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D
Key Terms
The following are key terms used often in the literatures related to the
technologies examined by the committee. These terms will be especially
useful to readers who wish to examine the literature more closely. The
terms are arranged alphabetically within a topic heading.
BIOFEEDBACK AND STRESS MANAGEMENT
Alpha and theta producers: EEG patterns reflecting reduced levels of
electrocortical activity and explored often in studies on meditation
and related forms of relaxation; found in some studies to correlate
with various induced states of relaxation.
Autogenic training: Sclf-generated regulation of tension levels without
specific biofeedback on recorded internal events. Instructions are
presented to encourage relaxation.
Battle fatigue: Symptoms are similar to battle shock but are long-term
and more insidious in their onset. The victim is usually unable to
perform duties for over 72 hours. May require evacuation to nearby
medical facilities.
Battle shock: The immediate onset of severe anxiety with symptoms
that last up to 72 hours. Ideally managed at the lowest level of care
possible.
Biofeedback: A class of techniques that provide information to subjects
about a variety of internal events, including heart rate, electromyog
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raphy, autonomic events, respiration, brain frequencies, finger tem-
perature, and peripheral vasoconstriction. Learned control of these
internal events is a possible path to performance enhancement.
Cognitive versus physiological measures: Two types of measures for
assessing effects of treatments on tension reduction: cognitive meas-
ures are self-reports of tension, frequency of problems, anxiety,
distress, ability to relax, severity of problem, and so on; physiological
measures include EMG and finger temperature data.
Conditioned emotional response (CER): In the context of biofeedback,
refers to learned responses (feelings) to stressful situations; learned
suppression of a CER is one path to developing an effective antistress
response.
EEG synchronization: Refers to hemispheric symmetry indicative of an
integration of hemispheric functioning, for example, correlated alpha
waves.
Electromyography (EMG): An electrical signal generated by muscle
tension; a technique used to infer general muscle relaxation.
Hawthorne effect: Effects on behavior that result from merely being
selected to participate in an experiment. Identified by investigators
conducting studies on the effects of setting (lighting, music) on
performance at the Hawthorne plant of General Electric, this effect
has been used to account for findings in biofeedback and other
tension-reduction studies.
Hemispheric lateraliry: Refers to the relative predominance of right or
left hemisphere activity. Relaxation techniques may serve to inhibit
either (or both) right (associated with intuitive cognitive styles) or
left (associated with logical and analytical styles) hemisphere activity.
Meditation practice: Any of several groupings of attentional strategies,
including a focus on the whole field, as in mindfulness meditation;
a focus on a specific object within a field, as in concentrative
meditation; or a shifting back and forth between the two, as in
integrated meditation.
Placebo control group: Exposure to nonspecific treatment, such as a
potpourri of soft, soothing music to induce relaxation.
Stress management: The techniques or structures designed for recog-
nizing the signs of stress and for administering treatments in an
organizational context (as distinguished from treatment per se). The
plan is often guided by the principles of immediacy (quick adminis-
tration of treatment), proximity (close facilities), and expectancy
(expect to recover).
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Three-echelon model: A flexible medical delivery system designed to
take account of the severity of casualties: the first echelon is limited
in scope, relying on "buddy care" provided in situ; the second
echelon is a site some distance from hostilities where victims are
treated by medical personnel; and the third echelon is a site with
permanent facilities and staff to provide longer-term care.
Waiting-list control group: Designed to control for Hawthorne-type
effects, subjects are told that they will be in the experiment but
actually receive no treatment.
COHESION
Cohesion: Cohesion consists of three components: intermember attrac-
tion (sociometric choice, friendship), instrumental value of the group
(value of membership for achieving common goals), and risk taking
(willingness of members to express true feelings). Other components
include a sense of belonging, interpersonal influence, and teamwork.
Cohort system: A set of procedures (used by the Army) designed to
increase unit cohesion by strengthening friendship ties and a sense
of belonging.
Cross-culting loyalties: Refers to shared identifications (loyalties) held
by members of competing groups. Hypothesized to moderate the
intensity of competition.
Expert power: A source of leader influence that derives from perceptions
of a leader as having superior knowledge in an area of importance
to the members, notably in the context of a current or expected
situation.
Group attributes or properties: Characteristics of groups that contribute
to cohesion, including group composition (extent of homogeneity),
relation of group to members (provision of benefits), channels of
communication, ideological strength, and goal satisfaction.
Group-serving patterns: Attributions of responsibility for success or
failure, namely, diffusing responsibility to the whole group and
attributing more responsibility to self for failure and no more than
equal responsibility to self and others for success; these patterns
have been found to enhance cohesion.
Interacting versus coacting teams: This distinction is best reflected in
the difference between basketball (requires coordination among
members) and bowling (each member performs apart from other
members).
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Legitimate power: A source of leader influence that derives from
attitudes of "correct" behaviors, of "oughtness."
Normative control system: A system designed to influence behavior
through internalization of group values and norms. The objective of
such systems is to enhance personal commitment to a unit and its
objectives; contrast with coercive motivation (emphasizes negative
consequences) and to utilitarian control (uses monetary reward or
other tangible benefits).
Referent power: A source of leader influence, referent power is based
on personal relationships and on intense identifications between the
leader and his or her subordinates.
HEMISPHERIC LATERALITY
Apraxias: Disorders in the execution of skilled purposive movements
in the absence of significant motor weakness, incoordination, or
sensory loss.
Dichotic listening:
A technique used to assess differences in function
between the hemispheres; it entails simultaneous presentation of
competing information to the left and right ears.
Dual-code theory: An approach to the mental representation of objects
that states that memories are tied to sensory modalities and that
information is represented as sensory or motor experiences.
Dual-task experiments: A technique that consists of asking the subject
to do two tasks simultaneously that putatively involve both hemi-
spheres.
Hemisphericity: A notion that recognizes that different areas of the
brain are specialized for different sensory, motor, and cognitive
functions; in its more extreme versions, it is claimed that independent
"minds" are supported by each cerebral hemisphere of the brain.
Evidence to date does not support this claim.
Hemispheric Synchronization ¢Hemi-Sync)~: A machine-aided process
that is presumed to more closely align brain wave activity (frequency
and amplitude) in both left and right hemispheres.
Lateral orientation: Refers to the hypothesis, largely unsupported to
date, that lateral eye movements index lateral cerebral activity, which
in turn indicates cognitive activity associated with a particular
hemisphere.
Matching studies: Refers to a series of studies calling for judgments of
"sameness" or "differences." Results are shown to have implications
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for the dual-code theory defined above; they hint at a verbal-visual
dichotomy for memory representation.
Modes of processing: A distinction is made between serial (successive
cognitive operations) and parallel (simultaneous operations) process-
ing in relation to the left and right hemispheres; the two modes of
processing have also been referred to as analytic versus gestalt,
respectively.
Priming: Refers to a procedure used to call forth either a verbal or a
visual representation, to wit, a cue given verbally would prime the
verbal store, and a visual cue would prime the visual store.
Propositional theory: Another approach to the mental representation of
objects, this argues that memories are stored as neither a visual nor
a verbal code, but in an abstract propositional form.
Split-brain studies: Refers to research on the effects of disconnected
hemispheres on memory, as well as on linguistic and visuospatial
abilities. Split-brain patients appear to suffer a general impairment
of memory functions after commissurotomy (a surgical procedure
that separates the hemispheres). These findings suggest that the
commissures play a role in both encoding and retrieval of memories
by providing links between the hemispheres.
IMAGERY AND REHEARSAL
Attention-arousal set: An explanation for the enhancing effects of
rehearsal on performance: rehearsal helps performers to set preten-
sion levels and maintain their attention on task-relevant cues.
Concentrix: A training procedure used to acquire, improve, and sustain
skills in concentrating on a specific target at the current time, for
the correct length of time. Marketed by the Allen Corporation of
America (Alexandria, Va.), Concentrix is considered to be useful for
such tasks as marksmanship training.
Future- or past-oriented imagery: A distinction between projecting
performance into the future, or an upcoming task, versus thinking
about past performances and how these were done.
Meta-analysis: A way of statistically analyzing the findings of many
individual analyses. It is especially appropriate for integrating a group
of studies related by a common conceptual hypothesis or common
operational definitions of independent and dependent variables. One
area that lends itself to this approach is the work on mental practice.
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Another is the subarea of parapsychology known as Ganzfeld psi
experiments.
Outcome imagery: Imagining the outcome of a task that may be either
positive or negative; for example, '`imagine the ball rolling, rolling,
right into the cup'' or "rolling, rolling, toward the cup, but at the
last second narrowly missing."
Performance imagery: Rehearsing the acts involved in performing a
task; instructions to subjects usually consist of asking them to
imagine a performance (e.g., putting) and to go through the steps in
their minds without imaging an outcome (sinking or missing the putt).
Preferred cognitive style: Distinctions along a dimension of amount of
imagery (imagers, nonimagers, occasional imagers) and types of
imagery as visual or kinesthetic; combining these distinctions results
in strong and weak visual or kinesthetic imagers.
Symbolic learning: An explanation for the enhancing effects of rehearsal
on performance: mental practice gives the performer the opportunity
to rehearse the sequence of movements as symbolic components of
the task.
Type of rehearsal: A distinction is made between physical and mental
rehearsal. The former consists ot actually going turougn fine motions,
while the latter consists of performance imagery.
Type of task:
Distinctions are made among cognitive, motor, and
strength tasks along a dimension of amount of symbolic content; a
distinction is also made between self-paced (closed skill) and reactive
(opened skill) tasks, for example, foul shooting versus playing a
game of basketball.
NEUROLINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING
Anchors: A term used by NLP practitioners referring to the tactics
involved in pinning down an internal response as auditory, visual,
kinesthetic, or olfactory.
Congruity: The extent to which there is a correspondence between
nonverbal behavior (voice tone, body movements) and language; for
example, "You're a great athlete" said with a smirk or a look of
disgust.
Dimensions for matching:
The part of speech or language, nonverbal
communication channel, or other aspects of interaction (topics
discussed) used for matching by one or both participants.
Eye movements:
According to NLP theory, preferred representational
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systems (PRS) are indicated by the direction of eye movements: for
example, eyes up and to the right indicates visual-constructed images,
eyes down and to the right indicates kinesthetic feelings.
Mutual accommodation or convergence: Responding by participants in
like manner, an observed phenomenon that highlights the dyadic
nature of influence. (Compare with tracking, which emphasizes one
party's influence over another.)
Predicate matching: The process of matching those verbs, adverbs, and
adjectives that correspond to a client's PRS; words or phrases used
by a client are categorized as visual, auditory, or kinesthetic.
Preferred representational system (PRS): One of three sensory modal-
ities, visual, auditory, or kinesthetic, in which most cognitive events
associated with day-to-day experiences are principally encoded.
Reframing: A technique used to identify the positive intention behind
observed behavior; the NLP practitioner attempts to build a system
inside a person, using the person's internal dialogue to communicate
with his or her "unconscious" parts.
Response mode measures: The three categories of response mode are
usually match, mismatch, and nonmatch. A match occurs when the
first speaker uses a specific representational system (RS) and the
second speaker uses one or more of the same systems; a match is
also defined as a joint nonuse of specific systems. A mismatch occurs
when the first speaker uses a specific RS and the second speaker
uses a different RS. A nonmatch occurs when the first speaker uses
a specific RS and the responder fails to use one or more of the same
systems.
Tracking: Refers to the process of monitoring certain aspects of a
speaker's language; it is used both to assess a PRS (frequencies of
sensory modalities represented) and to match or mismatch predicates.
This process implies a one-sided perspective, distinguishing between
the influencer and the influencer.
Transactional perspective Acknowledges the two-way nature of social
influence, emphasizing mutual convergence or accommodation rather
than distinguishing between an influencer and an influencer, as in
the tracking process.
Two-step process: Procedure used to identify RS predicates; first,
predicates are identified by part of speech (verbs, adverbs, etc.) and,
second, the predicates are classified by RS (visual, auditory, etc).
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PARAPSYCHOLOGY
Agent: The "sender" in tests for telepathy, the person whose mental
states are to be apprehended by the percipient. In ESP tests, the
person who looks at the target object.
Clairvoyance: Extrasensory perception of objects or objective events.
Effective error rate: The actual rate of success, taking into account
ambiguities and inconsistencies in the definition of independent
studies as well as reporting biases.
Einstein-Podolsk:y-Rosen paradox: Suggests that quantum mechanics
does not so much describe the state of the physical system as describe
our knowledge of the state of that system.
ESP (extrasensory perceptions: Experience of, or response to, a target
object, state, event, or influence without sensory contact.
File drawer problem: Unreported studies tend to be those with lower
effect sizes; this problem serves to reduce the success rate calculated
on the basis of published data.
Majority vote technique: In ESP tests, a scoring method whereby the
most frequent call, from a number of calls made for the same target,
is defined as a single response to that target. In PK tests, an analogous
technique, whereby the most frequently occurring target event, from
a number of attempts on the same target, is defined as~a single
outcome for that target.
Percipient: The person experiencing ESP; also, one who is tested for
ESP ability.
PK (psychokinesisJ: The extramotor aspect of psi; a direct (i.e., mental
but nonmuscular) influence exerted by the subject on an external
physical process, condition, or object.
Precognition: Prediction of random future events, the occurrence of
which cannot be inferred from present knowledge.
Preferential matching: A method of scoring responses to free material.
A judge ranks the stimulus objects (usually pictures in sets of four)
with respect to their similarity to, or association with, each response;
or ranks the responses with respect to their similarity to, or association
with, each stimulus object; or both.
Psi: A general term to identify a person's extrasensorimotor commu-
nication with the environment. Psi includes ESP and PK.
Random event generator (REGJ: Devices that consist of four compo-
nents: an electronic noise source; a sampling system; a system that
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analyzes the pulse train and prepares output for a feedback system,
and the feedback display. Used widely for experimentation with low-
level PK.
Singles test: A PK technique in which the aim of the subject is to try
to influence dice to fall with a specified face up.
STM (screened touch matchings: An ESP card-testing technique in
which the subject indicates on each trial (by pointing to one of five
key positions) what he or she thinks the top card is in the inverted
pack held by the experimenter behind a screen. The card is then laid
opposite that position.
Target: In ESP tests, the objective or mental events to which the subject
is attempting to respond; in PK tests, the objective process or object
which the subject tries to influence (e.g., as the face or location of
a die).
Telepathy: Extrasensory perception of the mental state or activity of
another person.
Trial: In ESP tests, a single attempt to identify a target object; in PK
tests, a single unit of effect to be measured in the evaluation of
results.
SLEEP LEARNING
Hypnopedia: A term used particularly by Soviet researchers to refer to
sleep education; it emphasizes stimulus properties, suggestibility,
set, and training.
Sleep-assisted instruction ¢SAI):
Situations in which the learning of
verbal material takes place or is enhanced through its presentation
to a sleeping person.
Sleep stages: Defined by EEG activity as follows: Stage W (waking
state) shows alpha or a low-voltage mixed-frequency EEG, or both;
stage I is a low-voltage mixed-frequency EEG with much 2 to 7 hertz
activity; stage II shows high-voltage negative-positive spikes and the
absence of generalized high-amplitude waves; stage III is 20 to 50
percent with high-amplitude delta waves; stage IV is characterized
by delta waves in more than 50 percent of the epoch; and stage REM
is characterized by the concomitance of low-voltage mixed-frequency
EEG activity and episodic rapid eye movement. A night's sleep
shows four or five cycles of EEG activity with possible consecutive
stages consisting of W. I, II, III, IV, II, REM, II, III, IV, III, II,
REM.
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SUGGESTIVE ACCELERATED LEARNING TECHNIQUES
Meta strategies: Groupings of types of methods used to improve teaching
and learning, usually arranged into a taxonomy with such categories
as methods to improve the learner, to improve the teacher, to
improve the context or setting within which learning occurs, and to
improve the content of learning.
Mind calming: Physical exercises designed to enhance concentration
by decreasing external pressure and increasing an awareness of self.
Passive music session: Providing a background of classical music such
as Vivaldi, Teleman, Bach, and Handel.
Pleasant experience imaging: Images evoked by background sounds
and pictures of scenes that the teacher can remember well.
Pleasant learning restimulation: Recalling an early pleasant learning
experience where the student was eager to learn and before his or
her memory skills were stymied. The student is encouraged to return
to that situation once again and "try to learn and enjoy today in the
same way."
Suggestive accelerative learning and teaching techniques (SALTT): A
combination of methods geared primarily toward classroom learning
and cognitive tasks. Relaxation, guided imagery, concentration, and
suggestive principles are woven into a package designed to enhance
learning.
Suggestopedia: A method of intensive teaching developed in the mid-
1960s by G. Lozanov of Bulgaria. It was designed originally to
provide a short course in language learning for adults leaving the
country. This method is often cited as a basis for a wide range of
accelerated teaching techniques.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
sensory modalities
