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1
Introduction
THE COMMITTEE'S TASK
At the request of the U.S. Army Research Institute, the National
Research Council formed a committee to assess the field of techniques
that are claimed to enhance human performance. The Institute asked the
Council to evaluate the claims made by proponents of selected existing
techniques and to address two general additional questions: (1) What are
the appropriate criteria for evaluating claims for such techniques in the
future? (2) What research is needed to advance our understanding of
performance enhancement in areas related to the proposed techniques?
The objectives of the committee's study are to provide an authoritative
assessment of these questions for policymakers in research and devel-
opment who are consumers of the techniques, as well as to consider their
possible applications to Army training.
Many of the techniques under consideration grew out of the human
potential movement of the 1960s, including guided imagery, meditation,
biofeedback, neurolinguistic programming, sleep learning, accelerated
learning, split-brain learning, and various techniques to reduce stress and
increase concentration. Many of these techniques have gained popularity
over the past two decades, promoted by persons eager to provide answers
to problems of human performance or to prosper from them. While often
using the language of science to justify their approach, these promoters
are for the most part not trained professionals in the social and behavioral
sciences. Nonetheless, they do appeal to basic needs for human perform-
ance, and the Army, like many other institutions, is attracted to the
prospect of cost-effective procedures that can improve performance.
3
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4
ENHANCING HUMAN PERFORMANCE
These institutions must evaluate the effects of such procedures, however.
Issues include the appropriateness of a quick-fix approach, the distinction
between the impact of an experience and actual change, and the plausibility
of evidence indicating that something is happening even if the effects are
not reproducible or the benefits uncertain.
A more conservative atmosphere in the 1980s is reflected in the way
techniques are advanced. Motivation in the 1980s may be primarily
entrepreneurial, not ideological, as it was in the 1960s. Advocates focus
on relating the techniques to specific tasks, such as marksmanship, foreign
language acquisition, fine motor skills, sleep inducement, and even combat
effectiveness. Some techniques are in fact rooted in a scientific literature.
For these reasons the various techniques have attracted the interest of
institutions that have rejected, and would probably continue to reject,
countercultural trends in society. Indeed, much attention has been given
to these techniques by industrial, government, and military policymakers,
as well as by the general public. For this reason especially, it is important
to address the issues surrounding the claims made for effectiveness.
Elaborate training programs have grown, nourished by their developers'
enthusiasm and salesmanship in a social context receptive to quick cures.
For many of these programs, success in the marketplace is used to justify
the approaches. For others, more esoteric concepts, including the role
of neurotransmitters, the physics of neuromuscular programming, brain
wave patterns, hemispheric laterality, high-access memory storage, pre-
ferred sensory modalities, and low-gain innervation of muscles, are used
to attempt to provide scientific justification for the claims. The chapters
that follow evaluate the evidence and theories used to support the claims
of several popular techniques. Before turning to these evaluations,
however, we provide some background on the A'''~y's interest in these
techniques, as well as a discussion of issues surrounding enhanced
performance and issues in evaluating the relation between techniques
and performance.
THE ARMY'S NEEDS
The Army motto, "Be all that you can be," symbolizes the current
ethos of the institution, an army of excellence. Emphasis is placed on
attaining certain ideals, such as fearlessness, cunning, courage, one-shot
effectiveness, fatigue reversal, and nighttime fighting capabilities. These
ideals are assumed to be realizable through training, even if the most
effective techniques have not as yet been identified. The culture of
improvement is further reinforced by the dilemma created by an all-
volunteer Army and the demands of complex new computer technologies.
Many civilians enter military service with only the required minimum of
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INTROD UCTI ON
s
formal education; most of these volunteers enlist in the Army. For this
reason, the Army's emphasis on skill training is well founded.
The importance of the human element in combat is recognized in the
Army Science Board's 1983 report "Emerging Concepts in Human
Technology," which phrases the issue in terms of high yield at relatively
low investment. Human capital is considered to be the best potential
source for growth in Army effectiveness, both in terms of return on
investment and as a moral imperative "if we are to commit our soldiers
to fight outnumbered and win." The technologies singled out in the report
are those that can improve creativity and innovation, learning and training,
motivation and cohesion, leadership and management, individual, crew,
and unit fitness, soldier-machine interface, and the general productivity
of the Army's human resources.
The Board's report largely bypasses issues of systematic evaluation of
enhancement techniques within the Army context, while addressing
mechanisms for integrating them with Army activities. Little concern is
shown for adducing relevant criteria to determine whether implementation
is feasible. The Army's ambitious goals, combined with a reluctance to
deal with the complexities surrounding issues of human performance,
make this institution potentially susceptible to a variety of claims made
by technique developers. It would therefore seem prudent to devise
criteria for evaluating those claims.
A SELLER'S MARKET
Techniques for enhancement of human performance have received
much attention in the popular press. They have been actively promoted
by entrepreneurs who sense a profitable market in self-improvement. The
American Society for Training and Development "estimates that com-
panies are spending an astounding $30 billion a year on formal courses
and training programs for workers. And that's only the tip of the iceberg"
(Wall Street Journal, August 5, 19861. They are also taken seriously by
the U.S. military, who are at times accused of losing the "mind race"
to the Soviets (see, for example, Anderson and Van Atta, Washington
Post, July 17, 19851. The Army has shown particular interest in techniques
that help people acquire, maintain, or improve such skills as classroom
learning, communication and influence, creativity, and accuracy in the
execution of tasks requiring motor skills. Those that are cost-effective
and produce relatively rapid results are likely to receive the most attention,
along with research breakthroughs that could be a basis for new training
programs. What are these techniques? What claims are being made for
them? Is there evidence that substantiates these claims?
Examples of techniques include biofeedback (information about internal
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6
ENHANCING HUMAN PERFORMANCE
processes), Suggestive Accelerative Learning and Teaching Techniques
(a package of methods geared primarily toward classroom learning),
hemispheric synchronization (a machine-aided process based on assump-
tions about right brain-left brain activities), neurolinguistic programming
(procedures for influencing another person), and Concentrix (a procedure
used to improve concentration on specific targets). Also of interest to
the Army are such processes as group cohesion and stress reduction, as
well as the claims for sleep learning, peak performance, and parapsy-
chology. Together, these techniques and processes cover the major types
of skills motor, cognitive, and social. Several of them are described
here briefly, along with illustrative claims found in brochures and course
material.
Suggestive Accelerative Learning and Teaching Techniques (SALTT)
is an approach to training that employs a combination of physical
relaxation, mental concentration, guided imagery, suggestive principles,
and baroque music with the intent of improving classroom performance.
Some applications have included language training, typing instruction,
and high school science courses. Attempts have been made to evaluate
the applications, and many of these evaluations are published in the
Journal of the Society for Accelerative Learning and Teaching (Psy-
chology Department, Iowa State University). The following is a sampling
of claims made in brochures and convention announcements: "A proven
method which has broad potential application in U.S. Army training";
"It will significantly reduce training time, improve memory of material
learned and introduce behavioral changes that positively affect soldier
performance-self-esteem, self-confidence, and mental discipline"; and
"Most students will prove to themselves that they have learned a far
greater amount of material per unit of time with a greater amount of
pleasure than they have ever previously done."
Neurolinguistic programming (NLPJ refers to a set of procedures
developed to influence and change the behaviors and beliefs of a target
person. Its goals are mostly therapeutic, but its proponents also advocate
the use of the techniques in advertising, management, education, and
interpersonal activities. A small research literature, published primarily
in the Journal of Counseling Psychology, has developed. Practitioners
can be trained and certified at various institutes, and the National
Association for Neurolinguistic Programming distributes a newsletter to
its membership, currently about 500 persons. Illustrative claims and
testimonials found in advertising materials include: "ENLP] has evolved
a unique technology which encompasses a set of specific techniques
enabling you to produce well-defined results'' and "NLP . . . is clear,
easy to learn, and brilliant." A typical slogan is that found in a brochure
from the Potomac Institutes, Silver Spring, Maryland: ''The difference
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INTRODUCTION
7
that makes the difference, for education, management' psychotherapy,
psychiatry, business, law, health care, and the arts.''
Hemi-Sync~, which is short for hemispheric synchronization, is a
technique that consists of presenting two tones slightly differing in
frequency to separate ears with stereo headphones to produce binaural
beats. The long-known result is a tone that waxes and wanes at a
frequency equal to the difference between the original tones. Pioneered
as an enhancement technique by Robert Monroe of the Monroe Institute
of Applied Science in Faber, Virginia, the technique is based on the
assumption of a frequency following response (FFR) in the human brain.
The FFR refers to a correspondence between sound signals heard by the
ear and electrical signals recorded by an electroencephalograph (EEG).
It is claimed that, by altering sound patterns, it is possible to alter states
of awareness. Stated applications are in the areas of language learning,
stress management, reading skills, and creativity and problem solving.
Claims of effectiveness stated in the Monroe Institute's brochure are
wide-ranging, covering education (e.g., "77.8 percent of a class reported
improvement in mental-motor skills''), health (early recuperation, lower
blood pressure), psychotherapy (stress reduction, working with terminally
ill patients, teaching autistic children), and sleep restorative training (e.g.,
''forty of forty-five insomniacs reported that one-month use of Hemi-
Syncą3 tapes was at least as effective as medication, without the drug
side effects".
SyberVision(~ is a scripted videotape that presents an expert (e.g., a
world-class athlete) repeatedly performing fundamental skills of his or
her activity (e.g., golf) without verbal instructions. It is based loosely on
principles of vicarious learning, guided imagery, and mental rehearsal.
Developed and marketed by SyberVision Systems Inc., San Leandro,
California, the package includes a cassette and instruction manual with
an appendix on the "simple physics of neuro-muscular programming."
The appendix presents a scientific rationale for the technique, for example,
"the more you see and hear pure movement, the deeper it becomes
imprinted in your nervous system . . . and the more likely you are to
perform it as a conditioned reflex," and ''The decomposition of what is
seen and sensorily experienced into an electromagnetic wave form is
accomplished by a complex mathematical operation (Fourier Transform)
by the brain'' (Instruction Manual on Golf with Patty Sheehan). Support
for enhanced performance is, however, based on testimonials rather than
experiments, for example, Killy on skiing, a Stanford tennis coach on
tennis, Professional Golf Association members on golf, Peters (In Search
of Excellence) on achievement, Salk on leadership, and a variety of
corporate executives and educators on self-improvement. Claims range
from sweeping statements (e.g.' "We owe these two men a large debt of
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8
ENHANCING HUMAN PERFORMANCE
gratitude") to rather precise statements (e.g., "In 47 days I have lost 25
pounds [191 to 166], yet I look like I lost 40") (in the United Airlines
magazine, Discoveries). This technique involves a significant marketing
effort that builds on users' willingness to be quoted and the use of
acknowledged academic experts (e.g., Stanford neuropsychologist Karl
Pribram), whose role in the program is advertised as being central.
Stress management techniques are procedures designed to alleviate
anxiety or tension. Catering to an age of anxiety, self-help books, groups,
and clinics on managing stress proliferate. A good example of the approach
is the recent book by Charlesworth and Nathan (1982), which emphasizes
fitness, nutrition, managing time, general life-styles and life-cycles, as
well as strategies such as progressive relaxation, autogenic training, and
image rehearsal. Appendixes provide the reader with home practice
charts, a guide to self-help groups, and suggested books and recordings.
The groups offer their members information, emotional support, and a
sense of belonging. Often stress management procedures are combined
with a number of other techniques into a single package. The promoters
often emphasize the total package rather than particular techniques; the
packages usually combine several processes that, when acting together,
are thought to produce significant effects.
The Army's needs for techniques that can improve performance make
it subject to the sorts of claims illustrated above. While they and other
consumers can avoid the more obvious pitfalls, the proliferation of choices
and products and the lack of scientific evidence allow marketplace criteria
to become the bases for decisions. But there are exceptions. Some
techniques have received the attention of the scientific community, and
evidence is available to be used as criteria in such areas as biofeedback,
guided imagery, sleep learning, cohesion, and even for some aspects of
psychic phenomena and neurolinguistic programming.
The literature has alerted us, for example, to the distinction between
the effects of biofeedback on fine motor skills and on stress, to the
different effects of mental and physical rehearsal, to placebo and Haw-
thorne effects in stress research, to the priming and repetition effects of
material presented during sleep, to some dysfunctions of group cohesion,
to the difficulties of replicating experiments on extrasensory perception,
and to the implausibility of specialized sensory modalities as postulated
by NLP (see Appendix D for key terms). These findings make evident a
complex relation between technique and performance.
IMPROVED PERFORMANCE:
COMPLEX ISSUES, SIMPLE SOLUTIONS
The research literature in such traditional areas of experimental psy-
chology as learning, perception, sensation, and motivation suggests
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INTROD UCTION
9
complex relations between interventions and improved performance.
Many technique promoters appear to pay little attention to this literature,
preferring an alternative route to invention: rather than derive a procedure
from appropriate scientific literature, they create techniques from personal
experiences, sudden insights, or informal observation of ''what works."
Science may enter the process after the technique is developed and used,
for example, to legitimize its use or to endorse methods for evaluation.
Research follows rather than precedes the invention. This sequence
increases the likelihood that important considerations will be missed. We
highlight some of these considerations in this section.
The lack of easy avenues to improved performance may well be due
to the complexity of the behavior in question. One definition of skills
emphasizes the importance of the coordination of behavior: "A skilled
response . . . means one in which receptor-effector-feedback processes
are highly organized, both spatially and temporally. The central problem
for the study of skill learning is how such organizations or patterning
comes about" (Fists, 1964: 244~. This definition implies that skill learning
involves an orchestration of diverse processes, making the topic an
interesting one to various subfields of psychology. It also makes evident
a number of unresolved issues, including whether different skills are
learned and retained in different ways. The research findings obtained in
this literature contribute to our understanding of the necessary, if not
sufficient, conditions for improved performance.
Research on skill acquisition addresses such basic questions as What
are the stages of learning? and What is learned? Distinctions made
between short-term and long-term memory storage and between schemes
and details have contributed to our understanding of basic processes (see
Welford, 1976~. Other questions have more direct consequences for
application: for example, what contributes to the acquisition and main-
tenance of skills? How can the adverse effects of stress, fatigue, and
monotony be avoided? These questions are the basis for programs of
research that can be divided into several parts, each defined in terms of
empirical issues (Irion, 1969; see also the other chapters in Bilodeau and
Bilodeau, 19691. Some examples of empirical issues are practice effects
(differences due to distributed versus massed practice, long versus short
rest periods, short versus long sessions), the whole-part problem (differ-
ences due to learning a task as a whole versus learning it by its constituent
elements), feedback (differences due to delays in receiving knowledge of
results and to type of information during the delay period), retention
(differences due to whether the the task is motor or verbal), and transfer
of training.
These and related considerations suggest that skill learning is an
incremental process likely to differ from one type of skill to another.
Whether intending to enhance motor, verbal, problem-solving, or social
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lo
ENHANCING HUMAN PERf ORMANCE
performances, technique designers can ill afford to ignore these lessons
from the experimental literature on skill acquisition and maintenance. It
is also the case, however, that the agenda of unexplored issues is much
larger than the accomplishments to date, and this is recognized particularly
in the rapidly growing field of cognitive psychology, in which the
''information-processing revolution" is just beginning.
Practical applications are, however, not automatic. Many excellent
applications do not spring from basic science; some are the result of craft
and experience. More important perhaps are the indirect contributions
made in both directions-from basic to applied and vice versa. A
systematic approach taken in both domains serves to vitalize each, as
when applied investigations reveal new phenomena that need explanation
or when a new package incorporates basic principles discovered originally
in the laboratory. Such an approach is likely to facilitate the design of
appropriate techniques for skill acquisition. At issue is whether a particular
technique can produce and sustain desired changes.
One conclusion from the research accumulated to date is that effective
interventions are those that are continuous and self-regulating and take
account of both context and person (see, for example, Lerner, 19841.
Particularly relevant is the difference between short-term and long-term
changes. Effects obtained by many techniques for performance enhance-
ment may be short-term in their effects. This distinction is made by Back
(1973, 1987) in his evaluation of the sensitivity training movement. The
changes observed by sensitivity trainers and documented by evaluators
may well reflect the impact of the experience per se. Such situation
effects are unlikely to be sustained in different environments, an obser-
vation supported by the literatures in both developmental and social
psychology (Druckman, 1971; Frederiksen, 19724. These literatures cau-
tion against hasty generalizations from observed, situation-specific effects;
they also explain why long-term effects may be difficult to produce with
brief exposures to "treatments." Like the sensitivity trainers of the 1960s
and 1970s, many of the promoters (and consumers) of the 1980s pay little
attention to issues of causality and intrinsic motivation, preferring instead
to dwell on single dimensions of treatments or to offer a mixed package
constructed in arbitrary ways and producing diffuse effects that reflect
the experience.
The issue of expected benefits from techniques provides a bridge
between research and application. Research can be designed to evaluate
techniques, as well as to discover possible unintended side effects.
Indeed, a research literature has developed in some of the areas examined
in this book, namely biofeedback, stress, and guided imagery. For many
other techniques, however, a relevant body of research does not exist;
this lack applies to some of the techniques examined by the committee,
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INTROD UCTI ON ~ ~
as well as to those yet to appear on the market. It is these techniques
that present a problem for us as evaluators. Evaluation without data is
dit-ticult, but not 1mposslole. Our approach Is to p~;e `~c ~;~u~ [filly
broader categories corresponding to the key processes being influenced,
for example, learning, motor skills, and influence. By so doing, the claims
can be evaluated within the frameworks of existing theories and metho-
dologies. They can also be judged against results obtained in related
areas. This approach serves as the organizing theme for the chapters that
follow.
EVALUATING THE TECHNIQUES
Evaluations properly hinge on answers to a standard set of questions
proposed in a paper entitled "Evaluating Human Technologies: What
Questions Should We Ask?" by Hegge, Tyner, and Genser (1983) at the
Walter Reed Army Institute for Research:
· What changes will the technique produce?
· What evidence supports the claims for the technique?
· What theories stand behind the technique?
· Who will be able to use the technique?
· What are the implications of the technique for Army operations?
· How does the technique fit with Army philosophy?
· What are the cost-benefit factors?
These questions served as guidelines for the committee's evaluations.
Appendix A is a summary description of each technique, organized along
the lines of the Hegge, Tyner, and Genser questions, covering theory,
research, and application. For many of the categories, however, the
desired information is either too limited to be useful or simply not
available; in such cases we have considered other strategies for evaluation.
The committee faced a number of difficulties in evaluation that stem
from recurrent problems posed by the technologies. One is the tendency
for some promoters (and consumers) to rely primarily on testimonials or
anecdotal evidence as a basis tor application. AnO~ner is a general lack
of strong research designs to provide evidence of effects. These problems
are considered also in the context of specific techniques discussed in the
chapters of Parts II and III.
Practitioners of techniques often emphasize the value of personal or
clinical experience and marketplace popularity as bases for judging the
techniques. They are generally less inclined to seek research evidence
or to support research evaluation programs. These attitudes may be
related to the fact that few practitioners are trained as researchers. For
some it is sufficient to let others do the research. For others, research is
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ENHANCING HUMAN PERFORMANCE
viewed, in varying degrees, as a threat to their product. At one extreme,
research is regarded as a debunking enterprise, engaged in by scientists
who have little interest in providing human services. At another extreme,
the problem is one of educating the researchers in nuance, context, and
a clinical approach that emphasizes adapting techniques to changed
situations and client tastes. The result is a gap in communication
epitomized by two cultures scientists searching for evidence and prac-
titioners seeking effects and cures. A step toward bridging the gap would
consist of mutual education through joint ventures. These ventures would
expose scientists to the goals (and motives) of practitioners and would
also make practitioners aware of the general analytical approaches used
by scientists.
Experimentation is an appropriate vehicle for evaluating performance-
enhancing techniques; the problem is usually defined in terms of effects
of techniques (procedures) on performance (behaviors). It is also appro-
priate at an earlier stage in the process, when products are being
developed. Products evolve in a kind of trial-and-error fashion similar in
many respects to scientific discoveries. One model for integrating research
with product development is engineering research and development
(R&D). A strenuous applied research effort accompanies the development
process in many firms, as does a quality-control program designed to
evaluate products both during development and after they have been
placed on the market. With a few exceptions, this model has not been
adopted by firms or institutions in the field of performance enhancement.
Experimental evidence has accumulated in some areas related to
techniques. Although not linked specifically to product development in
the manner of an R&D operation, this work does address the question,
What evidence supports the claims for the technique? In fact, so strong
is the experimental tradition in some areas that a body of work has
developed programmatically within a generally accepted paradigm (e.g.,
guided imagery). The benefits of a long research tradition can be seen in
these areas. Meta-analyses have been performed and can be used as a
basis for evaluation. For other areas, we are presented with the prospect
of relying on scattered experiments or using other criteria as a basis for
evaluation, or both (see Appendix A for summaries of the state of the
science in each of the areas).
However, the benefits of experimental evidence derive primarily from
the general approach rather than from the particular experiments. This
idea is captured by Kelman, who noted that ''an experimental finding
. cannot very meaningfully stand by itself. Its contribution to knowledge
hinges on the conceptual thinking that has produced it and into which it
is subsequently fed back" (1968:1611. We emphasize here the contribution
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INTRODUCTION
13
of an analytical approach to thinking about behavior, as distinct from the
establishment of laws about psychological processes. It is the cumulation
of a series of experiments that winnows out the useful parts of treatments
or techniques. It is the self-correcting progression of new experiments
that refines treatments, saving those that work and discarding those that
do not (or that work only under very restricted conditions). This process
contributes equally well to the goals of theory development and product
development.
Other evaluation criteria elucidated by Hegge, Tyner, and Genser
(1983) include theories, uses, and implications for Army operations and
philosophy. A problem with these criteria is that they tend to be vague
and somewhat idiosyncratic, making it difficult to propose general cate-
gories on which most people would agree. Without precisely defined
categories for judging techniques, it is difficult to address issues of transfer
of performance from one situation to another or to evaluate newly
emerging techniques. A similar problem exists with respect to developing
taxonomies in broadly defined fields: there is little agreement on a set of
categories for the fields of human learning, performance, motivation,
perception, and social and organizational processes. More mature sub-
disciplines provide an empirical basis for taxonomies, allowing for more
tightly constructed systems of tasks and situations: for example, rote
learning, short-term memory, concept learning, problem solving, work
motivation, and team functions (see Fleishman and Quaintance, 19841.
.
An advantage of such systems is that they capture rather precise
relationships between task and performance.
This discussion serves only to introduce the issues and identifies several
themes that receive more detailed attention in the chapters to follow.
First, any evaluation must take into account the status of the available
evidence. Confidence placed in judgments about a technique should be
based on the quality of the evidence produced by researchers. Second,
the evaluator cannot afford to rely exclusively on a single criterion for
judging effectiveness. Theoretical and applied issues are also important,
as are considerations of values served or violated by use of the technique.
Third, technique development issues are not isolated from research or
analytical issues. Each step in the process of product design can be
regarded as an empirical issue; decisions made about procedures and
packaging can be the result of experimental outcomes. Fourth, the subject
of enhancing human performance is not new. It has been a topic of
interest for centuries and an area of scientific work for several decades.
The literatures on learning and skill acquisition should be consulted by
developers, and insights derived from these literatures should be used in
product design.
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4
ENHANCING [I UMA N PERFORMA NCE
These themes are woven throughout the discussions of specific tech-
niques. Each chapter discusses relevant literature, describes the specific
techniques, points to directions for further research when appropriate,
and notes possible applications in military and industrial settings. Despite
the common coverage, however, each chapter is also unique in that each
is tailored to the particular problems associated with its focus.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
enhancing human
