, social, and environmental terms is now a matter of serious concern.

Page 143

Page 144

Richards, J. F. et al. 1994 . Historic Land Use and Carbon Estimates for South and Southeast Asia, 1880–1980. Environmental Sciences Division Publ. No. 4174. ORNL/CDIAC-61 NDP-046, Oak Ridge National Laboratory .

Singh, P. 1995 . Efficient utilisation of canal water. In: Proceedings of 2nd Dr. D. P. Motiramani Memorial Lecture and Panel Discussion on Agricultural Water Management: Issues and Priorities, October 21, 1995, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University , Hisar .

Tanwar, B. S. 1994 . Environmental Impact of Groundwater Development. Paper presented at the Regional Workshop on Environmental Aspects of Groundwater Development, Kurukshetra, Haryana, October 17–19, 1994.

Tanwar, B. S. 1995 . Disposal of drainage effluent options for Haryana. In: Reclamation and Management of Waterlogged Soils, K. V. G. K. Rao, ed. Reclamation and Management of Waterlogged Saline Soils, National Seminar Proceedings, April 5–8, 1994, Central Soil Salinity Research Institute , Karnal, Haryana .

Tanwar, B. S. 1997 . Strategy for Water Logging and Flood Control in Canal Commands of the Semiarid Region. Paper accepted for 7th ICID International Drainage Workshop, November 17–21, 1997.

Vashishtha, P. S., R. K. Sharma, and R. P. S. Malik. 1999 . Interactions between Population Growth, Consumption and Land Use Change in Haryana (India). Research Study No. 99/2, Agricultural Economics Research Centre, University of Delhi, Delhi.