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A Strategic Vision for Department of Energy Environmental Quality Research and Development (2001)

Chapter: Appendix D: Descriptions of DOE's Environmental Quality Technical Categories

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Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Descriptions of DOE's Environmental Quality Technical Categories." National Research Council. 2001. A Strategic Vision for Department of Energy Environmental Quality Research and Development. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10207.
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Page 143
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Descriptions of DOE's Environmental Quality Technical Categories." National Research Council. 2001. A Strategic Vision for Department of Energy Environmental Quality Research and Development. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10207.
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Page 144
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Descriptions of DOE's Environmental Quality Technical Categories." National Research Council. 2001. A Strategic Vision for Department of Energy Environmental Quality Research and Development. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10207.
×
Page 145
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Descriptions of DOE's Environmental Quality Technical Categories." National Research Council. 2001. A Strategic Vision for Department of Energy Environmental Quality Research and Development. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10207.
×
Page 146
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Descriptions of DOE's Environmental Quality Technical Categories." National Research Council. 2001. A Strategic Vision for Department of Energy Environmental Quality Research and Development. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10207.
×
Page 147
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Descriptions of DOE's Environmental Quality Technical Categories." National Research Council. 2001. A Strategic Vision for Department of Energy Environmental Quality Research and Development. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10207.
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Page 148

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APPENDIX D DESCRIPTIONS OF DOE'S ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY TECHNICAL CATEGORIES These descriptions are based largely on those in the Department of Energy's (DOE's) Environmental Quality (EQ) research and development (R&D) portfolio document (DOE, 2000b) and are intended to provide the reader with an overview of the magnitude and duration of DOE's "EQ challenges" (see Sidebar 2.3~. They are not intended to represent a comprehensive description of the problem areas or the types of R&D activities currently being conducted by DOE. Manage High-Level Waste High-level waste (HLW) is highly radioactive material resulting from reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel, which includes both liquid waste and solid residues. Large quantities of HLW were generated during production of nuclear weapons and reprocessing of defense production reactor fuels. There are 280 large radioactive waste storage tanks and more than 63 smaller underground storage tanks across the DOE complex that contain more than 340,000 cubic meters (90 million gallons) of HLW waste. Most of these tanks have exceeded their design life, some have leaked, and all represent potential occupational and public risks. The waste is currently stored at five main locations in both solid and liquid form: (1 ) Savannah River, South Carolina; (2) Hanford, Washington; (3) Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory (INEEL); (4) Oak Ridge Reservation, Tennessee; and (5) West Valley Demonstration Project, New York. To protect the public and the environment, much of this waste must be retrieved from the tanks and converted into an appropriate form for long-term disposal. Some HLW has been immobilized in glass at Savannah River and West Valley. DOE has signed federal facility agreements with state and federal regulators that drive the scope and schedule for cleanup and closure of 143

144 A Strategic Vision for DOE Environmental Quality R&D the tanks. DOE estimates that HLW cleanup will continue until at least 2046, at a total projected life-cycle cost of $54 billion. In fiscal year 2000, DOE spent approximately $57.6 million on R&D to address needs related to the management of high-level waste. DOE also recognizes that after cleanup most sites that stored HLW will require long-term institutional management measures indefinitely to protect human health and the environment (see "Long-Term Institutional Management" below). Manage Mixed Low-level/Transuranic Waste Mixed low-level waste (MLLW) is low-level waste that contains both chemically hazardous and radioactive components. Transuranic (TRW) waste is any waste, except for HLW, containing more than 100 nanocuries per gram of long-lived (~20 years), alpha-emitting TRU radionuclides. TRU waste is produced primarily from reprocessing of irradiated fuel and fabrication of nuclear weapons and contains isotopes such as plutonium and americium. Unlike HLW, TRU waste is non-heat bearing. Low-level waste is waste that is not spent fuel, HLW, or uranium or thorium mill tailings. Thirty-six DOE sites store about 165,000 m3 of mixed low-level and transuranic waste. Considerable amounts of TRU waste also contain hazardous constituents subject to regulation under the Resources Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) or the Toxic Substances Control Act. Since 1970, DOE has placed TRU waste in retrievable storage, such as metal drums or boxes, either on storage pads, in buildings, or in tanks. TRU waste is managed at 21 sites. DOE has begun disposal of stored post-1970 TRU waste at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) near Carlsbad, New Mexico. Because MLLW contains chemically hazardous as well as non-transuranic radioactive materials, it is subject to regulation under both RCRA and the Atomic Energy Act. The storage, treatment, and disposal of MLLW are subject to state and federal regulations. The estimated life-cycle cost for management and disposition of mixed low-level and TRU waste is more than $18 billion. In fiscal year 2000, DOE spent approximately $29.1 million on R&D related to the management of mixed low-level/TRU waste. Manage Spent Nuclear Fuel Spent nuclear fuel (SNF) is irradiated nuclear fuel that has not been reprocessed. The United States operated 14 nuclear defense production reactors between 1944 and 1988 to produce plutonium and tritium for nuclear warheads. In addition, the United States operated many other test reactors to encourage and support both commercial and military

Appendix D Descriptions of DOE EQ Technical Categories 145 reactor developments. (The spent nuclear fuel arising from the operation of commercial nuclear power plants is described below.) During that time, most of the nuclear fuel rods and targets irradiated in the reactors were reprocessed to extract the plutonium or tritium and the remaining enriched uranium for reuse. In addition, the U.S. Navy operated many nuclear propulsion reactors from which the fuel assemblies were processed to recover and reuse the remaining fissile uranium. DOE's SNF is not categorized as waste, but it is highly radioactive and must be stored in special facilities that shield and cool the material. Most SNF is stored in indoor pools under water, although some spent fuel is kept in dry storage. Three DOE sites (INEEL, Savannah River, and Hanford) manage most of the SNF in the DOE complex. Hanford has an inventory of over 2,100 metric tons heavy metal (MTHM) of SNF from its production reactors. After washing, packaging, and drying, this SNF will be transferred to dry storage until shipment (either to a repository or to an alternative treatment system). INEEL has an inventory of 270 MTHM of SNF, and expects to receive an additional 60 MTHM. After on-site storage, drying, and packaging, all SNF is expected to be shipped off- site to a repository for disposal. Savannah River has an inventory of 20 MTHM, and expects to receive an additional 30 MTHM from off-site sources. The SNF is expected to be prepared and placed in an off-site geologic repository (the same one as for commercial spent fuel and HEW). The total life-cycle cost for management and preparation for disposal of DOE's SNF is estimated to be about $7 billion (DOE, 2000b). In fiscal year 2000, DOE spent approximately $12 million on R&D related to the management of spent nuclear fuel. Manage Nuclear Materials A major consequence of the end of the Cold War has been a decrease in the number of U.S. nuclear weapons deployed around the world. This decrease resulted in nuclear weapons components being returned to DOE and classified as surplus materials (approximately 200 metric tons of U.S. weapons-usable fissile materials, which includes highly enriched uranium and plutonium, are classified as surplus materials). Disposition of this surplus material will be carried out either by making it into reactor fuel and burning it in electricity-producing commercial reactors (producing spent fuel) or by immobilizing the material mixed with high-level waste. In both cases, the resulting materials will be prepared for disposal in the geological repository. Other nuclear materials are present in weapons complex facilities that were shut down in the late 1980s and early 1990s due to concerns over safety and environmental problems, and the end of the Cold War.

146 A Strategic Vision for DOE Environmental Quality R&D DOE also has an inventory of over 700,000 metric tons of depleted uranium hexafluoride and a variety of special purpose isotopes like U- 233. The estimated life-cycle cost for management and disposition of DOE's nuclear materials is approximately $7 billion (DOE, 2000b). In fiscal year 2000, DOE spent approximately $7.6 million on R&D related to the management of nuclear materials. Dispose of High-Level Radioactive Wastes, Spent Nuclear Fuels, and Nuclear Materials DOE is responsible for providing for the permanent disposal of U.S. high-level radioactive waste and SNF (Public Law 97-425~. The Yucca Mountain Site in Nevada has been designated as the only site to be characterized to determine its suitability for a geologic repository (Public Law 100-203~. The types of waste that will be disposed of in the geologic repository consist of commercial spent fuel (including mixed oxide spent fuel [i.e., fuel that contains both uranium and plutonium from weapons dismantlement]), high-level waste (including immobilized plutonium), and DOE spent fuel (including naval- spent fuel). Other wastes, such as greater-than-class-C, may also be disposed of in the repository. Commercial spent fuel consists of fuel assemblies discharged from electricity-generating nuclear reactors and is located at 72 nuclear power plant sites and one independent storage site in 33 states. The total inventory of spent fuel at the end of 1998 was estimated to be about 38,000 MTHM, and the expected inventory in 2040 is projected to be about 85,000 MTHM. High-level waste to be disposed of is immobilized (generally as a borosilicate glass or a ceramic) and encased in metal canisters. It is estimated that approximately 22,000 canisters will be produced through 2035 (including those that will contain immobilized surplus weapons-usable plutonium). The DOE spent fuel inventory projected to the year 2035 is estimated to be 2,500 MTHM. DOE plans to submit a site suitability recommendation for the Yucca Mountain Site to the President in 2001, and if the site is determined to be suitable and approved by both the President and Congress (after presidential approval, the state of Nevada can submit a notice of disapproval that can be overridden by a majority vote of both houses of Congress), to prepare and submit a license application to the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission in 2003 for construction authorization for the repository. To obtain the license, DOE must demonstrate that a repository can be constructed, operated, monitored, and eventually closed without unreasonable risk to the health and safety of workers and the public. The repository schedule calls for initial waste emplacement in 2010, followed by several decades of operation and further decades of monitoring and performance confirmation. In fiscal year 2000, DOE spent

Appendix D Descriptions of DOE EQ Technical Categories 147 approximately $47 million on R&D to address needs related to the disposal of high-level radioactive waste, spent nuclear fuels, and nuclear materials. Environmental Remediation of Contaminated Sites (Lands and Waters) Environmental remediation involves the removal or stabilization of radioactive and/or hazardous contaminants in soil, fractured bedrock, and groundwater. The primary objectives are to identify, contain, remediate, and remove contamination, and to validate that environmental remediation has achieved the desired end state. Approximately 3 million cubic meters (100 million cubic feet) of solid radioactive and hazardous wastes are buried in the subsurface throughout the DOE complex. The largest contamination challenges are at the INEEL, Oak Ridge, Hanford, Rocky Flats, and Savannah River sites. Contaminants are located in the subsurface both above and below the water table. DOE estimates that 75 million cubic meters (2.6 billion cubic feet) of soil and 1.8 billion cubic meters (475 billion gallons) of groundwater are contaminated and require remediation. Contaminants include hazardous metals such as chromium, mercury, and lead; radioactive laboratory and processing waste; explosive and pyrophoric materials; solvents; and numerous radionuclides. The total life-cycle cost of environmental remediation activities through 2070 is estimated to be greater than $13 billion (DOE, 2000b). In fiscal year 2000, DOE spent approximately $52 million on R&D related environmental remediation of contaminated DOE sites. Deactivation and Decommissioning of Contaminated Facilities Many of the more than 20,000 DOE facilities that were used to support nuclear weapons production and other activities are contaminated with radioactive materials, hazardous chemicals, asbestos, and lead. To reduce the potential for release of radioactive and hazardous materials to the environment, the risk of industrial safety accidents, and the costs of monitoring and maintaining these facilities, DOE plans to deactivate and decommission (D&D) such facilities. Deactivation is defined as activities to reduce the physical risks and hazards at these facilities, to reduce the costs associated with monitoring and maintenance of these facilities (i.e., facility mortgage), and make these facilities available for potential reuse or eventual decommissioning. Decommissioning is defined as activities associated with decontamination, demolition, and final disposition of the facility and the equipment contained within. The estimated life-cycle cost of D&D

148 A Strategic Vision for DOE Environmental Quality R&D activities for facilities currently under DOE responsibility is $12.5 billion. In fiscal year 2000, DOE spent approximately $12.7 million on R&D to address needs related to the deactivation and decommissioning of contaminated DOE facilities. Long-Term Stewardship Of the 144 contaminated sites currently under its control, DOE estimates that fewer than 25 percent will be cleaned up sufficiently to allow unrestricted use. At many sites, radiological and non-radiological hazardous wastes will remain, posing risks to humans and the environment for tens or even hundreds of thousands of years. For these sites, a broad-based, systematic approach that integrates contaminant reduction, contaminant isolation, and stewardship will be required to protect human health and the environment (NRC, 2000a; DOE, 1999a, 2001 b). DOE estimates that it currently spends approximately $64 million annually on long-term stewardship activities, and these costs will increase to nearly $100 million annually by 2050, when all sites are expected to be closed (DOE, 2001 b). Minimization of the Risk of Newly Generated Radioactive and Hazardous Waste The recent adequacy analysis of the EQ R&D portfolio (DOE, 2000g) recommended that a new category of R&D activities be defined to minimize the risk of newly generated DOE radioactive and hazardous waste. DOE currently has no complex-wide R&D program to minimize the generation of new wastes, although site specific work is in progress to address local waste management programs (DOE, 2000g).

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The National Academies' National Research Council undertook this study in response to a request from the Under Secretary of Energy to provide strategic advice on how the Department of Energy could improve its Environmental Quality R&D portfolio. The committee recommends that DOE develop strategic goals and objectives for its EQ business line that explicitly incorporate a more comprehensive, long-term view of its EQ responsibilities. For example, these goals and objectives should emphasize long-term stewardship and the importance of limiting contamination and materials management problems, including the generation of wastes and contaminated media, in ongoing and future DOE operations.

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