INDEX
Abilities, 42–44
Activities of Daily Vision Scale (ADVS), 137, 178, 182
Acuity. See Visual acuity
ADA. See Americans with Disabilities Act
Administrative law judges, 330
Administrative review process, 330
Adults, 31–34
disability decision flow for, 32
who cannot perform standard tests of visual function, 203
Advanced Glaucoma Intervention Study (AGIS) scoring, 81–82
ADVS. See Activities of Daily Vision Scale
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD), 16–17
Aid to the Blind, 11
Alley running, 227
Allowance rate, 330
Ambulatory mobility effects of vision function, 153–161
adaptation to changing light levels, 159–160
binocular vision, 160
contrast sensitivity, 158–159
in controlled environments, 157
direct measures of O&M performance , 156–157
glare sensitivity, 160
recommendations, 161
theories of O&M, 154–155
travel needs of blind and partially sighted individuals, 155–156
in uncontrolled environments, 157–158
visual acuity, 158
visual fields, 159
visuocognitive factors, 160–161
AMD. See Age-related macular degeneration
American Medical Association (AMA), 64, 67, 81, 179
Guide to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment: Vision, 41, 67
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 40
Angle of resolution. See Minimum angle of resolution
Appeals Council, 330–331
Assessment, 199–230.
See also Evaluation; Tests
of disability, 3–4
of job analysis databases, 128
Assessment of the disability determination process for visual impairment, 11–50
characterizing the visual requirements of work, 12
context of social security, 29–40
new ways of estimating visual disability, 12
prevalence and significance of visual impairments, 15–29
procedures for determining disability, 31–35
social model of disability, 40–49
testing capacity to work, 11
updating current criteria, 12–15
visual demands of everyday tasks, 11
Automated static perimetry, 6, 120, 221–224
Bailey-Lovie chart, 65, 212–214
BAT. See Brightness Acuity Tester
Beneficiaries, 331
Berkeley Glare Test, 110
Best-corrected acuity, 36
Binocular function testing, 6, 46, 100–103
evaluation, 102–103
need to evaluate acuity, 60
recommendations, 103
summation test, 100
effect on reading, 149
Blind individuals, travel needs of, 155–156
Blindness, 36
legal, 74
Braille, 133
Brightness Acuity Tester (BAT), 110
Central visual acuity, 36–37, 69n
Central visual efficiency, 112–113
Cerebral visual impairment, 219
Chart design
need to standardize, 58–59
in standardizing visual acuity measurement, 60–61
Chart luminance, 5, 58–59, 63, 107
Children and visual impairments, 23–25, 34–35
disability decision flow, 34
infants, toddlers, and preschoolers, 25
limitations of the data, 24
numbers served under IDEA by disability and age group, 26– 27
school-age children, 24
SSA visually impaired and statutorily blind beneficiaries by age, 28
Chronic impairments, 282–284, 312–321
Claimants, 331
CLEK. See Collaborative Initial Glaucoma Treatment Study
Colenbrander Chart, 138
Collaborative Initial Glaucoma Treatment Study, 181, 183
Collaborative Longitudinal Evaluation of Kerataconus (CLEK) study, 181
Color deficits, effect on reading, 149
Color vision testing, 8–9, 46, 95–99, 122
evaluation, 96–99
and O&M, 166
recommendations, 99
Committee on Disability Determination for Individuals with Visual Impairments, 11
Committee on Vision, 5, 13–14, 58, 61, 63, 66, 70, 77, 119, 183
Comprehension, in measuring reading, 136–137
Concepts and terms, 41–45, 281–285
abilities, 42–44
aspects of vision loss, 43
disabilities, 42–44
diseases, disorders, and injuries, 42–43
handicap, 43–44
impairment, 42–44
Concurrent claims, 331
Conditions for testing, need to specify, 59
Continuing disability review, 331
Contrast sensitivity, 46, 225–230
disability criteria for, 118
in evaluation of reading, 148–149
in visual efficiency testing, 114
Contrast sensitivity in infants and children, 225–230
assessment in infants, 225–226
assessment in preschool-age children, 226–227
assessment in school-age children, 227–229
assessment in those who cannot perform standard tests, 229
issues needing further study, 230
recommendations, 229
Contrast sensitivity testing, 7–8, 83–95, 121–122, 229
evaluation, 83–92
incorporating into the SSA disability determination process, 94
issues needing further study, 93, 95
recommendations, 93–94
Controlled environments, O&M in, 157
Crawford Small Parts Dexterity Test, 175
Critical print size, in measuring reading, 134–135
Cryotherapy for retinopathy of prematurity (CRYO-ROP) study, 207, 209, 212–213, 228
Current Population Survey, 284
DDS. See Disability Determination Services
Deaf-blind children, 24
Department of Education, 25
Office of Special Education Programs, 23
Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics, 276
Department of Labor (DOL), 23, 186, 188, 191, 194–195
Occupational Information Network system, 188
DI. See Disability Insurance; Social Security Disability Insurance
Dictionary of Occupational Titles, 33
Diplopia, 101
Disability criteria, 35–39, 117–118
central visual acuity, 36–37
contrast sensitivity, 118
loss of visual efficiency, 37–39
measurement of visual acuity, 118
measurement of visual fields, 118
statutory blindness, 36
visual efficiency, 118
visual fields, 37
Disability decision flow, 32, 34
Disability Determination Services (DDS), 332
Disability examiners, 332
Disability Insurance (DI), 1–10, 331
assessing disability, 3–4
recommendations, 5–10
testing infants and children, 4–5
tests of visual functions, 2
visual task performance, 3
Diseases, 42
Disorders, 42
Distractors, 104
Division of Disability Program Information and Studies, 28n
DOL. See Department of Labor
Down syndrome, 207
Driving mobility, 161–168
aspects of vision function affecting, 161–166
binocularity, 165–166
color vision, 166
contrast sensitivity, 164
direct measures of driving ability, 166–168
dynamic visual acuity, 166
glare sensitivity, 166
recommendations, 168
visual acuity, 163
visual fields, 163–164
visual search and attention, 164–165
Duration, 332.
See also Sequential evaluation process
Dvorine test, 96
Dynamic visual acuity, and O&M, 166
Early Treatment for Diabetic Retinopathy Study (ETDRS), 61–62, 209–210, 212–214
Eccentricity, visual field, 69
Economic variables, 284–285
Employment and economic consequences of visual impairment, 275–321
Employment income, 287–304
Endurance, in measuring reading, 136
Equals listing, 332.
See also Sequential evaluation process
Equivalent viewing distances (EVDs), 170
ESP (elicited sequential presentation) method, 132
ETDRS (Early Treatment for Diabetic Retinopathy Study) “Chart 1” acuity chart, 62, 65
Evaluation of binocular function testing, 102–103
potential value as a practical measure, 102
quantifying performance, 102– 103
why the measure might be useful, 102
Evaluation of color vision testing, 96–99
potential value as a practical measure, 97
quality of information available, 99
quantifying performance, 97–98
relation to other measures, 99
why the measure might be useful, 96–97
Evaluation of contrast sensitivity testing, 83–92, 147–148
and mobility, 87–88
Pelli-Robson Contrast Sensitivity Test, 8, 84
potential value as a practical measure, 89
quality of information available, 92
quantifying performance, 89–91
and reading, 86–87
relation to other measures, 91–92
and social participation and tool use/manipulation, 88
why the measure might be useful, 83–88
Evaluation of reading testing, 143– 150
allowing magnifiers, 145–146
cause of the reading disability, 143–144
ferreting out subject’s manipulation, 146
relating reading performance to visual function impairment, 146
scale for reading disability, 144
variability in reading measurements, 144–145
visual functions having little effect on reading, 149–150
Evaluation of visual acuity testing, 53–60, 147
conversion table for visual acuity notations, 54–55
quantifying performance, 58–60
Snellen-type acuity chart, 57
value as a practical measure, 56– 57
why the measurement is useful, 53–56
Evaluation of visual fields testing, 70–80, 147–148
issues needing further study, 82– 83
quality of information available, 79–80
quantifying performance, 74–79
relation to other measures, 79
value as a practical measure, 74
why the measure is useful, 70–74
EVDs. See Equivalent viewing distances
Eye movements, in measuring reading, 137
Farnsworth panel D-15 test, 96, 98
Farnsworth-Munsell 100 Hues test, 96, 98
FICA, 30
Field of vision. See Visual fields
Fixation and following, 205
Forced-choice preferential looking (FPL), 206–208
Foveal vision, 71
Glare and light/dark adaptation testing, 106–111
adaptation to rapidly changing light conditions, 108–109
glare disability, 109–110
vision at low light levels, 106–107
Glare disability, 109–110
Glare sensitivity, and O&M, 160, 166
Glasgow acuity cards, 210–211
Goldmann perimetry, 76, 81, 220–221
Goldmann-Weekers Adaptometer, 108
GRE test, 136
Guide to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment: Vision, 41, 67
H-R-R test, 96
Handicaps, 43–44
Health-related quality of life (HRQOL) evaluation, 128, 179–185
recommendations, 184–185
use in the disability determination process, 183– 184
vision-specific HRQOL instruments, 181–183
visual task performance testing, 198
Health screening questions, 280–281
Hearing office, 332
HHSAI. See Household size-adjusted income
Homonymous hemianopsia, 71
HOTV test
BVAT crowded, 210
letter chart, 210–211
Household size-adjusted income (HHSAI), 305
HRQOL. See Health-related quality of life
Humphrey Automatic Refractor, 110
IADL. See Instrumental activities of daily living
ICF. See International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health
ICD-9. See International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision
ICIDH. See International Classification of Impairment, Disability, and Handicap
IDEA. See Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
Impairment of Central Visual Acuity, 58–59
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 23–27
Information sources and standards, 48–49
public forum, 49
standards for evidence, 48–49
InnoMed true vision analyzer (TVA), 110
Instrumental activities of daily living (IADL) tasks, 175, 177
International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision (ICD-9), 40n, 282
International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF), 41
International Classification of Impairment, Disability, and Handicap (ICIDH), 41, 42n, 44n
Interocular difference in vision, effect on reading, 149
Intraventricular hemorrhage, 219
Ishihara test, 96
Isopters, 75
Job analysis using labor databases, 4, 186–193
Department of Labor, 188
importance of vision to job performance, 192–193
importance to the job of aspects of vision, 191
Position Analysis Questionnaire, 187
Job performance abilities, testing of visual functions as a predictor of, 127–128
Lang stereo test, 102
Lea symbols chart, 210–211, 214, 227
Light levels, adaptation to changing, 108–109, 159–160
Literacy rates, 130
Log constrast sensitivity score, 8, 63, 65, 83–95, 114
LogMAR values, 65, 113, 141, 211– 213
MacQuarrie Test for Mechanical Ability, 175
Macular region, 69.
See also Age-related macular degeneration
MAR. See Minimum angle of resolution
Maternal and Child Health Bureau, 210
McCormick, Ernest, 187
Mean defect (MD) methods, 120–121
Mean deviation (MD) methods, 78, 114
Medical experts (MEs), 123, 333
Medical listing, 333
Medical Outcomes Study Form-36 (SF-36), 181
Meets listing, 333.
See also Sequential evaluation process
MEs. See Medical experts
Miller Nadler test, 110
Minimum angle of resolution (MAR), 52–53.
See also logMAR values
Minnesota Rate of Manipulation Test, 175
MNREAD Reading Acuity Chart, 138–139
Mobility
evaluation and, 87–88
visual task performance testing, 197
Multiple disabilities, children with, 24
Nagel anomaloscope, 96
Nagi framework, 281
National Academy of Sciences, 322, 329
National Adult Literacy Survey, 143
National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS), 276
National Early Intervention Longitudinal Study (NEILS), 25
National Eye Institute, 210
National Eye Institute Visual Function Questionnaire (NEI VFQ), 137, 172, 178, 184
National Health and Nutrition Evaluation Survey, 48
National Health Interview on Disability, 302–303, 309
National Health Interview Survey (NHIS), 17, 21, 23, 48, 276– 321
Coding Manual, 283
National Institute for Literacy, 143
National Institutes of Health
Collaborative Initial Glaucoma Treatment Study , 181, 183
Ocular Hypertension Treatment Study, 181
NCHS. See National Center for Health Statistics
Near visual acuity, in standardizing visual acuity measurement, 65–66
NEI VFQ. See National Eye Institute Visual Function Questionnaire
NEILS. See National Early Intervention Longitudinal Study
NHIS. See National Health Interview Survey
Nonsevere impairment, 333.
See also Sequential evaluation process
O&M. See Orientation and mobility
Occupational Information Network system (O*NET), 23, 188
O’Connor Finger and Tweezer Dexterity Test, 175
Octopus perimetry, 78, 81, 121, 222–223
Ocular Hypertension Treatment Study, 181
Office of Disability, 12
Division of Disability Program Information and Studies, 28n
Office of Hearings and Appeals. See Appeals Council
Office of Special Education Programs, 23
O*NET. See Occupational Information Network system
Opthimus glare test, 110
Optotypes, 52
Orientation and mobility (O&M), 71–73, 153–168
ambulatory, 153–161
driving, 161–168
Other work, 333.
See also Sequential evaluation process
PAQ. See Position Analysis Questionnaire
Partially sighted individuals, travel needs of, 155–156
Past relevant work, 33
Pelli-Robson Contrast Sensitivity Test, 8, 84, 86–87, 90–93, 122, 226–229
Pepper Visual Skills for Reading test, 138
Performance-based tests, of social participation, 169–172
Perimetry. See also Visual fields testing
Perimetry, in visually at-risk infants, 218–219
Perinatal asphyxia, 219
Peripheral vision field, 69
Periventricular leukomalacia, 219
Photopic lighting, 106
“Physical Residual Functional Capacity Assessment,” 33
Pickford-Nicholson anomaloscope, 96
Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ), 23, 130, 187
usability of, 188–193
Preferred retinal locus, 148
Preschool-age children, 25, 202
Procedures for determining disability, 31–35
adults, 31–34
children, 34–35
criteria for children, 39–40
current disability criteria for vision, 35–39
Program participation, 306–307
Public forum, on visual disability determination methods and issues, 49, 322–329
Purdue Pegboard test, 175
Quantifying visual acuity performance, 58–60
need to evaluate binocular acuity, 60
need to specify conditions for testing, 59
need to specify testing procedures, 60
need to standardize chart design, 58–59
Quantifying visual field performance, 74–79
need for an automated static perimeter, 77–78
need for standardized “deviation from average normal” values, 78–79
plotting of an isopter for visual field determination, 75
Questionnaires, for measuring reading, 137
Randot stereo test, 102–103
clinical tests, 138–141
including in disability determination, 129–131
MNREAD Reading Acuity Chart, 139
range of reading tasks, 131–134
real-world, 142
recommendations, 151–153
standardizing testing procedures, 141–143
stimulus properties and the “reading envelope,” 150–151
Reading measurement, 134–137, 196–197
accuracy, 136
comprehension, 136–137
critical print size, 134–135
endurance, 136
eye movements, 137
questionnaires, 137
Recognition acuity, 204
Refractive error, 36
Resolution acuity, 204
Retinal disparity, 103
Ross Pediatric Lipid Study, 207
Route memory, 154
RSVP (rapid serial visual presentation) method, 132
SAT test, 136
School-age children, 24, 202–203
who cannot perform standard tests of visual function, 203
Scoring method, in standardizing visual acuity measurement, 65–66
Search capacity, effect on reading, 150
Self-reporting
of social interaction, 172–173
of tasks using tools, 177–178
of visual impairment, 7
of visual problems, 17–20
Sequential evaluation process, 334
SGA. See Substantial gainful activity
Sickness Impact Profile (SIP), 172, 181
SITA. See Swedish interactive thresholding algorithm
Snellen-type acuity chart, 57, 141
Social interaction, self-reporting of, 172–173
Social model of disability, 40–49
generic concepts and terms applied to vision, 41–45
information sources and standards, 48–49
lines of inquiry, 47–48
vision-specific concepts and terms, 45–46
visual functions, 45–46
Social participation, 73, 168–173
evaluation and, 88
performance-based tests, 169–172
recommendations, 173
self-reporting, 172–173
testing, 3
and visual task performance testing, 198
Social Security Act of 1935, 11, 29– 40
Social Security Administration (SSA), 1–15
disability criteria, 29–40, 47, 58– 59, 67–68, 92–93, 111–112, 115–127, 196, 199–200, 211, 215
issues needing further study by, 8–10
present caseload, 25
statutorily blind beneficiaries, 28
visually impaired claimants, 51
Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI), 12, 20, 22, 30–31
payments under, 282, 292–293, 296–297, 306–307
Social Security tax program, 30
SSA. See Social Security Administration
SSDI. See Social Security Disability Insurance
SSI. See Supplemental Security Income
Standardizing testing procedures, for reading, 141–143
Standardizing visual acuity measurement, 60–66
chart design, 60–61
ETDRS “Chart 1” acuity chart, 62
near visual acuity, 65–66
observation conditions, 61–63
scoring method, 65–66
testing conditions, 63–65
Static perimetry, 218
Statutory blindness, 36
Stereoacuity, 102
Stereopsis, 101
Stimulus properties, and the “reading envelope,” 150–151
Strabismus, 101
Substantial gainful activity (SGA), 30–31, 334
Supplemental Security Income (SSI), 12, 20, 22, 29–31, 34, 334
Swedish interactive thresholding algorithm (SITA), 223
Talking Signs, 157
Terminology. See Concepts and terms
Testing conditions, in standardizing visual acuity measurement, 63–65
Testing procedures, need to specify, 60
Test-retest reliability, 7, 77, 120
Tests
adequacy of current, 11, 13–14
of capacity to work, 11
of infants and children, 4–5, 10, 214–215
Tests of visual functions, 2, 5–9, 51– 125
binocular function, 100–103
contrast sensitivity, 7–8, 83–95, 121–122, 229
disability criteria, 117–118
glare and light/dark adaptation, 106–111
visual acuity, 5–6, 52–69, 119, 214–215
visual efficiency, 111–117
visual fields, 6–7, 69–83, 120–121, 224
visual search, 8–9, 103–105, 122
Tests of visual task performance, 196–198
HRQOL, 198
mobility, 197
reading, 196–197
social participation, 198
tool use and manipulation, 197
TNO stereo test, 102–103
Toddlers, 25
Tool use and manipulation, 74, 173–178
evaluation of, 88
recommendations, 178
self-reporting of tasks, 177–178
vision and performance tests of tool use, 175–177
visual task performance testing, 197
Travel needs, of blind and partially sighted individuals, 155–156
True vision analyzer (TVA), 110
Tunnel vision, 148
TVA. See InnoMed true vision analyzer
Uncontrolled environments, O&M in, 157–158
United Nations, 130
Updating current criteria, 12–15
adequacy of current tests, 11, 13–14
limited range of visual functions tested, 12, 14–15
predicting performance in the workplace, 13
Usual work, 334.
See also Sequential evaluation process
VAQ. See Visual Activities Questionnaire
VAR. See Visual acuity rating
VEP. See Visual evoked potential
VEs. See Vocational experts
VF-14 instrument, 182
Vision
loss of, 43
at low light levels, 106–107
and performance tests of tool use, 175–177
Vistech charts, 89–90, 92, 226–229
VisTech VCT 8000, 110
Visual Activities Questionnaire (VAQ), 182
Visual acuity, 5–6, 46, 66–69, 119
charts for, 5
disability criteria for, 118
in evaluation of reading, 147
Visual acuity in infants and children, 203–216
assessment in infants, 205–210
assessment in preschool-age children, 210–211
assessment in school-age children , 211–213
assessment in those who cannot perform standard tests, 213– 214
fixation and following, 205
forced-choice preferential looking, 206–208
issues needing further study, 215–216
predictive value of results, 208– 210
recommendations, 214–215
visual evoked potential, 205–206
Visual acuity rating (VAR), 53, 65
Visual acuity testing, 52–69
evaluation, 53–60
recommendations, 66–69
standardizing visual acuity measurement, 60–66
Visual demands of everyday tasks, 11
Visual efficiency testing, 111–117
central visual efficiency, 112–113
combining measures, 115
contrast sensitivity, 114
visual field efficiency, 113–114
Visual evoked potential, 205–206
Visual field efficiency, 113–114
Visual fields, 6–7, 37, 46, 81–82, 120–121, 216–225
disability criteria for, 118
in evaluation of reading, 147–148
Visual fields in infants and children, 216–225
assessment in infants, 217–219
assessment in preschool-age children, 219–220
assessment in school-age children, 220–224
assessment in those who cannot perform standard tests, 224
automated static perimetry, 221–224
confrontation techniques, 217
Goldmann perimetry, 220–221
issues needing further study, 224–225
perimetry in visually at-risk infants, 218–219
recommendations, 224
static perimetry, 218
white sphere kinetic perimetry, 217–218
Visual fields testing, 69–83.
See also Perimetry
evaluation, 70–80
isopters, 75
mean deviation methods, 78, 114
orientation/mobility, 71–73
reading, 71
recommendations, 81–82
social participation, 73
tool use/manipulation, 74
why the measure is useful, 70–74
Visual functions, 42, 45–46, 117
binocular function, 46
color vision, 46
contrast sensitivity, 46
visual acuity, 46
visual fields, 46
visual search, 46
Visual functions having little effect on reading, 149–150
binocular vision, 149
color deficits, 149
in evaluation of reading, 149–150
interocular difference in vision, 149
search capacity, 150
Visual impairments, prevalence and significance of, 15–29
Visual search and attention, 8–9, 46, 105, 122
and O&M, 164–165
Visual search testing, 103–105
evaluation, 104–105
recommendations, 105
Visual span, 148
Visual task performance, 3, 10, 126– 198
challenges of evaluation, 127– 128
health-related quality of life (HRQOL), 179–185
orientation and mobility (O&M), 153–168
recommendations for tests, 3, 196–198
social participation testing, 3, 168–173
test battery, 3
tool use and manipulation, 173– 178
work skills and visual functioning, 185–195
Visuocognitive factors in O&M, 160–161
Vocational considerations, 33, 334
Vocational experts (VEs), 334
Weber contrast ratio, 85n
White size III Goldmann target, 6, 77, 120
White sphere kinetic perimetry, 217–218
Work
other, 333
past relevant, 33
Work skills and visual functioning, 185–195
job analysis using labor databases, 186–193
recommendations, 193–195
Workplace
predicting performance in, 13
visual limitations in, 20–23