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OCR for page 15
Findings and Conclusions
The committee's first major task was to evaluate the existing scientific
evidence for a wide range of techniques that have been proposed to
enhance human performance. This evaluation was intended by our Army
sponsors to suggest guidelines for decision making on Army research and
training programs. In our evaluation we draw conclusions with respect
to whether more basic or applied research is warranted, whether training
programs could benefit from new findings or procedures, and what, in
particular, might be worth monitoring for potential breakthroughs of use
to the Army. In many of the areas examined it appears feasible to pursue
carefully designed programs that build on basic research; however, such
programs should be monitored closely.
The committee's second major task was to develop general guidelines
for evaluating newly proposed techniques and their potential application.
We are aware that the use of basic and applied research in decision
making is a complex issue. Although payoffs from basic research can
often be realized in the long run, the value of research findings to the
Army depends on developing a way of putting them into practice. With
regard to applied or evaluation research, further complexities are evident:
multiple, sometimes conflicting, criteria must be satisfied at each of
several stages in the evaluation process, from assessing a pilot program
to implementing the program in an appropriate setting. Another problem
is that of choosing among alternative techniques when none of them has
been subjected to a systematic evaluation. In the absence of evaluation
studies, the Army needs guidelines for selecting packages and vendors.
The committee's evaluation has produced several answers to questions
15
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6
ENHANCING HUMAN PERf ORMANCE
of how best to improve performance in specific areas. On the positive
side, we learned about the possibilities of priming future learning by
presenting material during certain stages of sleep, of improving learning
by integrating certain instructional elements, of improving skilled per-
formance through certain combinations of mental and physical practice,
of reducing stress by providing information that increases the sense of
control, of exerting influence by employing certain communication strat-
egies, and of maximizing group performance by taking advantage of
organizational cultures to transmit values. On the negative side, we
discovered a lack of supporting evidence for such techniques as visual
training exercises as enhancers of performance, hemispheric synchroniz-
ation, and neurolinguistic programming; a lack of scientific justification
for the parapsychological phenomena considered; some potentially neg-
ative effects of group cohesion; and ambiguous evidence for the effec-
tiveness of the suggestive accelerative learning package.
The remainder of this chapter presents the committees findings and
conclusions, which are presented in two parts: general conclusions
regarding the process of evaluating any technique being considered by
the Army and specific findings and conclusions for each of the areas of
human performance examined. Whenever appropriate, we make recom-
mendations for research, evaluation, and practice.
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS
The committee suggests that the Army move vigorously, yet carefully
and systematically, to implement techniques that can be shown to enhance
performance in military settings. Such an effort would be timely because
of recent developments in the relevant research areas. Moreover, the
payoff is likely to be very high if techniques are selected judiciously.
Although the desire for dramatic improvements in performance makes
some extraordinary techniques attractive, techniques drawn from main-
stream research in relevant areas of performance may be more effective.
The Army's concern for enhancing human performance and its substantial
resources for evaluating techniques place it in a favorable position to
take advantage of developments. The Army might also consider the
possibilities of transferring its findings to the civilian sector.
Collectively, the committee's conclusions call for the adoption of
scientifically sound evaluation procedures; however, these procedures
must be adapted to institutional needs and must take into account problems
of implementation. We summarize these considerations below.
SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE
Techniques and commercial packages proposed for consideration by
the Army should be shown to be effective by adequate scientific evidence
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FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS
17
or compelling theoretical argument, or both. A technique's utility should
be judged in relation to alternatives designed for similar purposes, and
the estimated utility should be of significant magnitude. Specific stages
of analysis can be incorporated in pilot or field testing, and such testing
should be carried out by investigators who are independent of the
technique's originators or promoters.
TESTIMONIALS AS EVIDENCE
Personal experiences and testimonials cited on behalf of a technique
are not regarded as an acceptable alternative to rigorous scientific
evidence. Even when they have high face validity, such personal beliefs
are not trustworthy as evidence. They often fail to consider the full range
of factors that may be responsible for an observed effect. Personal
versions of reality, which are essentially private, are especially antithetical
to science, which is a fundamentally public enterprise. Of course, a
caution about testimonials should not be confused with a lack of openness
to new and unusual ideas. Such openness is consistent with the require-
ment that the evidential criteria of science be satisfied.
The subject of testimonials as evidence has received considerable
attention in recent research on how people arrive at their beliefs. These
studies indicate that many sources of bias operate and that they can lead
to personal knowledge that is invalid despite its often being associated
with high levels of conviction. The committee recommends that this
research be disseminated, as appropriate, in the Army. It may then be
applied whenever testimony is used as the primary evidence to promote
an enhancement technique.
CONDITIONS FOR IMPLEMENTATION
Two kinds of evidence should be sought to support decisions to
implement a technique: successful field tests and an analysis of imple-
mentability. It would also be useful to analyze the impact of the technique
or package on the larger system in which it is to be embedded. These
analyses would aid in explaining why the procedures are necessary and
why certain consequences are expected. In general, any description of
what a technique accomplishes should be accompanied by an explanation
of why it accomplishes what it does. Such an explanation would provide
a more fundamental understanding of processes affected by exposure to
the technique and permit optimal implementation.
RATIONAL DECISION MAKING
The considerations that must be entertained in selecting a technique
for practical use in a military setting are different from the considerations
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18
ENHANCING HUMAN PERf ORMANCE
needed to verify the existence of an enhancement effect in a scientific
setting. For example, the benefits of correct decisions and the costs of
incorrect decisions, that is, the risk calculus, may differ in the two
settings. Furthermore, what is viewed as a timely decision will also differ.
The specific differences as they apply to particular decisions should be
made explicit.
MECHANISMS FOR ADVICE
It would be useful to provide valid information about useful techniques
to Army commanders and other interested staff on a regular basis. Special
consideration should be given to ways in which technique-related infor-
mation can be transferred from scientists to practitioners. The charac-
teristics of a transfer agent could be defined, and such a position might
be established within an appropriate office.
The committee recommends that the Army Research Institute formalize
the ways in which it receives and provides advice about specific tech-
niques. A committee to review experimental designs and statistical
analyses could be convened to improve the evaluation of techniques.
Special and standing committees could also be used to make program
recommendations and to review proposals for intramural and extramural
research.
BIDDING PROCEDURES
Purchase by the Army of a commercial enhancement package should
take place within the context of a set of well-defined procedures. The
committee recommends that an open-bid procedure be followed, based
on a full presentation of the Army's stated objectives. This would
encourage competitive evaluation of techniques. The following informa-
tion, presented in a standard format, should be required: the objectives
of the technique, a description of its procedures, evidence that it produces
the claimed effects, and the vendorts record of past achievements in
relevant areas.
Lack of professional training and research experience in human per-
formance by a designer or advocate should not preclude consideration
of the proposed package; it should, however, signal the need for a more
stringent analysis by the Army.
SPECIFIC FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS
We present below findings and conclusions for each of the areas
investigated. Some statements take the form of suggested actions based
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FlNDlNGS AND CONCLUSIONS
19
on what we know; others consist of suggestions for more work or for
research that has not yet been done.
LEARNING DURING SLEEP
1. The committee finds no evidence to suggest that learning occurs
during verified sleep (confirmed as such by electrical recordings of brain
activity). However, waking perception and interpretation of verbal ma-
terial could well be altered by presenting that material during the lighter
stages of sleep. We conclude that the existence and degree of learning
and recall of materials presented during sleep should be examined again
as a basic research problem.
2. Pending further research results, the committee concludes that
possible Army applications of learning during sleep deserve a second
look. Findings that suggest the possibility of state-dependent learning
and retention (i.e., better recall of material when learned in the same
physiological and mental state) may be applicable to fatigued soldiers.
Furthermore, even presentations of material that disrupt normal sleep
may be cost-effective, as may presentations that coincide with stages of
light sleep.
ACCELERATED LEARNING
1. Many studies have found that effective instruction is the result of
such factors as the quality of instruction, practice or study time, motivation
of the learner, and the matching of the training regimen to the job
demands. Programs that integrate all these factors would be desirable.
We recommend that the Army examine the costs, effectiveness, and
longevity of training benefits to be derived from such programs and
compare them with established Army procedures.
2. The committee finds little scientific evidence that so-called super-
learning programs, such as Suggestive Accelerative Learning and Teach-
ing Techniques, derive their instructional benefits from elements outside
the mainstream of research and practice. We observe, however, that
these programs do integrate well-known instructional, motivational, and
practice elements in a manner that is generally not present in most
scientific studies.
3. We find that scientifically supported procedures for enhancing skills
are not being sufficiently used in training programs and make two
recommendations to remedy this problem. First, the basic research
literature should be monitored to identify procedures verified by laboratory
tests to increase instructional effectiveness. Second, additional basic
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20
ENlIANCINC HUMAN PERFORMANCE
research should be supported to expand the understanding of skill
acquisition for both noncombat and combat activities.
4. We conclude that the Army training system provides a unique
opportunity for cohort testing of training regimens. The Army is in a
position to create laboratory classroom environments in which competing
training procedures can be scientifically evaluated.
5. The committee recommends that the Army investigate expert teacher
programs by identifying and evaluating particularly effective programs
within the Army. In addition, transferable elements of effective instruction
can be reported to the larger instructional community.
IMPROVING MOTOR SKILLS
1. The committee concludes that mental practice is effective in en-
hancing the performance of motor skills. This conclusion suggests further
work in two directions: (1) evaluation studies of motor skills used in the
Army and (2) research designed to determine the combination of mental
and physical practice that, on average, would best enhance skill acquisition
and maintenance, taking into account both time and cost.
2. The committee concludes that programs purporting to enhance
cognitive and behavioral skills by improving visual concentration have
not been shown to be effective to date. In our judgment, these programs
are not worth further evaluation at this time.
3. The committee concludes that existing data do not establish the
generality of observed effects from programs that train visual capabilities
to increase performance.
4. Similarly, the committee concludes that the effects of biofeedback
on skilled performance remain to be determined.
5. The committee recommends additional research to establish the
potential of these techniques in the domain of specific skilled perform
ances.
ALTERING MENTAL STATES
1. Time did not allow the committee to explore the evidence for a
wide variety of specific methods for relating mental states to changes in
performance. Such methods include forms of self-induced hypnotic states
and peak performance resulting from high levels of focused concentration
and meditation. We recommend that reviews of the literature in these
areas be undertaken to ascertain whether any practical results might be
obtained by the use of such methods.
2. The committee finds that, while the study of mental computations
in language and imagery has progressed in recent years, the effort to
understand how such computations are modulated by energetic factors
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FINDINGS AND CONCL USIONS
21
such as arousal, stress, emotion, and high levels of sustained concentration
has not been fully developed. For example, the claims that certain mental
states produce general improvements in performance derive from the
idea, supported by research, that arousal affects mental computations
and that there ought to be an optimal level of arousal for the performance
of such computations. We recommend this as an important area for
investment of basic research funds.
3. The committee's review of the appropriate literature refutes claims
that link differential use of the brain hemispheres to performance. Further
evaluation of these claims depends on developing valid and reliable
measures of hemispheric involvement.
4. The committee finds no scientifically acceptable evidence to support
the claimed effects of techniques intended to integrate hemispheric
activity, for example' Hemi-Sync~. Attempts to increase information-
processing capacity by presenting material separately to the two hemi-
spheres do not appear to be useful. We conclude that such techniques
should be considered further by the Army only if scientific evidence is
provided to and evaluated by the Army Research Institute.
STRESS MANAGEMENT
1. Existing data indicate that stress is reduced by giving an individual
as much knowledge and understanding as possible regarding future events.
In addition, giving the individual a sense of control is effective. On the
basis of these findings, the committee recommends a systematic program
of research and development that would address three questions: (1) How
relevant is this finding for stress reduction in the Army? (2) To what
extent does stress reduction realized in training transfer to combat
situations? (3) What are the limitations on providing knowledge and
understanding of future events and a sense of control in the Army setting?
Pending the outcome of this research, we suggest that consideration be
given to including the material in training programs for company grade,
field grade, command' and staff officers.
2. We find that, while biofeedback can achieve a reduction of muscle
tension, it does not reduce stress effectively. It is therefore not a promising
research topic in that respect. We recommend that funding be directed
toward investigation of more promising stress management procedures.
3. We recommend that information be gathered on the costs of stress
in terms of organ breakdown, loss of efficiency, and loss of time. This
information would have implications for training programs.
INFLUENCE STRATEGIES
1. The committee finds no scientific evidence to support the claim that
neurolinguistic programming is an effective strategy for exerting influence.
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22
ENHANCING HUMAN PERFORMANCk
We advise that further Army study of this aspect of NLP be made only
in comparison with other techniques.
2. There are no existing evaluations of NLP as a model of expert
performance. We conclude that further investigation of such models may
be worthwhile and suggest that NLP be examined in comparison with
several other techniques.
3. Concerning the process of technology transfer, we recommend that
studies be conducted to develop training regimens for those who train
others to wield social influence. The large literature on this topic in social
psychology would provide a basis for such packages.
GROUP COHESION
1. We find few scientific studies that address the possible relationship
between group cohesion and performance; however, such a relationship
may well be found with more extensive research. There is a need for
research to consider the possibility of negative effects from inducing
cohesion and methods of avoiding such effects. The committee recom-
mends continued study of cohesion and related group processes.
2. We are favorably impressed with the evaluation studies of the
Army's COHORT system. We endorse the investigators' plan to proceed
beyond measures of attitudes to measures of group performance.
3. We recommend that the Army, as well as independent investigators,
study the possible impacts of cohesion beyond the COHORT system, for
example, on intergroup performance.
PARAPSYCHOLOGY
1. The committee finds no scientific justification from research con-
ducted over a period of 130 years for the existence of parapsychological
phenomena. It therefore concludes that there is no reason for direct
involvement by the Army at this time. We do recommend, however, that
research in certain areas be monitored, including work by the Soviets
and the best work in the United States. The latter includes that being
done at Princeton University by Robert Jahn; at Maimonides Medical
Center in Brooklyn by Charles Honorton, now in Princeton; at San
Antonio by Helmut Schmidt; and at the Stanford Research Institute by
Edward May. Monitoring could be enhanced by site visits and by expert
advice from both proponents and skeptics. The research areas included
would be psychokinesis with random event generators and Ganzfeld
effects.
2. One possible result of the monitoring mentioned above is the proposal
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~ INDlNGS AND CONCL USIONS
23
of specific studies. In that situation the committee recommends the
following procedures: first, the Army and outside scientists should arrive
at a common protocol; second, the research should be conducted
according to that protocol by both proponents and skeptics; and third,
attention should be given in such research to the manipulability and
practical application of any effects found to exist.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
human performance
