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Index A Acetaldehyde adduct formation, 591, 597 animal studies, 584, 588 atmospheric concentrations, 144, 580-581 atmospheric lifetime, 107 carcinogenicity, 584, 588 in exhaust, concentrations, 581 formation, 120, 121 health effects, 583 indoor concentrations, 150 photolysis rate, 107 rate constant for gas-phase chemical removal reactions, 106 respiratory tract disposition, 585 seasonal patterns, 145 sources, 580 Acetic acid, atmospheric reactions, 121 Acetone atmospheric lifetime, 107, 119 dosimetry modeling, 376 photolysis rate, 107, 119 pulmonary absorption of, 358-359 rate constant for gas-phase chemical removal reactions, 106 Acetyl radicals, atmospheric formation, 120 Acetylene atmospheric lifetime, 107 pulmonary gas uptake measurements with, 358 rate constant for gas-phase chemical removal reactions, 106 Acid deposition aerosol role in, 125 atmospheric processes leading to, 109, 110, 125 emission control program for, 80-81, 192 hydrogen peroxide role in, 103 source-receptor relationships, 91 vehicular emission contribution to, 80, 102 Acrolein adduct formation, 592, 597 atmospheric chemical reactions, 120 atmospheric concentration, 580 atmospheric lifetime, 107 carcinogenicity, 584-585, 590 conditioned responses to exposure to, 644 diesel-engine exhaust levels, 581 health effects, 302, 582-584 inflammatory response to, 583-584 irritant effects, 584-585 metabolism of, 590 neurotoxicity, 634, 645 rate constant for gas-phase chemical removal reactions, 106 sources, 580-581 Acylperoxy radicals, atmospheric reactions, 119 Aerosols atmospheric deposition, 176-177 carbonaceous component, 180, 189 coagulation, 20, 179 concentration trends, 142-143 constituents, 139-143, 153, 179-180, 189 definition, 251 diurnal behavior, 142 dynamics, 179-181 emissions inventory, 180-181 formation, 20, 169, 179-181, 185 growth, 179, 181 heterogeneous reactions with gases, 181 by g ro s co pi c , 25 2 , 280 indoor constituents and concentrations, 150, 151 metal component, 141-142 modeling, 165, 169, 176, 179-181, 185, 192 monodisperse, 252, 254, 257 nitrite component, 142, 180 polydisperse, 252, 254, 257, 261, 270 size distribution, 179-180, 251-252 sources, 20, 142, 188-189 sulfate component, 142, 180 tracer studies, 255 659
660 Index Air pollution, atmospheric abatement and control expenditures in U.S., 162 alerts, 4 components, 100-101 concentrations, 134-146; see also Concentra- tions of pollutants, atmospheric disasters, 4, 177 exposure to, see Exposure to pollutants sources, 40, 147-148 in urban areas, 93, 100 Air pollution, indoor concentrations, 146-151; see also Concentra- tions of pollutants, indoor constituents, 194 in motor vehicles, 149 nitrous acid formation, 105, 111 relationship to outdoor pollution, 19, 193-195 Air quality control program planning, 173, 178, 181, 184, 187-189, 191, 195-196, 232 standards, see National Ambient Air Qual- ity Standards Air quality models/modeling aerosol dynamics in, 169, 179-181, 196 analytical/deterministic, 163, 165, 169-173, 174, 195 applications of, 165, 173-174, 181, 184, 187-192, 194-196 approaches for different processes, 174-181, 194 box, 164, 172, 173 Caltech Airshed Model, 183, 185-186 carbon bond mechanisms in, 177, 178 categories of, 163-164, 167-174 chemical mass balance, 168-169, 188-189, 194-195 chemical mechanisms in, 177-179, 185-186 conservation-of-mass principles in, 170, 172, 185, 189 data requirements for evaluating, 182-184 decay factor in, 169, 172, 184 deposition parameters, 171, 175-177, 185 development, 162-165, 181, 191-192 dispersion, 188 Empirical Kinetic Modeling Approach, 185 empirical/statistical, 163, 165, 167-169, 174 Environmental Lagrangian Simulation of Transport and Atmospheric Reactions, 183, 185, 190 Eulerian, 164, 172, 173, 185 evaluation of, 181-187 factor analysis, 169, 188 fog chemistry, 177 Gaussian plume, 82, 83-87, 90, 164, 171-172, 182, 184-185, 189 gradient diffusion hypothesis in, 174 grid, 172-175, 182, 184, 185, 193 historical perspective, 165 hybrid analytical and receptor, 168, 169 indoor/outdoor pollutant relationships, 193-195 inputs, 163-164, 172, 182-183, 185, 186, 195 K-theory in, 170, 174-175 Lagrangian, 164, 170-173, 185 large-scale processes, 165, 192-193 limitations, 168, 186, 188, 193, 194 Livermore Regional Air Quality model, 183, 185, 186 lumped mechanisms in, 177, 178, 186 marked-particle, 164, 170 measurements of pollutants compared to, 182, 193-196 meteorological parameters in, 172, 183 microscopic, 168, 169 mixing processes in, 170-171, 175, 193 multiple source treatment in, 172, 184 multivariate, 168, 169, 195 needs, 165, 166 nonreactive pollutants, 167, 186, 187, 189, 194-196 output, 163-164 ozone-precursor relationship, 165 particle-in-cell, 170, 185, 189 performance measures, 182-183 photochemical airshed, 111, 152, 164, 165, 167, 173, 184, 185, 190-193 point-source emissions in, 193 population exposure calculations from, 187 reactive pollutants in, 167, 172-173, 186, 189, 194 receptor, 164, 165, 167-169, 188-189, 194-195 removal processes, 175-177 rollback, 164, 165, 167-168 SAI Urban Airshed Model, 183, 185-187, 190, 193 sensitivity/uncertainty analyses, 184-187 small-scale processes, 86, 174-175, 193-195 source apportionment in, 163, 168, 169, 174-175, 178, 181, 184, 189-192, 194-195, 230 source fingerprint, 168, 169, 194 source/receptor, 168, 188-189, 194, 195
Index 661 of street canyons, 174-175, 193 surrogate mechanisms in, 177-178 temporal and spatial resolution, 171, 173- 174 testing approaches, 182 tracer technique, 168-169 trajectory, 88, 91, 170-173, 185, 190-191 transport of pollutants, 78, 80, 82-91, 163-164, 170-172, 174-175, 185-186, 189, 191, 194 turbulent transport and diffusion, 174-175 uncertainties in, 182, 184, 186 unregulated pollutants in, 166 urban air basins, 174, 193 urban intersection concentrations, 86 validation, 182 wind treatment in, 80, 82, 84, 86, 88, 170- 171, 184 Airways airflow patterns, 248-249, 474-475 cellular structure, 371-372, 442-443 C-fibers, 470, 471, 476, 477 chemical reactions in, 333-334 clearance rates for particles, 283 conducting, see Tracheobronchial tree defense mechanisms, 264-266, 275-276, 278-279, 281, 443, 502-503, 507-508, 511-513 diffusion barriers, 336-337, 339 models of, 244, 261, 327-329, 342-344, 346-352, 358, 369, 376, 380 multicomponent diffusion effects, 333 particle deposition patterns in, 260 pathologic conditions, see Asthma; Asth- matics; Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; Emphysema; Pulmonary fibrosis; Small airways disease reactivity, 324, 374, 375, 377, 418, 467-470, 472, 478-483 respiratory zone, see Pulmonary region upper, see Upper respiratory tract see also Respiratory tract Alcohols aliphatic, 121 atmospheric chemical reactions, 121, 146 atmospheric concentrations, 146, 150, 580- 582 cocarcinogenic effects, 588-589 indoor concentrations, 150 performance impairment by, 646 physiological reactivity, 594 sources, 58, 146, 150, 581-582 see also Butanol; Ethanol; Methanol Aldehydes adduct formation, 591-593 aliphatic, 118-119 aromatic, 118-119, 122 atmospheric chemical reactions, 103-104, 115, 117, 118-119, 120, 122 atmospheric concentrations, 144-145, 153, 582 carcinogenicity, 584-586, 588-589 effects on cultured cells, 586-587 in exhaust, concentrations, 581 formation, 117, 121, 122, 144, 580 free-radical formation, 593-594, 597 health effects, 144, 582-584 indoor concentrations, 150 metabolism, 591-594 photolysis of, 103-104, 118-119 sources, 144, 150 cz,,B unsaturated, 120, 586, 591-592, 596 see also Acetaldehyde; Formaldehyde Alkanes, atmospheric chemistry, 114-116, 178 Alkenes, atmospheric concentrations and reactivity, 116-118, 137 Alkoxy radical reactions, atmospheric, 114 115 Alkyl nitrates, atmospheric reactions, 115, 126 Alkyl peroxy radical formation, 178 Alkyl radicals, formation, 178 Alveolar macrophages in asthmatics, 273 carcinogenic role, 524 cell culture studies, 278, 279, 422-424, 426, 487 characteristics, 264-265 defense role, 442, 443, 502, 512, 524 dissolution of metal particles by, 278 as dosimeters, 487 fibroblast interaction, 417, 419, 421-423, 426 impairment of, 278, 279, 312-313, 315, 502 mediators, 33, 266, 417, 419, 421-423, 444, 512 metabolism of particle-associated carcino gens, 300, 305, 311-312 morphometric analyses of, 423 oxidant gas effects on, 273, 423, 507-508, 513 particle clearance by, 264-266, 271, 273, 275-276, 278, 281, 283, 300, 303 response to diesel-engine exhaust exposure, 312-313, 454-455 response to fibrotic insult, 417, 419-424, 452
662 Index Alveoli cellular structure, 245, 443; see also Alveolar m a cro p hag es characteristics, 244, 328-329 species differences in, 246, 253 see also Pulmonary region Amines aliphatic, 112 aromatic, 307 indoor concentrations, 150 metabolism of, 307 reactions in chemical removal processes, 112-113 sympathomimetic, 636 Aminoanthracene, 303 4-Aminobiphenyl, biological marker of expo- sure to, 225 Aminopyrene, metabolism of, 307-308 Ammonia analytical methods for characterizing, 63 atmospheric lifetime, 107 neurobehavioral effects, 642 pulmonary reactivity, 374 rate constants for gas-phase chemical re- moval reactions, 106 sources, 166 Ammonium nitrate aerosol concentrations, modeling, 186 Analytical methodologies/techniques for atmospheric reactions, 125 for exhaust, 63, 189 for exposure assessment, 211-218 for measurement of pollutants, 63-64, 69, 125 see also Air quality models/modeling Anatomic models airway geometry, 244, 261, 350 Bohr airway, 342-344, 358 of laboratory animals, 378-379 lower airways, 349-352 respiratory zone, 329 structural, 244, 353 tracheobronchial tree, 244, 327-328, 349, 353 upper airway, 346-349 use in dosimetry modeling, 368-369, 376-378 of vascular structure, 337 Weibel model A, 244, 327-329, 336, 346, 349-350, 369, 376, 380 Animal studies/models of aldehyde exposure, 583-585 of asthma, 482, 485-487 of atherosclerosis, 609-615, 617-619 bioassays, 531-533, 546, 570-572 of carbon monoxide effects, 618-619 of carcinogenicity, 520-522, 525, 527, 531 539, 540-544, 558-560, 570-572, 584 chronic studies, 273, 276-277, 282, 429-430, 432, 453-454 collagen cross-linking, 426 of diesel-engine exhaust, 275-277, 454-455, 540-546 of DNA adduct formation from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 569-570 dose-to-target measurements in, 22 of emphysema, 273, 444-445, 448-449, 454-455 extrapolation to humans, 25, 32, 253, 254, 260, 262, 283, 324, 352, 363, 368, 535-539, 547, 585 of gas adsorption dynamics, 354-358 irritant gas inhalation, 273 lung injury response, 417, 420-421, 425-427 mathematical model validation with, 354-358 metal emissions exposure, 278-280 of methanol exposure, 587 of neurotoxicity, 634, 636 of nitrogen dioxide-induced disease, 449-454, 506-507, 513 of nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 562-563 of ozone exposure, 351-352, 356, 418, 427-433, 474, 506, 513 of particle clearance from respiratory tract, 273, 279-282, 302-303 particle deposition analysis, 254-259, 261, 262 of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 558-562 of pulmonary fibrosis, 426-429 range in species responses, 427 of respiratory clearance mechanisms during disease states, 273 of respiratory infections, 506-508, 510 risk assessment, 534-535 scaling procedures for, 23, 248, 262 of small airways disease, 449 strain differences, 527, 535, 538, 541, 561 sulfur dioxide exposure, 357 sulfuric acid effects on respiratory tract clearance, 281-282 Animals, laboratory airflow patterns in airways of, 249
Index 663 anatomical measurements related to breath ing in, 325 anatomical models, 378 birds, 427, 612-613, 617-620 bronchial tree models, 244 cats, 454 dogs, 242-244, 255-258, 262, 281, 325, 356-357, 428, 449-450, 453-454, 470-471, 475, 476, 478-479, 484, 486, 614 donkeys, 282 guinea pigs, 241-242, 244, 255-258, 262, 276, 281-282, 352, 421, 427, 431, 471, 478-479, 482-484, 583 hamsters, 241-244, 255-258, 262, 273, 277, 421-423, 431, 451, 454-455, 507-508, 521, 527, 540-543, 558-560, 562-563, 569-571, 584, 588 horses, 449-451 mice, 242, 256-257, 262, 276-277, 282, 325, 420, 421, 427, 430-431, 448, 451, 506-507, 521, 525, 527, 532, 535, 537, 540-544, 558-561, 570, 584, 590 molecular diffusion coefficients in tissues of, 373 ozone dose distributions in, 352 pigs, 612, 614 primates (nonhuman), 241-242, 325, 351, 422, 426-429, 433, 451, 474, 482, 506, 508, 587, 589, 609-611, 613, 615, 617, 619, 634, 647 rabbits, 241-244, 262, 278-279, 282, 325, 352, 357, 427, 450-451, 486, 508, 559, 612, 614, 619 rats, 241-244, 255-259, 262, 273, 276-278, 282, 302, 310, 313, 325, 378-379, Atherosclerosis 417-418, 420-421, 423, 425, 427-433, 450-452, 454, 521, 527, 532, 540-543, 559-562, 567, 583, 588-589 respiratory tract structural differences, 241-245, 248, 249, 255, 258, 281, 324-325, 369, 447 scaling procedures for, 23, 248, 262 sedation of, 25, 479 sheep, 277, 282, 471, 480, 484, 486 see also Species differences Anthanthrene, 559-560, 571 Anthracene, 106, 107, 124, 559 Asbestos, 224, 305, 422, 524 Asthma animal models, 485-487 automotive emissions and, 466-491, 583 cell culture studies, 487 . . chemical mediators, 477-478 clinical spectrum, 467-468 controlled exposure studies of, 470-473 definition, 466 demography, 466-467 extrinsic and intrinsic, 467-469, 473 formaldehyde induction of, 583 human studies, 471-472, 485 nitrogen dioxide aggravation of, 472 nons pacific bronchial hyperreactivity with, 466-470, 478-479, 483 ozone aggravation of, 471-472, 478-485 pathogenesis, 33, 468-470 pathophysiology, 473-481 prevalence, 466-467 progression to chronic destructive pulmo- nary disease, 403 reactions to allergens, 469 risk correlates, 399, 467, 503 specific airways reactivity, 479-480 Asthmatics , . airflow resistance in, 474-475 airway size assessment in, 474 bronchoconstriction in, 395, 466, 470-472, 474-477 epidemiological studies of, 395, 396-399, 403, 405-407, 473 epithelial permeability of, 481-485 ion transport in, 484 macrophage function in, 273 mucociliary clearance in, 273, 484-485 mucous production and secretion in, 476, 483-484 sensitivity to pollutant gases, 326, 466, 471-473 age and, 609-610 animal studies/models for, 609-615, 617-619 carbon monoxide and, 606, 612-613, 617-619 carcinogenic effects on plaques, 619-620 cigarette smoking and, 606, 612-617 clonal character of plaques, 619-620 dietary cholesterol, 610-611 epidemiologic studies, 610-612; 616-618 gender and, 610 genetic susceptibility, 610-611 macrophage role in, 607-609 mesenchymal susceptibility to, 611 monoclonal theory of, 607-608 natural history, 606 pathogenesis, 606-609
664 plaque complications, 609 plasma lipoproteins, 613, 616-617 platelets and platelet function, 616 psychosocial influences, 611-612, 620 risk factors, 609-612 smooth muscle cell proliferation in, 607-609, 619-620 Atkinson, Roger, 99-132 Atmospheric transport and dispersion of pol lutants accretion of particles, 101 aerosols, 179 aqueous-phase reactions, 102-103, 109, 111, 113-114, 125, 126 from area sources, 81 chemical removal processes, 78, 102-105, 109-126; see also Photolysis Cross Appalachian Tracer Experiment, 91 definition of, 78-82 diurnal variation in, 104-105, 110-113, 118-119, 124, 126, 176 dry deposition, 78, 81, 90, 92, 93, 101-102, 108-110, 170-171, 175-177 eddy diffusivity component, 79, 83-84, 170, 171-172 elevation of source and, 82 gaseous, 82-84 Gaussian line-source models, 82, 83-87, 90, 164, 171-172 hydrodynamic models, 80, 88-91 from line sources, 79, 81-84 meteorological parameters, 78-81, 86, 90-91, 93, 102 mixing factors in, 81, 83, 89, 91, 93, 170-171, 175 modeling, 23, 78, 80, 82-87, 90, 93, 170; see also Air quality models/modeling monitoring networks, 90 near-field, 79, 81-88 numerical simulations, 83 open-highway, 82-85 in parking structures, 85-88, 93 particles, 85, 101, 125, 126; see also Particu late emissions/pollutants physical removal processes, 78, 81, 90, 92, 93, 101-102, 108-110, 126, 170-171, 175-177 plume rise, 84, 85, 164, 166, 171-172 from point sources, 81 rainout, 102 regional scale, 79, 80-81, 89-93, 100, 185 resistance factors, 101, 176 Index scales of motion in, 78, 81-82 simulation modeling of, 78, 80, 82-86, 93 in street canyons, 85-88, 93, 138, 174-175 theories of, 82-92 tracer gas studies, 82, 84, 85, 87, 88, 91, 93 trajectory analysis, 88, 91, 170-173 turbulence components, 78-79, 82-86, 91, 93, 166, 170, 171, 174-175 urban-scale, 81, 88-89, 93 vehicle wake contribution, 79-80, 82-85, 87, 93 wet deposition, 102, 108-110, 123, 177; see also Acid deposition wind flow components and measurements, 80, 82, 84, 86, 88-93, 171, 175 wind tunnel experiments, 84, 87, 163 see also Concentrations of pollutants Automobiles/light-duty vehicles durability testing, 46 emission control approaches, 40-41, 46- 49 emission standards, 44-45 engine characteristics, 50-52 evaporative emissions, 55-56 fuel economy standards, 46 measurement of emissions from, 61-64 methanol-fueled, 57-58 pollutant emission rates, 44, 65 tampering with emission control devices in, 50-52 vehicle weight, 43 see also Vehicles; Vehicles, heavy-duty Automotive emissions acid deposition from, 81-82 ambient levels, 580-582 asthma and, 465-491 as atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease risk factors, 606-622 atmospheric lifetimes, 105-109 atmospheric transformations of, 20, 100-128 atmospheric transport and dispersion of pollutants associated with, 78-94, 166 biological disposition of, 239-287, 300- 317 carcinogenesis mechanisms relevant to as- sessment of, 520-530 chemical and physical properties, 20-22 contribution to pollution loading, 19-20, 93, 100 driving cycle and, 43
Index 665 lung disease relationship to, 449-454 Benzene mixing process, 81, 89 models, 52-54 monocyclic aromatic compounds, 122-123; see also Amines; Cresols; Hydrocarbon emissions; Phenols neurobehavioral effects, 632-653 nitrites, 113 organic peroxides, 114; see also Hydrogen peroxide oxides of carbon, see Carbon monoxide oxides of nitrogen, see Nitrogen oxides oxyacids, 113 oxygen-containing organics, 118-123; see also Alcohols; Aldehydes; Carbonyls; Carboxylic acids; Esters; Ethers; Ketones passenger car, 41, 43 photolysis of, 103, 109 rate constants for gas-phase reactions of, 105-106 reaction with stationary-source pollutants, 166 reduced nitrogen compounds, 112-113; see also Amines; Ammonia; Hydrogen cya nide; Nitriles reduced sulfur compounds, 113-114 respiratory infections, 500-515 respiratory tract disposition of, 275-281 sources, 43, 82, 166 standards, compared to, 41 sulfur oxides; see Sulfur oxides synergistic interactions, 100, 102 tampering with emission control devices and, 52 test procedures, 42, 43, 45-46 transport and dispersion of, see Atmospheric transport and dispersion of pollutants trends, 41, 43 whole, see Complex mixtures see also Alkanes; Alkenes; Emission control systems/technology; Emission standards B Bates, Richard R., 17-36 Behavior coronary-prone, 611-612 see also Neurobehavioral effects Benzaldehyde, 64, 106, 107, 119, 581 Benz~ajanthracene, 108, 124, 558-559, 566 atmospheric chemical reactions, 123 atmospheric concentration by regime, 137 atmospheric lifetime, 107 emission trends, 56 formation, 122 methyl-substituted, 123 mutagenic activity from, 225 rate constant for gas-phase chemical removal reactions, 106 Benzocarbazole, 305 Benzofluoranthenes, 558-559, 566, 568, 570-572 Benzofluorenes, 559 Benzoperylenes, 145, 305, 559, 562, 571 Benzotciphenanthrene, 566 Benzo~aipyrene animal bioassays, 559 atherosclerotic lesions from, 613, 620 biological marker of exposure to, 225 carcinogenicity, 305, 530, 558-562, 570 cellular uptake from hydrophobic donors, 614 cocarcinogens, 565, 588 DNA adduct formation, 310, 564, 565-566, 568 dose/response relationships, 560-561, 568 emission levels, 66 measurement of, 61-63 metabolic activation of, 307-311, 315, 530, 564-566 modifiers of carcinogenesis, 571 mutagenic activity, 540, 541 pulmonary clearance, 302-305, 310, 564 source contributions, 301-302 urban concentrations, 145 Benzo~e~pyrene, 313, 560, 562, 565 Biacetyl, atmospheric formation, 123 Bond, James A., 299-322 Bresnitz, Eddy A., 389-413 Bromberg, Philip A., 465-498 Bromine, 167, 169 Bronchiectasis, 273, 468, 502 Bronchiolitis, 466 Bronchitis, chronic, 258, 273, 393, 403, 405-407, 446, 468, 509 Buses, see Vehicles, heavy-duty Butadiyne, 106, 107 Butane, 54-55, 68, 106, 107 Butanol, 150, 581 2-Butanone, 106, 107, 120 1-Butene, atmospheric, 106, 107 tra,Zs-2-Butene, atmospheric, 106, 107, 118
666 Index C Cadmium, 273, 278-280 Calcium sulfate, 108 California diurnal patterns in pollutant concentrations, 104, 140 emission standards, 40, 42-46, 48-49, 53 Pasadena aerosol constituents, 140 see also Los Angeles Cancer background level, 527 incidence, 300, 528, 531 see also Carcinogens/carcinogenesis Carbon dioxide concentration trends, 151-154 global effect of, 135, 151-152 indoor concentrations, 147, 154 standards, 147 Carbon, elemental atmospheric concentrations, 139, 154 indoor concentrations, 151 measurement, 183 sources, 139, 151 in urban aerosols, 139, 154 see also Soot Carbon monoxide air/fuel ratios and, 40 animal models, 618-619 atherosclerosis, effects on, 606, 612-613, 617-619 atmospheric chemical reactions, 118, 152 atmospheric concentrations, 80, 135-136. 152-155, 167, 580 atmospheric lifetime, 114 biological tests for exposure to, 225 chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, ef- fect on, 345 correlation of outdoor measurements with individual exposure, 219-220 cumulative mileage correlated with, 52 determinants of concentrations, 165 emissions compared to standards, 41, 43 epidemiologic studies, 617-618 exposure estimation, 220-221, 229 global significance, 152 hemoglobin affinity, 306, 324, 342, 343, 358 indoor concentrations, 147, 154-155, 216 meteorological effects on concentrations of, 80 from misfueling, 50, 51 modeling, 170, 185, 189, 342 National Ambient Air Quality Standard, 135, 221, 500 neurobehavioral effects, 641, 644-646 personal monitoring of exposure to, 212-213, 219-221 pulmonary transport and uptake, 339-340, 342-345, 355, 358-359 rates by model years, 44-45, 65 reduction of, 4, 40 solubility, 343 sources, 19-20, 100, 135, 147, 152, 166, 167, 220-221, 223-224, 580 standards, 42, 44-47, 135, 221 surface resistance, 176 tampering with control devices and, 52 transfer coefficient in conducting airways, 338-340 in urban areas, 154-155, 175 vehicle contribution, 19-20 in vehicles, 154 Carbon, organic emission trends, 138, 140 temporal patterns, 140-141 urban aerosol concentrations, 139-141, 154 volatile compounds, 138 Carbonyls, 120-121 Carboxylic acids, atmospheric reactions, 121 Carcinogens/carcinogenesis aldehydes, 584-586 animal models of, 520-522, 525, 527, 531-539, 540-544, 558-560, 570-572 atypical, 524-525, 546 cell culture studies, 521, 526-527, 533-534, 540-541, 564 development processes, 33, 526-528, 546 diesel-engine exhaust, 305, 539-546 dinitrates, 166 DNA damage by, 520, 522-524, 534, 546 DNA replication and repair as mechanisms of, 520, 522, 528, 532, 546, 564 dose/response relationship, 520, 537-539, 560-561, 584-585, 595-596 enhancers, 33, 520, 525-527, 541, 546, 561-562, 571 epidemiologic evaluation, 529-531, 539, 543-544 etiologic agents, 305, 522, 523 evidence of, 532-533, 547, 556, 559 genetic effects of, 522-524 human exposure, detection of, 225, 569, 588; see also DNA adducts; Dosimeters indirect, 302, 306-307 inhalation studies, 300, 570-571, 584-585
Index 667 inhibitors, 561-562, 565, 571, 587 mechanisms relevant to assessment of ve hicular emissions, 520-530, 571-572 metabolic activation of, 33, 306-312, 520, 525, 530, 547, 563-568 metals, 525 of mixtures, 545-546 modifiers of, 302, 306-307, 525-527, 561-562, 571-572 nitroarenes, 166 nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 166, 181, 562-563, 570-572 nitrosamines, 530 nitroxyperoxyalkyl nitrates, 166 organ culture studies, 520-521 particle-associated, 306-308 plaque formation, role of, 619-620 plasma lipoproteins as carriers of, 613 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 300, 556-562, 570-572 promoters, 33, 520, 525-526, 533, 537, 542, 546, 547, 558 proto-oncogenes, 523 proximate, 564 risk assessment, 529-530, 534-539 short-term tests, 533-534 susceptibility to, 33, 520, 521, 527-530, 535 toxicity and, 525, 526, 531-533, 541, 546 ultimate, 564, 566-567 xenotransplant studies, 521 Catalysts/catalytic converters dual, 47 for methanol-fueled vehicles, 58 oxidation, 40, 41, 47-48, 49, 57 oxygen sensors in, 47-48 for spark-ignition gasoline engines, 47-48 tampering with, 41, 43, 50-53 three-way, 47, 51, 56, 57, 69 trap oxidizer, 49 Catechols carcinogenicity, 561-562, 565, 595 health effects, 587-588 physiological reactivity, 594-595 Cell culture studies of acrolein toxicity, 590 of aldehydes, 586-587 applications, 25-26 of asthma, 487, 488 of benzotaipyrene metabolism, 310, 565 of carcinogenesis, 310, 521, 526-527, 533-534, 540-541, 564 of collagen synthesis, 424, 426 extrapolation between inhalation studies and, 587 mutagen activation in smooth muscle cells, 620 of oxidant exposure, 420, 487, 507 of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 613-614 of pulmonary disease pathogenesis, 457 of toxicology mechanisms, 596 Chromium, disposition of inhaled particles, 278, 280 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease bronchial hyperreactivity and, 403 carbon monoxide uptake in presence of, 345 epidemiological study, 394, 404-405 ozone effect on, 471 particle clearance, effect on, 273 particle deposition in populations with, 267 pathogenesis, 474 respiratory infection and, 503 reversibility, 468 risk factors for, 395, 403 tests for, 402, 403 Chrysene carcinogenicity, 558-560, 566 urban concentrations, 145 Cigarette smoke/smoking airway permeability effects of, 482-483 aldehydes in, 586 atherosclerosis and, 606, 612-617 bronchial hyperreactivity from, 483 carcinogenicity, 543, 544, 556-557, 561, 588 chronic bronchitis and, 468 components comparable to vehicular emis sion components, 301, 586 emphysema and, 443, 444-445, 448, 468, 594 genotoxicity, 544 irritant effects of, 476, 483 mucociliary system, effects on, 273 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon constitu ents, 557 respiratory tract particle deposition from, 258 scaling to automotive emissions, 443, 542, 544 small airways disease and, 446, 449 tests of mutagenic activity of, 540 Clarkson, Thomas B., 605-629 Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970 and 1977, 3, 5, 42, 46, 432
668 Index Clinical studies, see Human subject studies (ex- perimental) rat . ocarclnogens action of, 525-526 alcohols, 588-589 with benzolalpyrene, 565, 571, 588 in complex mixtures, 541, 546 in diesel-engine exhaust, 541 free radicals, 595 phenols, 588-589 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 561-562. 571 Collagen/elastin cross-linking, 426 in emphysema, production and destruction, 23, 426-427, 445, 448-449 in pulmonary fibrosis, production and de- struction, 23, 417, 424-425, 429, 433 subtypes, 443 synthesis in cell cultures, 424, 426 Complex mixtures animal studies of, 541-543, 639-642 behavioral effects, 639-642 carcinogenicity of, 538, 539-546, 638 diesel-engine exhaust, 539-546 epidemiological studies, 543 evaluating, 638-649 eye irritation from, 638-639 multidisciplinary studies, 453 mutagenic activity of, 540-541 neurobehavioral effects, 639-642 photochemical by-products, 638-644 risk assessment for, 543-546 solvent syndrome from, 646-647 tests of activity of, 540-541 Concentrations of pollutants, atmospheric from continuous line source, 82 definition, 208 determinants, 22, 78, 79-80, 92-93, 134, 137, 139, 163-165 finite-difference model for calculating, 84 gaseous species, 153-155 meteorological determinants of, 22, 78, 79-80, 139 mixing height and, 89 models of, 84, 86; see also Air quality mod- els/modeling monitoring, 134, 139 from moving vehicles, 92 overprediction of, 82, 84 in parking structures, 78, 81 particle constituents, 139-143, 300 particulate species, 153-155 personal exposure correlated with, 219 223 photochemical products, 143-146 after precipitation, 102 prediction, see Air quality models/modeling respirable particles, 214-216, 220 spatial patterns, 134-139 in street canyons, 78, 80, 81 temporal change expressed mathematically, 78-79 temporal patterns, 134-142, 145 trace constituents, 134-147, 153-154 in traffic queues, 78, 81 trends, 153 unregulated emittants, 143-146 in urban areas, 79-80, 136, 153-155 see also Atmospheric transport and disper sion of pollutants; and specific gases Concentrations of pollutants, indoor determinants, 148 gaseous species, 153-155 major emittants and products, 149-151 monitoring, 149 in motor vehicles, 149, 153 -155, 216 particulate species, 153-155 principal trace gases, 147-149, 153-154 respirable particles, 214, 216 Coronary heart disease, pathogenesis, 609 Coronene, 559 Coumarin, urban concentrations, 146 Cresols, 581 Crigee biradicals, 113, 118, 375 Cross Appalachian Tracer Experiment, 91 Crotonaldehyde adduct formation, 592 atmospheric chemical reactions, 120 atmospheric lifetime, 107 from diesel-engine exhaust, 581 health effects, 583 rate constant for gas-phase chemical removal reactions, 106 Cyanogen, 63 Cyclohexene, 118 Cyclopentatcdipyrene, 558-559, 566, 571 Cystic fibrosis, 273, 502, 509 D Dahl, Alan R., 299-322 Decane, 562 Deposition, atmospheric aerosol, 176
Index 669 dry processes, 22, 78, 81, 90, 92, 93, 101-102, 108-110, 170-171, 175-177 modeling, 171, 175-177, 185 velocities, 101, 108, 125 wet processes, 102, 108-110, 123, 177 see also Acid deposition; and specific com- pounds Deposition, respiratory tract age-related factors in, 259 airflow patterns relevant to, 248-249, 257 anatomical determinants, 252-253, 255 breathing mode and, 253, 255-256, 258, 261 by Brownian diffusion, 250-251, 253, 260, 262 in cigarette smokers, 258 determinants, 251-253, 258-259 disease states and, 258-259, 267-268 by electrostatic precipitation, 250, 251 experimental assessment of, 254-258, 283 gender differences in, 259 hygroscopicity and, 255, 261 by impaction, 250, 253, 255, 257-261, 443 by interception, 250, 251 localized patterns of, 259-260 mathematical modeling, 260-262, 275 measurement of, 253-258 mechanisms, 230-251, 302 particle characteristics affecting, 250-252, 256, 443 probability, 252 radioactive tracer studies, 253, 255, 258, 267-269, 281 by sedimentation, 250-251, 253, 262, 443 species variation in, 255, 283 Dibenzanthracene, 305, 547, 566 Dibenzoic,gicarbazole, 303 Dibenzopyrenes, 566 1,2-Dibromoethane, 106, 107, 116 c~-Dicarbonyls, atmospheric formation, 120-121, 123 1,2-Dichloroethane, 106, 107, 116 Dichlorostilbene, 562 Diesel engines control technology, 46-47, 48-50, 69 emission standards, 46, 59 in-use characteristics, 52-53 passenger cars, 48-49, 52 trucks, 52-53, 56 Diesel-engine exhaust carcinogenicity of, 305, 539-546, 562 cardiovascular disease and, 618 constituents, 122, 541, 562, 581 disposition of inhaled particles, 275-276, 283-284, 302 epidemiological studies, 547 mutagenicity, 540-541, 547, 562 noncarcinogenic effects, 275-276, 312-315, 454-455, 542-543 odor, 58, 69 particle-associated organic compounds, 301, 541 pollutant emissions in, 57, 59, 63, 65-68, 301 quantitative assessment of cancer risk of, 543-547 short-term tests of, 540-541 see also Complex mixtures Diesel fuel additives, 49, 61, 62, 648 alkane component, 115-116 alkene component, 116 hydrocarbon constituents, 122 properties, trends in, 59 usage trends, 56, 57 Diethyl ether, atmospheric reactions, 121 Dihaloethanes, 116 Dimethylamino radical, 112 Dimethylbenz~ajanthracene, 311-312, 561, 572, 620 Dimethyl ether, 106, 107, 121 2-Dimethylnaphthalene, 106, 107 Dimethylphenanthrenes, 558 Dinitrates, 117 Dinitrogen pentoxide, atmospheric deposition, 110, 111 formation of, 104, 110, 179 lifetime, 107 nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon for- mation from, 109, 124 photolysis, 124 Dinitropyrenes, 562, 563, 568, 571-572 Dioxane, 146, 151 Dispersion of pollutants, see Atmospheric transport and dispersion of pollutants DNA carcinogen damage to, 520, 522-524, 534, 540, 546, 593 formaldehyde damage to, 374, 586 repair mechanisms, 520-522, 528, 529, 532, 534, 546, 564, 586 role in initiation of carcinogenicity, 520, 522, 528, 532, 564, 572 tests to detect damage, 534, 539-541, 591, 592 see also Genotoxicity; Mutagens
670 Index DNA adducts aldehyde formation of, 591-593 benzoIaipyrene formation of, 310, 564, 565-566, 572 detection methods, 539 as dosimeters, 23, 33, 305, 539, 568-569 measurement, 570 nitropyrene formation of, 567 Dose biological markers of, see Dosimeters definition, 22, 187, 208, 376 determinants, 20-21, 217, 240, 252, 259, 266-267, 271, 311, 368 measures of, 22-23, 134 regional differences in the lung, 252, 330 relationship to exposure and health effects, 162 ventilatory parameters and, 379 Dosimeters of carcinogens, 537-539, 569-570 DNA adducts as, 23, 33, 305, 539, 568-570, 595-596 exposure assessment, 217, 219-220, 225, 253, 400, 401, 590-591 particle clearance kinetics and, 266-267, 271 see also Monitoring of pollutant exposure Dosimetry models/modeling acetone, 376 anatomic and physiological considerations, 324, 341-352, 358-359, 361-363, 368-372, 376-380 applications, 22, 368, 375 compartment, 341-344, 359, 361, 363, 377 distributed parameter, 341, 346-352, 361 ethers, 376 first-order chemical reaction regime, 378-381 fluid convection considerations, 373 formaldehyde, 376, 595-596 of inhaled toxic reactive gases, 349-352, 368-383 mass conservation equation, 331 mass transfer coefficients, 346, 350, 352, 376-377 molecular diffusion considerations, 372-373 nitrogen dioxide, 380-382 . . .. . . . nltro-polycycl1c aromatic hydrocarbons 568-570 ozone, 335-336, 339-340, 342, 350-352, 355-357, 377-381, 428, 482 physicochemical considerations, 370-372, 374-375 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 568-570 respiratory tract, 342-344, 346-352, 358, 376-377 solubility considerations, 372 sulfur dioxide, 350 validation with experimental data, 26, 324, 352-361, 382 see also Mathematical models/modeling E Edema, 417-418, 466, 476 Emission control systems/technology air/fuel ratio and, 40, 42, 47-48 approaches, 40-41, 46-50 diesel engines, 48-50, 52-53 effect on pollutant levels, 81, 190 fuel economy and, 40-42, 47, 48, 49-50, 53 lean-burn combustion systems, 48 for refueling losses, 59-60 for spark-ignition gasoline engines, 47-48 tampering with, 4, 41, 43, 50-53, 61 trends, 47, 48 vapor recovery systems, 59-60 see also Catalysts/catalytic converters Emission models, 52-54 Emission regulation benefits, 3-6 costs, 6 modeling strategies for, 190-191 regulatory structure, 6-7 resistance to, 3-4 statutes, 3, 42 test procedures, 42, 43, 45-46 Emission standards California, 40, 42, 44-46, 48-49, 53 concentrations compared with, 41, 43 diesel engines, 46, 53 federal, 42, 44-45, 49 foreign, 42, 46 heavy-duty vehicles, 45, 53 light-duty trucks, 44, 45-46, 53 passenger cars, 43-46, 48 safety margins, 5 stringency, 40, 42 United States, 44-45 see also specific pollutants Emphysema animal models of, 445, 448-449, 454-455 biochemical evidence of, 400, 445, 451- 453 centriacinar, 444, 449, 452
Index 671 cigarette smoking and, 443, 444-445, 448, 594 definition, 443-444 diagnosis, 445, 448 diesel-engine exhaust effects on, 542 elastin/collagen destruction and formation, 23, 426-427, 445, 448-449 morphological evidence of, 444-445, 448, 450, 451 multidisciplinary studies of, 453-454 nitrogen dioxide provocation of, 22, 416 ozone provocation of, 416 panacinar, 444, 449 particulate deposition and, 259 physiological evidence of, 450-451 prevalence, 468 progression to chronic obstructive pulmo- nary disease, 403 proteinase/antiproteinase hypothesis, 444, 448, 452, 453, 593 pulmonary destruction, 444-445 relationship to vehicular emissions, 450-454 toxic response mechanisms, 23 Epidemiological studies advantages of, 24-25, 392, 399 of asthma/bronchial hyperresponders, 395, 403, 405-407, 471-473 of atherosclerosis, 610-612, 616-618 biases in, 219, 391, 393-395, 406-407 of carbon monoxide exposure, 617-618 of carcinogenesis, 529-531, 539, 543-544, 557, 562 case-control, 392, 400, 404-406, 408, 409, 530-531 of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, 394, 404-405 cohort, 247, 392, 399-401, 404, 405-406, 407-409 confounders, 391, 394-395, 404, 416 cross-sectional, 391-399, 404-406, 409 data collection for, 402, 403-405 designs, 23, 390-400, 503-506, 508-51O, 531 diagnostic specificity in, 508-509 diary use in, 401-402 of diesel-engine exhaust exposure, 547 effect modifiers, 394-395, 404 effects assessment, 401-404 of effects of oxidant exposure on human populations, 390-409 of emphysema, 445 evidence of illness in, 503-505 of exposure, 219, 228, 229, 390-409 of formaldehyde exposure, 583 Harvard University School of Public Health Six-Cities study, 228, 399, 401, 402, 404 healthy cohort effect, 406-407 of healthy populations, 391-395 hospital and physician records in, 403 404 limitations and methodological problems, 24-25, 392, 394, 400, 409, 513, 539, 543-544 of nitrogen dioxide exposure, 391-393, 399, 503-506 personal history and physical examination in, 504 of pulmonary fibrosis, 416-417 of pulmonary function and symptoms, 25, 391-399, 402-403, 405-406 questionnaire use in, 394, 401, 404, 406, 503 of respiratory infection, 501, 503-506, 508-510 retrospective, 400, 404-406, 408 role in air pollution research, 390 sample size requirements, 407-408 of sensitive or high-risk populations, 395-399, 404-408, 509-510, 513 time-series analysis, 391 University of California at Los Angeles population study, 394, 400, 402, 404 use of biological markers in, 400, 570 value in risk assessment, 432 see also Human subject studies (experimental) Epithelium, see Respiratory epithelium Esters, atmospheric reactions, 121-122 Ethanol atmospheric, 106, 107, 121, 153, 581 health effects, 582, 587-588 metabolism, 587, 589 use in fuels, 581, 582 Ethene, 106, 107, 117, 118 Ethene oxide, 108 Ethers aliphatic, atmospheric reactions, 121 dosimetry modeling, 376 Ethylbenzene, atmospheric concentrations, 137 European Economic Community emission standards, 46 emission test procedures, 43, 46 Evaporative emissions, 44-45, 54-56, 59-60, 68, 166
672 Index Exposure modeling, 226-231, 427-431 analysis of variance, 227 animal models, choice of, 427-428 categorical comparisons, 227 cluster analysis, 228 data collection for, 231 delivery techniques, 428 extrapolation among routes, 535-537 factor analysis, 228 National Exposure Model, 228, 229 ozone-induced pulmonary fibrosis, 427 431 physical modeling, 226, 227-230 regression equations, 227 Simulation of Human Air Pollution Expo sure, 228 Simulation System, 228 source apportionment, 230 statistical, 226-228, 231 tails of distribution, 211 time-activity patterns in, 226, 230 uncertainties in, 226 validation, 230-231 see Animal studies/models; Dosimetry mod els/modeling; Mathematical models/mod eling Exposure to pollutants acute, 342, 345 adequacy of estimates of, 219-223, 231-232 assessment approaches, 22, 23, 81, 87, 162, 163, 187, 211-219, 342, 400-401, 427-431, 595-597; see also Epidemiolog ical studies; Exposure modeling; Moni- Fibroblasts toring of pollutant exposure attributable risk of, 408-409 averaged, 209-210, 217 biological monitoring of, 23, 25, 217-220, 225, 267-268, 305, 400 biological route of, 240 breathing patterns and, 219 chamber studies, 428 chronic, 33, 342, 357-358, 634, 642-644 conditioned responses to, 644 cumulative, 210 definition, 187, 208 determinants, 92, 109, 163, 209, 217, 223, 226, 274 difficulties in characterizing, 208, 217 direct measurement, 23, 211-214, 220-225 dose relationship to, 162 durations, 208 extrapolation among routes of, 535-537 frequency, 208 in idling vehicles, 81, 87 indirect measurement, 214-217, 223-225 indirect sources, 87 individual, 209, 211 indoor sources, 214-216, 224 integrated, 209-210, 212, 214-215, 229 magnitude, 209 microenvironments, 214-217, 223 near-field, 81 outdoor sources, 214-217, 223 peak, 214 population, 187, 211, 212 profiles of, 209-210, 212 progression of injury after cessation of, 430 prolonged low-level, 305-306 questionnaire development, 211, 401-402 regional scale, 92 scales of distance in, 81, 92 short-term, 212, 214 in street canyons, 81, 85 techniques in inhalation studies, 254 time-activity patterns in, 211, 212, 214-218, 226, 230 time weighted, 214, 216 urban scale, 81, 92-93 variance in, 211 Eye irritation, 144, 146, 582, 638-639 F collagen synthesis by, 424-425, 426 culture studies of carcinogenesis, 527 epithelial cell control of in pulmonary fi- brosis, 421, 426 formaldehyde effects on, 586 growth factor, 422-423, 424 interleukin-1 stimulation of, 423 macrophage interaction with, 417, 419, 421-423, 426 monocyte and neutrophil recruitment by, 424-425 mutagenesis of, 586 response to ozone, 417, 419, 424-425 Fibrosis, see Pulmonary fibrosis Fluoranthrene, 124, 145, 559, 562, 565-566, 568, 571 Fluorene, atmospheric concentrations, 145 Fog chemistry, modeling, 177 Formaldehyde adduct formation, 591-592, 598
Index 673 allergic responses to, 583 animal studies, 583-585, 588, 644 atmospheric concentrations, 144, 154, 155, 580-581, 585-586 atmospheric lifetime, 107 carcinogenicity, 21, 584-586, 588, 598-599, 642 catalyst effect on emissions of, 58 cell culture studies, 586 concentrations in vehicular exhaust, 581 conditioned responses to exposure to, 644 correlation of outdoor measurements with individual exposure, 219 Fuel additives emission control through, 49, 60 types and uses, 60-62 see Diesel fuel, additives; Gasoline fuel, additives Fuel economy emission control and, 40-42, 47, 48, 49-50, 53 new technology for, 46-47, 48 standards in U.S., 46 trends, 40, 42, 47 vehicle weight and, 40, 42 Furan, 146, 151 from diesel-fueled vehicles, 57, 581 diffusion coefficients in biological fluids, 373 dose distribution, 595-596 dosimetry model, 376 epidemiological studies, 583 formation, 121, 144-145, 587 from gasoline-fueled vehicles, 57, 581 Gases, inhaled genotoxicity, 374, 586 health effects, noncarcinogenic, 582-583 indoor concentrations, 150, 155, 216 inflammatory response to, 583-584 measurement, 64, 144, 590-591 metabolism of, 374, 589-590 from methanol-fueled vehicles, 57, 58, 80 monitoring exposure to, 591 neurobehavioral effects, 644-645 neurotoxicity, 634, 635, 642 nonoccupational exposures, 223 personal monitoring of exposure to, 212-213 photolysis rate, 107 projected levels, 500 pulmonary clearance of, 373 rate constant for gas-phase chemical removal reactions, 106 respiratory epithelium, 585, 588, 589 respiratory tract reactivity, 374 role in hydroperoxyl radical formation, 103-104, 119 seasonal patterns, 145 sources, 150, 223-224 formic acid, 106, 107, 121, 587 Fourier transform infrared absorption spectros copy, limitations in gas-phase studies, 125 Free radicals, mechanisms of toxicity, 23, 375, 419, 420, 593-595, 597 Fuel, see Diesel fuel; Gasoline fuel; Methanol fueled vehicles G Gallium oxide, 302-304, 313 Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, limi- tations in gas-phase studies, 125 animal studies of, 273, 354-358, 378; see also Inhalation studies chemical reactivity, 340, 374-375 convection in respiratory tract fluids, 373 diffusion rates, 332-336 dosimetry modeling, 349-352, 368-382 hemodynamics, 373 human subject studies, 358-361; see also Inhalation studies longitudinal transport, 340-341 mass transfer coefficients, 336-339, 353, 362, 376 mass transport fundamentals, 331-341 mathematical modeling of, 341-352, 361, 363 molecular diffusion, 372-373 physicochemical factors in absorption, 324, 372-375 reactivity, 324, 332-336 solubility effects, 324, 331-333, 340, 343, 348, 372 study approaches, 361-363 thermodynamic equilibria, 331-332 transport and uptake of, 324-363 ventilation and perfusion limitations, 362-363 see also specific pollutants Gasohol, 146 Gasoline engines air/fuel ratios and emissions, 40, 42 characteristics, 50-52 emission control system technology, 47-48
674 lean-burn combustion, 40, 48 methanol/gasoline, flexible fuel system for, 58 pollutant emission rates, 65 refueling emissions, 55, 56, 59-60, 68 spark-ignition, 47-48, 63, 64 Gasoline-engine exhaust carbon monoxide constituent, 65 emission rates for light-duty vehicles, 65 formaldehyde component, 57 hydrocarbon constituents, 55-56, 65, 122, 301 nitrogen dioxide constituent, 65 particle-associated organic compounds, 301 see also Complex mixtures Gasoline fuel additives, 60-61, 280, 648 alcohol blends, 146 alkane component, 114, 115 alkene component, 116 butane as a substitute for lead, 54-55 hydrocarbon constituents, 122 properties, trends in, 54-56 Reid Vapor Pressure trends, 54 vapor recovery systems, 59 usage trends, 56, 142 Gasoline, leaded EPA limits on, 54 misfueling with, 41, 43, 50-51 nitropyrene emissions from, 68 regulatory action on, 4 Gasoline, unleaded butane in, 54-55 nitropyrene emissions from, 68 Gastrointestinal tract particle clearance into, 264, 270, 278-280 translocation of reactive metabolites into, 309 Geno t o xi cit y of acrolein, 597 of chemical carcinogens, 522-523, 534, 540 of diesel-engine exhaust, 544 of formaldehyde, 586 tests for, 540 Glyoxal, atmospheric formation, 123 Graedel, T. E., 133-160 Crumbly, Thomas P., 4-9 H Hecht, Stephen S., 555-578 Heterocyclic organic compounds, 146, 150-151 Index Hexacarbons, 634, 637 Hexachlorobenzene, 108 Hexachlorohexanes, 102 Hexacosane, 108 High-risk groups, see Sensitive populations Human subject studies (experimental) of asthma, 470-472, 485 exposure chamber, 25, 390, 510, 513 fiber-optic bronchoscopy, 25, 485, 510, 511, 513 International Atherosclerosis Project, 610 mathematical model validation with, 358-361 methodologies, 25, 529 National Bladder Cancer Study, 562 of ozone-induced edema, 418 of particulates, 254-259, 268, 270-271, 272, 273, 279-280, 281 of pulmonary gas absorption dynamics, 358-361 radiotracer, 418, 482-483, 485 of respiratory infections, 510, 511 risk assessment with, 432 upper respiratory tract absorption, 359 see also Epidemiological studies Hydrocarbon emissions air/fuel ratios and, 40 aliphatic, see Alkanes; Alkenes alkyl-substituted aromatic, 122 analytical methods for characterizing, 63 aromatic, 136-137 atmospheric chemical reactions, 122, 136 atmospheric concentrations, 136-138, 154, 155, 580 from diesel-engine exhaust, 63, 69, 122 evaporative, 44-45, 54-56, 59-60, 68, 166 exhaust, 55, 63, 64, 122, 166 gas-phase, 64-65 indoor. concentrations, 148, 154, 155 lifetime vehicle emissions compared to standards, 41, 43 measurement of, 69, 184 misfueling effects on, 50 National Ambient Air Quality Standard, 136 neurobehavioral effects of, 646-647 nonmethane, 136-138, 154, 155, 580 ozone production from, 81, 144, 166, 178-179, 189-190 photochemical reactions, 40 rates by model years, 44-45, 65 reduction of, 4, 40
Index refueling, see Evaporative emissions Reid Vapor Pressure and, 55, 60 sources, 19-20, 148, 166, 580 standards, 42, 44-47, 136 tampering with control devices and, 52 temporal patterns in concentrations, 138 vapor-phase, 64-65, 69 Hydrogen cyanide, 63, 106, 107, 113 Hydrogen peroxide atmospheric concentrations, 144, 154 atmospheric lifetime, 107 deposition of, 102, 114, 126 as oxidizing agent, 81, 103, 109, 114, 144 photolysis of, 107, 114 rate constant for gas-phase chemical removal reactions, 106 Hydrogen sulfide, 106, 107 Hydroperoxyl radicals chemical reactions, 103, 110, 113, 115, 116, 119 formation, 103-104, 116, 119 lifetimes for gas-phase reactions of automo- tive emissions with, 107 rate constants for automotive emission re- action with, 106 Hydroxyaldehydes, atmospheric formation, 121 ,l3 Hydroxyalkoxy radicals, atmospheric for- mation, 1 16-1 17 Hydroxyl radicals, atmospheric alkane reactions with, 178 alkene reaction with, 116-117 concentrations, 30, 105, 152 control of, 152 formation, 103, 111 lifetimes, 107, 112 rate constants for automotive emission re- action with, 106 role in chemical removal processes, 81, 103-105, 1 1 1-1 14, 1 16-124 ,B Hydroxynitrate, formation, 116-117 Hydroxynitratoalkanes, formation, 115 I Immune system antibody classes, 502-503 deficiencies responsible for chronic airways infections, 468 lymphoid cells, 313-315 modulators of cellular responses to infec- tions, 477, 502-503, 511-512 675 particle translocation to, 266, 271, 280, 312-313 response in asthmatics, 481, 482 response to particle-associated organic com- pounds, 312-315 see also Alveolar macrophages; Mast cells Indenot1,2,3-cdipyrene, 558-559, 566, 571-572 Indole, 146, 151 Inflammation/inflammatory response to acrolein, 583-584 to asbestos, 524 in asthmatics, 468, 469, 474, 478-479, 483 and bronchial hyperreactivity, 469, 478 carcinogenesis, relation to, 524 cellular structures involved in, 24, 442, 446 in cigarette smokers, 444, 446 in emphysema, 23, 273 to fibrogenic insult, 417 to formaldehyde, 583-584 to pulmonary fibrosis, 23, 414-42O, 433 in small airways disease, 23, 449 Inhalation studies acid, of airways inflammation and dysfunc tion, 449 of aldehydes, 583-585 animal models, choice of, 427-428 of asthma, 467, 472 of carcinogenesis, 535-536, 541, 542-543, 584-585, 587 delivery techniques used in, 254, 354, 356, 428 of diesel-engine exhaust particles, 275, 541, 542-543 exposure time, 357-358 extrapolation between cell culture studies and, 587 of fibrogenic effects of ozone, 417-418, 427-428 gas absorption dynamics, 354-355 of methanol, 587 of nitrogen dioxide, 472, 500-501, 506-507, 510 of nonspecific bronchial hyperreactivity, 479, 482 of ozone, 354-357, 417-418, 427-428, 479-48O, 500-501, 510 of particle deposition, 26O, 275, 541, 542-543 of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, BOO, 310, 570-571 radioactive tracer studies, 253, 255, 258, 267-269, 181, 302-304, 418 of sulfur dioxide, 355-357
676 Index Interleukin-1, 423 International Agency for Research on Cancer, 532, 556, 559 Irritants, 144, 146, 273, 302, 306, 416, 476, 582, 584-585, 638-639, 641; see also spe- cific pollutants J Japan emission standards, 46 emission test procedures, 43 lean-burn combustion system, 48 Johnson, John H., 39-75 K Kaufman, David G., 519-553 Kennedy, Donald, 3-9 Ketones, 115, 117, 119-120 L Last, Jerold A., 415-440 Lead atmospheric concentrations, 142, 153, 154, 155 atmospheric reactivity, 167 biological markers of exposure to, 225 correlation of outdoor measurements with individual exposure, 222 disposition of inhaled particles, 278, 279 indoor concentrations, 151, 154, 155 misfueling effects on, 50, 51 National Ambient Air Quality Standard, 141 National Air Monitoring Station coon 141-142 neurobehavioral effects of, 648-649 reduction of, 4, 142 respiratory clearance mechanisms, 278, 279 source contributions, 100, 141, 224 toxicity testing, 633 Los Angeles acidic fogs and rains, 110 A 1 _ 1 · · ~ nitrogen oxide concentrations in, 186 nitrous acid concentrations, 105, 111 ozone concentration trends, 153, 186, 187 peroxyacetyl nitrate concentrations in, 150 photochemical modeling studies, 190 pollutant concentrations in, 80 source contributions of pollutants in, 20, 100, 188 three-dimensional wind flow in, 88 University of California at Los Angeles population study, 394, 400, 402, 404 Lymphatic system particle clearance by, 266, 270-271, 276, 280, 300 response to benzolalpyrene, 313-314 toxic metabolite formation in, 313 see also Immune system M Ma cro p hag es / monocytes fibroblast recruitment of, 424 role in atherosclerosis, 607-609 see also Alveolar macrophages Manganese disposition of inhaled particles, 278, 280 neurobehavioral effects of, 636, 648-649 Marnett, Lawrence]., 579-603 Mast cells, 467-470, 473, 477-478, 480, 481-482, 484 Mathematical models/modeling alveolar uptake, 343 applications, 26, 417 of atmospheric transport and dispersion of pollutants, 23, 78, 80, 82-87, 90, 93, 170; see also Air quality models/model- ing attributable risk, 408-409 Bohr airway, 342-344, 358 bronchial uptake of reactive gases, 345-346 compartment, 341-344, 359, 361, 363, 377 distributed parameter, 341, 346-352, 361 first-order chemical reaction regime 378-381 ~-^ ^ A _ ~ fluid convection considerations, 373 lower airways, 349-352 mass conservation equation, 331 mass transfer coefficients, 346, 350, 352, 362, 376-377 molecular diffusion considerations, 372-373, 376 perfusion within bronchial wall, 346 Aerosol Characterization Experiment, 188 Air Quality Management Plan, 187 carbon monoxide concentrations in, 185 emission control strategies, 190-191 emissions inventory, 188 nitrogen dioxide concentrations in, 136, 153
Index pulmonary uptake of gas-phase pollutants, 324, 341-351, 359, 361-363, 368, 377- 378; see also Dosimetry models/modeling solubility considerations, 372 upper airways, 346-349 validation by experimental methods, 26, 324, 352-361, 382 Measurement of pollutants analytical methods for, 63-64, 69, 125 biological exposure and effects markers, 217-218, 305 comparison to modeling estimates, 53, 182, 193 concentrations, 134 deposited in respiratory tract, 253-258 depositional flux, 175 from diesel-engine exhaust, 63, 69 indoor, 149, 153, 219 inspired methanol and formaldehyde, 590-591 Los Angeles Reactant Pollutant Program, 183-185 outdoor, 208, 219 particulate carbon, 183 personal exposure correlated with, 219-223 problems in, 62, 219-223 programs, 134, 183 Regional Air Pollutant Study, 183, 184 sampling, 62-63, 69 Sulfate Regional Experiment, 183, 185 tapered element oscillating microbalance, 69 unregulated, 61-64 upper-atmospheric-level concentrations, 184 see also Monitoring of pollutant exposure Metabolism/metabolites of acrolein, 590, 597 by alveolar macrophages, 300, 311-312 of amines, 307 of aminopyrene, 307-308 of benzotalpyrene, 305, 307-311, 315, 530, 564-566 carcinogen activation through, 33, 306-312, 520, 525, 530, 547, 563-568, 620 cellular arachidonate, 469, 473, 477-479, 481, 483-485, 487 of ethanol, 587, 589 folate-dependent, 648, 589 of formaldehyde, 374, 589-590 of inhalable particles, 22, 300, 306-312, 315 of methanol, 589-590 mutagen activation through, 540 of nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 307-308, 567-568 677 of nitropyrenes, 307-309, 567 of nitrosamines, 307 of particle-associated organics, 22, 300, 306-312, 315 of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 307-312, 315, 561, 563-569 of procarcinogens, 306-307 respiratory tract processes, 309-311 toxic metabolite formation in lymphatic system, 313 toxicity and, 22 translocation into gastrointestinal tract, 309 Metals analytical methods for characterizing, 63 atmospheric removal, 125, 276 biological markers of exposure to, 225 carcinogenicity, 524 disposition of inhaled particles, 266, 276-280, 284 indoor, 151 monitoring, 141, 213 neurobehavioral effects of, 648-649 sources, 141 see also Cadmium; Chromium, disposition of inhaled particles; Lead; Manganese; Nickel; Vanadium, disposition of in- haled particles Methane, 136, 152, 153 Methanol atmospheric concentrations, 580-581 atmospheric lifetime, 107 biochemical reactions, 594 carcinogenicity, 588 dose/response relationship, 587 health effects, 587 measurement after inspiration, 590-591 metabolism of, 587, 589-590 from methanol-fueled vehicles, 58, 582 neurobehavioral effects of, 647-648 rate constant for gas-phase chemical removal reactions, 106 Methanol-fueled vehicles buses, 58 emissions, 57, 58, 80, 582 gasoline/methanol, flexible fuel system for, 58 passenger cars, 57-58 prospects and problems, 46, 56-57, 647 9-Methylcarbazole, 562 3-Methylcholanthrene, 305, 566 Methylchrysenes, 558, 566, 571 Methylformate, atmospheric formation, 121 Methylglyoxal, 123
678 1-Methylindole, 562 2-Methylnaphthalene, 106-107 Methyl nitrate, 106, 107, 113 N-Methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine, 541 Methylphenanthrenes, 558 Methyl vinyl ketone, 106, 107, 120 Miller, Frederick J., 367-385 Models/modeling aerosol processes, 165, 169, 179-181, 185, 192 age-related changes in lung function, 247 anatomic, see Anatomic models atmospheric transport and dispersion of pollutants, 78, 80, 82-91, 163-164, 170-172, 174-175, 185-186, 189, 191; see also Air quality models/modeling concentrations on or near highways, 84 data collection for, 26, 231 deposition, 260-262, 275, 280-281 dimensional analysis, 262 dosimetry, see Dosimetry models/modeling of effects of emission sources on atmospheric pollutant concentrations, 161-205; see also Air quality models/ modeling evaporative emissions, 54 future emissions, 53-54 Gaussian, 82-87, 90, 164, 171-172, 182, 184-185, 189 global circulation, 192-193 HIWAY, 83-84 hydrodynamic, 80, 88-91 infectivity, 510 line source, 82-87, 90 particle transport, 85 respiratory tract clearance kinetics, 271-272 respiratory tract deposition, 260-262 source apportionment, 163? 168, 169, 174-175, 178, 181, 184, 189-191, 194-195, 230 wind flow, 80, 82, 84, 86, 88 see also Exposure modeling; Mathematical models/modeling; Physical modeling; Structural models, bronchial tree Molozonide, 118 Monitoring of pollutant exposure accuracy, 213, 219-224 active devices, 212-213 biases in, 213 biological methods, 23, 217, 219-220, 225, 267-268, 305, 40O, 401, 539, 569-570; see also Dosimeters Index direct approaches, 211-214, 220-225 fixed-site, 209, 214, 215, 219, 400-401 impediments to, 211, 212-213, 217 indirect approaches, 214-217, 224-225, 229 indoors, 214 integrated samplers, 212 microenvironments potentially important continuous samplers, 212 for, 214-217 for National Ambient Air Quality Standard compliance, 208, 219, 229 passive devices, 212-213 with personal devices, 149, 209, 211-214, 220, 226, 395, 401, 404, 416 with questionnaires, 211, 401-402, 404 radioactive tracer studies, 253, 255, 258, 267-269, 302-303 real-time, 63, 64, 209, 212 respiratory tract clearance of particles, 267-268, 302 with time/activity logs, 214, 224, 395, 401, 404 U.S. National Air Monitoring Stations, 53, 135 Mucociliary system in asthmatics, 484-485 cigarette smoking effects on, 273 Danckwert's surface renewal model, 337 disease effects on, 273 gender-related differences in transport ve locities of, 272 Higbie's penetration theory for, 337 impaired clearance, 273, 281, 450, 502, 512, 513 irritants, 273 modeling of, 272, 350, 373, 380-381 monitoring of particle clearance from, 267-268, 485 particle clearance functions, 265-266, 269, 271, 275, 279, 281, 283, 373 physical activity, effect on, 272 structure, 264, 325, 337, 369-370, 442 tracheobronchial tree, 269, 325, 328 transport rates, 272; see also Mucus, flow rates upper respiratory tract, 268-269, 325 Mucus in asthmatics, production and secretion, 470, 477, 483-484 chemical reactions in, 334-335 composition and characteristics, 264, 272, 337, 350, 370, 585 continuity in respiratory tract, 369-370
Index 679 flow rates, 264, 268-269, 325, 328-329, 337, 358, 373, 377, 484, 585 formaldehyde reaction with, 585 gas transport through, 334-336, 339, 345, 350, 356, 380-381 hypersecretion in small airways disease, 446 inhibitor, 444 ozone reaction with, 324, 335-336, 342, 350-352, 470, 483-484 particle clearance functions, 264, 268 particle diffusion through, 264, 269, 302 production rates relative to oxidant dose, 380-382 susceptibility to pollutants, 336-337 thickness, 272, 328-329, 369-370, 446 Mutagens atherosclerosis, role in, 608 bioavailability, 304-305 cell culture studies, 620 in diesel-engine exhaust, 540-541, 547, 562 dinitrates, 166 direct-acting, 302 exposure, detection of, 225 formaldehyde, 586, 591 heterocyclic organic compounds, 146 hot spots, 523 indirect, 302, 566 metabolic activation of, 540 methylglyoxal, 123 nitroarenes, 166, 179 nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 146, 166, 181 particle-associated, 67, 69, 302 peroxyacetyl nitrates, 119, 146, 166 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 21, 302, 540-541, 566 tests for, 533-534, 540-541, 637 N Naphthalene, 106, 107, 124 National Air Monitoring Stations, concentra- tions of primary pollutant gases, 135-136, 138 National Ambient Air Quality Standards carbon dioxide, 147 carbon monoxide, 135, 221, 500 lead, 141 monitoring compliance with, 208, 219, 229 nitrogen dioxide, 136, 500 nitrogen oxides, 136 nonmethane hydrocarbons, 136 ozone, 134, 144, 500 particulates, 500 population exposure effects resulting from changes in, 229 total suspended particulate matter, 143 National Weather Service rawinsonde network, 90 Neurobehavioral effects affective disorders, 635-636 behavioral effects experiments, 639-642 from chronic exposures, 634, 642-644 cognitive and intellectual dysfunction, 636 conditioned responses, 644 evaluation of toxic mechanisms in, 636- 638 eye irritation, 638-639 identification of, 633-636 sensory and perceptual deficits, 634-635 tiered-testing strategy, 650 see also specific pollutants Neutrophils, see Polymorphonuclear leuko- cytes Nickel, 278, 280, 525 Nitramines, 113 Nitrate radicals alkene reactions with, 117 atmospheric chemistry, 110, 113, 114, 118-120, 123-124, 126, 179 atmospheric concentrations, 110 atmospheric lifetime, 104, 107, 110 formation of, 81, 104, 110 photolysis of, 104, 110 rate constants for automotive emission re- action with, 106 removal processes, 110 Nitrate salts, 107, 112 Nitrates, inorganic aerosol concentrations, 142, 154, 155, 183, 187 diurnal behavior, 142 formation, 142 modeling, 187 monitoring, 213 sources, 142, 188 Nitrates, organic, 146, 150 Nitric acid amine reaction with, 112 ammonia reaction with, 112 atmospheric concentrations, 144, 149, 154 atmospheric lifetime, 107, 126 dry deposition velocity, 108
680 formation, 62, 104-105, 110, 111, 166, 185 hydroxyl radical contribution to, 104-105, 111 interference with measurement devices, 186 measurement of, 63, 64, 149, 183, 186 modeling reactivity of, 181, 185, 187 photolysis, 124 rate constant for gas-phase chemical removal reactions, 106 role in nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocar bon formation, 102 surface resistance, 90, 101, 176 wet deposition of, 102, 111, 126 Nitric oxide atmospheric concentrations, 110 atmospheric lifetime, 107 chemical reactions involving, 103, 109-111, 115, 116-118, 120 formation, 109-110 rate constant for gas-phase chemical removal reactions, 106 reaction of hydroperoxyl radicals with, 103 Nitriles, 113 Nitroacenaphthene, 563, 567 Nitroarenes, 68, 179, 541 7-Nitrobenz~ajanthracene, 563, 568 Nitrobenzene, 108 Nitrobenzotaipyrenes, 62, 563, 568 6-Nitrochrysene, 563, 567, 568, 571 Nitrofluoranthenes, 124, 563 2-Nitrofluorene, 563 Nitrogen dioxide animal models of exposure to, 449-454, 506-507 asthmatics, effects on, 397, 472, 480 atmospheric concentration and trends, 136, 153, 155, 221-222 atmospheric formation, 166 cell culture studies, 487 chemical removal processes, role in, 111, 118 correlation of outdoor measurements with individual exposure, 219-220, 221-222 cytotoxicity, 419 diffusion coefficients in biological fluids, 373 dosimetry modeling, 354, 380-382 emphysema, contribution to, 22, 416, 444, 449 epidemiological studies of exposure to, 391-393, 399, 503-506 Index formation during particulate sampling, 62 healthy humans, effects on, 391-393, 470-471 human exposure studies, 510 indoor exposure, 216, 221-222, 504 measurement of, 64, 211 National Ambient Air Quality Standard, 136, 500 neurobehavioral effects, 640 nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon for mation, role in, 102 personal monitoring of exposure to, 211-213, 220-222 photolysis, 107, 110, 124, 126 prediction of concentrations, 165, 187 pulmonary clearance, effects on, 273 pulmonary function, studies of, 391-393, 450-451 pulmonary response to, 466 pulmonary uptake, 354, 373, 380-381 rate constant for gas-phase chemical removal reactions, 106 respiratory infections correlated with, 5-6, 503 respiratory tract impairment by, 370, 394, 420, 449-454, 507 respiratory tract reactivity, 374-375, 481-482 small airways disease, contribution to, 450-454 sources, 221, 223, 224, 395, 399, 466 synergy in respiratory tract, 391, 452 Nitrogen oxides acidic deposition from, 80-82 air/fuel ratios and, 40 analytical methods for characterizing, 63 atmospheric concentrations, 136, 154, 580 atmospheric transformations of, 109-112, 124, 166 catalysts and, 50, 58 control strategies, effect on ozone, 191 from diesel-engine exhaust, 63 emission rates, 44-45, 65, 100 enhancement of aldehyde toxicity, 590 indoor concentrations, 147-148, 154 lifetime vehicle emissions compared to standards, 41, 43 modeling transport and diffusion, 175, 185 ozone production from, 81, 110, 144, 165, 166, 177-179, 189-190 in photochemical reactions, 40, 177 reduction of, 4, 40 regional transport of, 81, 93
Index 681 sources, 19-2O, 136, 147-148, 166, 188, 580 species comprising, 109 standards, 42, 44-47, 136 vehicle weight and, 48 1-Nitronaphthalene, 567 3-Nitroperylene, 563 Nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons animal bioassays, 570-571 carcinogenicity, 166, 181, 562-563, 571-572 components of particulate emissions, 124 in diesel particulate extract, 67 dosimetry, 568-570 environmental chamber studies, 124 formation, 70, 102, 109, 124, 181 metabolism of, 307-308, 567-568 research problems, 568-572 urban atmospheric concentrations, 154 Nitropyrenes carcinogenicity, 562-563 DNA adduct formation, 567 formation during sampling, 62 environmental chamber studies, 124 metabolism of, 307-309, 567 mutagenicity, 567 respiratory tract disposition of, 302, 304, 564 sources, 67 study approaches. 568. 571 , , ~ Nitrosamines animal studies of, 537, 542-543 carcinogenicity, 530, 537, 542-543, 588 formation, 112, 150, 375 indoor concentrations, 150 metabolism of, 307 photolysis rate, 112 N-Nitrosodimethylamine, 63 Nitrous acid atmospheric chemical reactions, 103, 111 atmospheric lifetime, 107, 126 concentrations, 105, 111, 144, 154 emissions from older vehicles, 69-70 environmental chamber studies, 105, 111 formation, 105, 111, 150, 375 indoors, 111, 150, 154 photolysis of, 103, 105, 107, 111, 126 rate constant for gas-phase chemical removal reactions, 106 o e-Octane, 106, 107 Odor emissions animal behavior studies, 641, 644 from diesel-fueled vehicles, 58, 69 human responses to, 635 from methanol-fueled vehicles, 58 scaling procedures for study of, 639 Organ cultures, see Tissue/organ cultures Organophosphates, biological markers of ex- posure to, 225 Overton, John H., 367-385 Ozone alkene reaction with, 118 alveolar macrophages, effects on, 507 amine reactions with, 112 animal studies of exposure to, 351-352, 356, 418, 427-433, 474-475, 478-480, 482-484, 486, 506, 507-508 asthma aggravation by, 396-399, 471-472, 473, 478-480 atmospheric concentration and trends, 144, 148, 153-155, 466, 581 atmospheric concentrations, determinants of, 80, 89, 144 atmospheric concentrations, predictions of, 165, 175, 187 atmospheric lifetime, 107 bronchoconstriction, 470, 476 carbonyl reaction with, 120 cell culture studies, 487 chronic exposure studies, 429-430 control problems, 4, 191 cytotoxicity, 419 diffusion coefficients in biological fluids, 373 dosimetry models, 335-336, 339-340, 342, 350-352, 355-357, 377-381, 428, 482 dry deposition velocity, 108 emission control effects on, 190 emphysema, contribution to, 22, 416 epidemiological studies of exposure to, 393, 396-400 epithelial permeability, 418-419, 473, 482-483 experimental chamber studies, 428, 470, 480, 500-501, 506, 510 eye irritation, 638-639 fibrogenicity, 416, 427-429, 433 formation, 103, 136, 144, 166, 167, 177 gas-phase diffusion resistance, 352 healthy humans, effects on, 470-471 high-risk populations, effects in, 509 human studies, 510 hydrocarbon contribution to, 81, 144, 166, 189-190
682 Index hydroxyl radical formation, role in, 103 indoor concentrations, 148, 154, 155 meteorological effects on, 80 mixing ratios, 103 monitoring and quantification methods, 428 mucosal damage from, 506 mucous layer penetration, 324, 335-336, 350-352, 357, 377, 380 mucous production and secretion, 483-484 National Ambient Air Quality Standard, 134, 500 neurobehavioral effects, 639-644 nitrogen oxide relationship to, 81, 110, 144, 165, 166, 177-179, 189-190 nonspecific bronchial hyperreactivity from exposure to, 478-479 oxidative properties, see Free radicals, mechanisms of toxicity photolysis of, 103, 124-125 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon reaction with, 124-125 pulmonary function, effects on, 273, 393, 416, 470, 471-472, 476-477, 486 pulmonary response to, 416-430, 466, 470-471, 476-477, 482-483, 487, 507-508, 510 pulmonary tissue damage from, 370, 473, 506 pulmonary uptake of, 339, 342, 350-351, 354-357, 376, 470 rate constants for automotive emission re action with, 106, 375 reduction strategies, 191 respiratory infection and, 506, 509, 510 respiratory tract reactivity, 324, 374, 375, 377, 418, 479-482 risk assessment, 431-433 rural concentrations, 80 smog chemistry, role in, 144, 177 sources of exposure, 148, 224, 466 standard, 134, 144 synergy in respiratory tract, 430-431, 433, 452, 471, 472, 480 transfer coefficient in conducting airways, 338-340 urban concentrations, 80, 81, 93, 155 p Particle size atmospheric lifetime as a function of, 108-109 chemical composition differences by, 143, 150, 179 diameter, definitions of, 250, 251-252 distributions, 60, 179 dry deposition velocities by, 101, 108, 176 hygroscopicity and, 252, 255 macrophage viability and, 278-279 respiratory clearance rates and, 270, 271, 276 respiratory tract deposition and, 250, 256-257 washout ratios by, 108 Particles, inhaled atmospheric concentrations, 143, 155 bioavailability of associated organic com pounds, 304-306 carcinogenesis of, 69, 305-312 characteristics, 251-252, 304 definition, 143 deposition, 250-263, 283, 315 disposition of, 239-287, 300-317 dosimetry, 253 fate of associated organic compounds, 300-301, 302-304 immune system response to, 312-315 measurement of deposition, 253-258 metabolism of, 22, 300, 306-312, 315 respiratory tract clearance, 22, 264-273, 275-276, 278-281, 283, 300, 302, 304, 315, 564 retention in respiratory tract, 263-274, 283, 315 significance, 300-301 solubility of adsorbed compound, 283, 300, 306 translocation mechanisms, 312-313 Particulate emissions / pollutants adsorption/desorption processes, 101-102, 124-125 alkanes, 115 analysis of, 67, 125 artifacts of sampling, 62, 125 atmospheric lifetimes, 108-109, 125 characteristics, 301-302 chemical loss processes, 109 concentrations, 139-143, 154-155 control technology, 48-50, 60-61 deposition processes, 101, 108, 113, 125, 176, 230-262 diesel, 48-50, 52, 60, 63, 65-68, 275- 276 elemental carbon, 139, 154, 167 inspirable fraction, 255
Index 683 measurement, 142-143 metal-associated, 141-142, 154, 155, 167 from methanol-fueled vehicles, 58 modeling of, 170, 185 mutagenic activity, 67, 69, 302 nitrate, 142, 154, 155 nitroarenes in, 68 nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon components, 124, 154 nitropyrenes in, 67-68 nonpolar fractions, 66 organic carbon, 139-140, 154 personal monitoring of exposure to, 212-213 physical removal processes, 101-102, 108-109 polar fraction, 66-67 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in, 66-68, 124-125, 154 reactive atmospheric species associated with, 105 respirable, see Respirable particles solubility of adsorbed compound, 69, 283, 300 source contributions, 88, 100, 151, 166, 168, 188, 224, 300-302 standards, 44-45, 46, 48, 50, 53, 69, 181, 500 sulfate, 154, 155 sulfuric acid, 113 total suspended, 20, 140, 142-143, 153-155. 169, 500; see also Aerosols transport and dispersion, 85, 101-102, 108 washout ratios, 108 see also Particles, inhaled Pennington, James E., 499-518 Pentane, 68 Peroxyacetyl nitrate atmospheric lifetime, 119 formation, 119, 120, 146, 166, 167, 185 health effects, 119, 146 interference with measurement devices, 186 neurobehavioral effects, 640 prediction of concentrations, 187 urban concentrations, 146, 150, 154 Peroxybenzoyl nitrate, 119, 122 Peroxypropionyl nitrate, 119 Perylene, 559 Phagocytes, see Alveolar macrophages; Poly- morphonuclear leukocytes Phenanthrene atmospheric lifetime, 107 carcinogenicity, 559-560 concentrations, 145 exhaust, concentration in, 581 rate constant for gas-phase chemical removal reactions, 106 vapor pressure, 124 washout ratio, 108 Phenanthridone, 303 Phenols analytical methods for characterizing, 63 atmospheric chemical reactions, 123 atmospheric concentrations, 582 atmospheric lifetime, 107 biochemical reactions, 594-595 formation, 119, 122-123 health effects, 587-588, 595 inhibition of carcinogenesis, 562 nitro-, 119, 122 procarcinogenic effects, 588-589 rate constant for gas-phase chemical removal reactions, 106 structure, 580 wet deposition of, 102, 108, 123 Photochemistry, see Photolysis Photolysis of acetaldehyde, 107 of acetone, 107, 119 of aldehydes, 103, 118-119, 145 of alkyl nitrates, 126 of automotive emissions, 103 of dinitrogen pentoxide, 124 of formaldehyde, 107 of hydrogen peroxide, 107 of ketones, 119 of methylnitrite, 107, 113 of nitrate radicals, 104, 110 of nitric acid, 124, 126 of nitrogen dioxide, 107, 110, 124, 126 of nitrosamines, 112 of nitrous acid, 103, 105, 107, 111 of ozone, 103, 124 of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 109, 124-125 rates of automotive emissions, 107 of c2,,l3 unsaturated carbonyls, 120 Phthlates, 102 Physical modeling anatomical, 368-369 applications, 26 of atmospheric chemistry, 163 biases in, 228-230 environmental chamber studies, 124, 163, 185
684 of exposure, 226-230 of indoor air quality, 228 limitations of, 229, 354 mathematical form, 228, 229 National Exposure Model, 228, 229 of pulmonary gas transport, 353-354, 362 of respiratory tract, 352-354, 368-369 Simulation of Human Air Pollution Expo- sure, 228, 229-230 Simulation System, 228, 229-230 stepwise, 228 stochastic component, 228-230 tracer gas studies, 82, 84, 85, 87 tracheobronchial network, 353 validation of mathematical modeling by, 352-354 wind tunnel experiments, 84, 87, 163 Phytotoxicity, 119 Pneumoconiosis, 259 Pollutants atmospheric residence times, 81, 90 biological responses to, 23-24 concentration, see Concentrations of pollu- tants mobile sources, 166; see also Automotive . . emissions pathways to toxicity, 19, 21 primary, 80, 81, 167, 173 reactive, 167 secondary, 80, 81, 167, 173, 189, 193; see also Ozone source/receptor relationships, 163 stationary sources, see Stationary sources of pollutants temporal and spatial patterns, 134-139 transport and dispersion of, see Atmospheric transport and dispersion of pollutants see also specific pollutants Pollutants, criteria/regulated data adequacy, 153 exhaust emission rates, 64, 65 need to control, 6 see also specific pollutants Pollutants, unregulated atmospheric concentrations, 143-147 data adequacy, 19, 156 in exhaust, measurement of, 61-64 in exhaust, presence, 64-68 modeling, 26, 166 need to control, 6 see also specific pollutants Polychlorinated biphenyls, 102, 108, 213 Index Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons acid anhydrides, 66 adsorbed-phase reactions, 124-125 animal bioassay studies, 570-571 atherogenesis, effects on, 613 atmospheric chemical reactions, 124-125 atmospheric concentrations, 145, 154 atmospheric lifetime, 109, 124 carboxaldehydes, 66 carcinogenicity, 300, 556-562, 569, 571 572 cocarcinogenicity, 561-562 derivatives in diesel-engine exhaust particu lates, 65-68 DNA adduct formation, 568, 569 dosimetry, 568-570 hydroxy-, 67 indoor concentrations, 151, 154 inhibitors, 562 formation, 145, 151 ketones, 66 metabolism of, 307-312, 315, 561, 563 569 monitoring, 146 mutagenic potential, 21, 302, 540-541, 566 nitro-, see Nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydro carbons occupational exposures, 557 personal monitoring of exposure to, 213 photolysis, 109, 124-125 quinones, 67, 595, 596 pulmonary clearance, 563-564 respiratory tract disposition, 302-305, 310, 563-564 sources, 124, 145, 302, 556-557 structure/activity relationships, 558, 571 tumorigenicity in laboratory animals, 558-561 vapor pressures, 124, 145, 151 see also Benzotaipyrene; and other specific compounds Polycyclic organic matter, 145 Polymorphonuclear leukocytes asbestos effect on recruitment of, 421, 422 in asthmatics, recruitment of, 469, 473, 474, 477, 481 bacterial defense, importance in, 502 chemoattractants for, 421-422, 424-425, 444, 512 in cigarette smokers, 444, 446 diesel-engine exhaust, response to, 312-313 in emphysema, role of, 419, 452 in free-radical generation, role of, 419-420
Index 685 as lung damage indicators, 429 macrophage recruitment of, 421-422, 512 nitrogen dioxide exposure, response to, 452 nonspecific bronchial hyperreactivity and, 478-479 ozone exposure, response to, 419-420, 473, 478-479, 481 source, 442 see also Inflammation/inflammatory response Populations, see Sensitive populations Procarcinogens activities of, 526-527 animal experiments, 525, 527, 533, 561 chemical metabolism of, 306-307 classes of, 307 definition, 558 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons as, 557, 588 Propane, 68, 106, 107 Propanol, 581 Propene, 106, 107, 117 Propyne, 106, 107 Proteinase/antiproteinase, 444, 448, 452, 453, 593 Pulmonary fibrosis alveolar macrophages, 419, 421-424 animals models of, 426-428, 433 biological markers of, 428-429 chronic experiments, 416 collagen production, 417, 424-427, 429, 433 description of, 425-427 development rate, 426 edema, 417-418, 428, 433 epidemiological studies, 416-417 epithelial cell proliferation, 419, 420-421 fibroblasts, 424-425 inflammatory cell response, 23, 414-420, 433 ravage analysis, 23, 428-429 morphology studies, 428, 429-430 ozone relationship to, 416-436 progression of injury after cessation of expo- sure, 430 risk assessment, 431-432 susceptible populations, 432-433 synergistic interactions in, 430-431, 433 testing for, 416 Pulmonary function tests, 25, 248, 343-345, 358-359, 394, 402-403, 416, 446, 450-451, 453, 454, 474 Pulmonary region absorption efficiency for metal particles in, 277 absorption of gases, 329-331, 339, 341-345, 347, 349, 352, 358, 359; see also Gases, inhaled clearance mechanisms, 264-266, 283 clearance rates and times, 270-271, 303 damage from reactive gases, 370 deposition efficiencies, 253, 256, 258-259 diesel-engine exhaust particles, 275-277 distal airway model, 329 dosimetry models, 376-377 liquid lining, 370-371, 376-377, 379-380 metabolism of particle-associated carcino- gens, 310-311 particle deposition in, 252 species differences in, 245 structure, 244-246, 325, 328-329 ventilatory parameters in, 246 see also Alveoli Pyrene carcinogenicity, 302, 559, 562, 565, 571 urban concentrations, 145 vapor pressure, 124 washout ratio, 108 Pyridine, urban concentrations, 146 Q Quinoline, urban concentrations, 146 Quinones, 67, 310, 595, 596 R Radon, 213, 216, 224 Regulation, see Emission regulation Research recommendations acetaldehyde, 122, 127, 583, 597, 599 acid deposition, 109 acrolein, 583, 584-585, 597-599 aerosol processes, 28, 143, 176, 181, 198 air quality modeling, 29, 169, 175, 177, 179, 181, 187, 193, 194, 196-199 alcohols, 147, 157, 582, 598 aldehydes, 31, 122, 127, 146, 156, 582, 586, 588, 596, 597-599 alkanes, 116, 127 alternative fuels, 122, 127 alveolar macrophages, 274, 312, 317, 487, 491, 512, 514
686 Index analytical techniques and instrumentation, 28-29, 126, 128, 139, 156-157 anatomical models, 32, 379, 383 animal studies/models, 263, 274, 281, 284, <86, 452, 457-458, 459-460, 477, 511, 514, 570, 573, 619, 622, 643, 647, 652 asthma, 31, 34, 480-481, 489-490 atherogenesis, 607-610, 618-619, 621 622 atmospheric chemical reactions, 105, 112, 116, 125-127, 143, 156, 175, 179 atmospheric transport and dispersion of pollutants, 85, 87-89, 92, 93-94, 193, 199 attributable risk for disease, 409 bioavailability of adsorbed materials, 281, 286 biochemical properties of respiratory tract, 336, 361-362 biological monitoring of exposure and dis ease, 28-29, 34, 223-226, 232-233, 443, 451-452, 570, 573, 588, 598 bioreactivity of inhaled toxic gases, 381, 383 carbon monoxide, 646, 652 carbonyls, 122, 127 carboxylic acids, 122, 127 carcinogenic effects, 31, 526, 530, 533, 537, 545-550, 571-573, 584-585, 588, 598 catechols, 582, 598 cell culture studies, 487, 491, 586, 599 cellular inflammatory response, 422, 425, 434-435, 442, 444, 458 chronic diseases, 31, 34, 455-457, 458-460, 480, 489-490 coexposures, 281, 283, 285, 287 coronary heart disease, 32 cross-disciplinary collaboration, 196 cross-species calibration, 285 Resorption of particle-associated compounds, 306, 311, 316 diesel-engine exhaust, 28, 30, 53, 59, 61, 69-72, 281, 286, 454, 460, 545, 547 549 dinitrogen pentoxide, 112, 126-127 DNA adducts, 568, 570, 573, 597, 599 dose dependency, 452, 459 dosimetry modeling, 29-30, 376, 382, 383, 539, 549 dry deposition of pollutants, 92, 94, 105, 108, 127, 177, 198-199 emission control, 52-53, 58, 64, 69, 71, 72 environmental chamber studies, 480 epidemiological studies, 34, 217, 400-402, 405, 407, 408, 410-411, 509, 514, 618, 621 ethanol, 122, 127 evaporative emissions, 54, 60, 71, 72 exposure assessment, 28-30, 32, 85, 92-94, 151, 157, 217-219, 223-224, 231-233, 410-411 extrapolation modeling, 30, 32, 34, 263, 284-285, 358, 363 fog chemistry, 179, 199 formaldehyde, 28, 58-59, 69, 71, 122, 127, 146, 156, 583, 585, 597-599 fuel additives, 60, 61, 71 gas-to-particle conversion processes, 105, 127 heterocyclic organic compounds, 147, 157 human studies, 34, 459, 460 hydrocarbons, 58, 61, 70, 123, 127, 139, 156-157 hydrochloric acid, 147, 157 hydroxyl radical, 30, 116, 123, 127 hygroscopicity of particles, 263, 287 immune system response to particle-associ ated organics, 313-314, 317 incomplete combustion products, 122, 127 indoor air quality, 29, 32, 151, 157, 194, 198 inhaled-particle toxicity, 303, 306, 315 316 ketones, 122, 127 manganese, 649, 653 measurement of emissions, 58-59, 64, 69-72 metabolism of particle-associated organics, 311, 314, 316-317 metal species in diesel-engine exhaust, 61 methanol emissions, 69, 122, 127, 587, 598, 647-648, 652-653 methanol-fueled vehicles, 58 models/modeling, 54, 71, 85, 92, 94, 169, 175, 177, 193-194, 198-199, 231-233, 263, 287, 352, 362 model validation, 29, 187, 197-198 monitoring equipment, 30, 146, 149, 156-157, 223-224, 232-233 mucous characterization, 274, 287 neurotoxicity, 32, 635-636, 639, 643-644, 646-653 nitrate radicals, 112, 126-127 nitric acid, 147, 157
Index 687 nitroaromatics, 69 nitrogen oxides, 28, 112, 126-127 nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 28, 31, 7O, 71, 125, 127, 147, 157, 568, 572-573 nitrous acid, 69-7O, 72, 112, 126-127 oxidant exposure/respiratory morbidity re lationship, 40O, 403, 41O, 444, 458 ozone, 430-432, 435-436, 471, 477, 485, 490 particle deposition in and clearance from respiratory tract, SO, 32, 262-263, 273-275, 281, 284, 286-287, 303, 316, 314 particulate emissions, 53, 61, 69-71, 105, 116, 127, 143, 156 pathobiology of emission-related diseases, 445, 448-449, 452, 457-460 peroxyacetyl nitrate, 147, 157 phenols, 582, 598 physical modeling, 85, 88, 93-94, 284 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 28, 31, 34, 7O, 72, 125, 127, 311, 316-317, 568-573 pulmonary airflow dynamics, 249-250, 263, 286-287, 352, 362 pulmonary defense mechanisms, 51 1, 514 pulmonary disease pathogenesis, 32-34, 448-449, 452, 455-457, 458-460 pulmonary fibrosis, 425, 426, 429, 435 pulmonary function, 249, 274, 282, 284, 286, 361, 363, 402-403, 410 pulmonary uptake of gas-phase pollutants, 32, 340, 352, 362-363, 471, 487, 490 respiratory infection, 31, 34, 509, 511-512, 514 respiratory tract morphometry, 30, 32, 246, 284-287, 380, 383, 430 response to injury, 31, 418, 420-422, 425-426, 434-435 sensitive populations, 32, 33, 218, 246, 263, 281-282, 284, 286, 432, 436, 509, 514, 530, 550 sensory impairment, 635, 651 street canyon concentrations, 85, 87, 94, 175, 199 synergistic interactions, 431, 435, 452 toxicity modifiers, 281, 286 toxicity role in carcinogenesis, 533, 550 tracer gas studies, 87-89, 92, 94, 418, 434, 487 unregulated pollutants, 28-30, 69, 146-147, 157 wet deposition of pollutants, 105, 127 wind measurements, 89, 92-94 wind tunnel simulations, 85, 94 Respirable particles correlation of outdoor measurements with individual exposure, 219-221 definition, 143 indirect assessment of exposure to, 214 indoor concentrations, 155, 223 measurement with personal monitors, 212-213 microenvironments contributing to, 216 personal monitoring studies, 230 sources, 224 urban concentrations, 155 Respiratory distress syndrome, 420, 425, 426 Respiratory epithelium aldehyde action on, 585 in asthmatics, 468, 470, 481-485 cell types, 371, 420-421, 442-443 functions, 481 ion transport, 470, 484 liquid lining, 32, 369-371, 373; see also Mucociliary system; Mucus mucociliary transport, 484-485 mucosal binding affinity, 512-513 mucous production and secretion, 470, 483-484 nasal epithelium as a model of, 469, 485 oxidant damage to, 33, 370, 418-419, 420-421, 468, 473, 478, 481-485, 507-508 permeability, 33, 418, 470, 482-483 Respiratory infections age factor in, 500, 505 altered-host studies, 511 alveolar macrophage functions, 502-503, 512, 513 animal studies, 506-508, 510, 513 antiviral defense mechanisms, 511-512 automotive emissions, effect on, 500-515 bronchial hyperreactivity from, 500 bronchial mucous transport, effect on, 273 bronchitis (bacterial), 501, 502 diagnosis, 508-509 documentation and measurement of, 503-505 epidemiological study approaches, 407-408, 503-506, 507, 508-510, 513 experimental studies, 506-507, 510-513 high-risk populations, 500, 506, 509-510 human studies, 510
688 Index immunologic modulators, 511-512 infectious agents, 501-503, 505, 510 infectivity models, 510 influenza, 500 laboratory evidence of, 504-505 long-term effects, 503 lung defense mechanisms, 502-503, 513 mucosal binding affinity for pathogenic bacteria, 512-513 occurrence, 500, 501-502 personal history and physical examination, 504 pneumonia, 500-502, 505 resistance against, 507-508 risk factors, 407 seasonal pattern, 505 severity of, 505 socioeconomic and family setting influences, 506 susceptibility determinants, 500, 501, 513 synergistic effects of viral plus bacterial in- fections, 507 viral, 501, 507 Respiratory tract age-related changes in, 247-248 airflow patterns, 248-249, 325-329 airway cells, 245, 266, 371-372, 442-443; see also Alveolar macrophages carcinogenic response of, 305 chemical reactions in, 374-375, 380-382 clearance kinetics, 266-272, 303-304 clearance mechanisms, 263-266, 283, 302 defense mechanisms, 23-24, 33, 442-443, 455, 502-503, 507-508, 511-513 deposition of inhaled particles in, 22, 250-263, 302 disposition of metal emissions in, 276 280 extrapolation from animals to humans. 248 factors modifying particle clearance from, 272-273 fluid convection in, 373 gas transport fundamentals in, 331-341; see also Gases, inhaled hemodynamics, 325, 329-331 liquid lining, 369-371, 373, 376-377, 379; see also Mucociliary system; Mucus lower, see Pulmonary region; Tracheobron chial tree measurement of particle clearance from, 267-268 measurement of particle deposition in, 253-258 metabolism of particle-associated carcino gens, 309-311 models, 244, 247, 327-329, 336, 339, 346, 349, 369 retention of deposited particles, 263-273 species differences in structure, 23, 241-244, 324-325 structure, 240-246, 252-253, 324-331, 371-372, 425, 442-443 synergy of oxidant species in, 430-431, 433, 452, 471 see also Pulmonary region; Tracheobron chial tree; Upper respiratory tract Rest, Kathleen M., 389-413 Rhinitis, 273 Risk attributable, 26, 408-409 comparative, 7 components of, 19-24 Risk assessment air quality models for, 174 for alcohol and aldehyde emissions. 595-597 biological monitoring as basis for, 218 cancer, 534-539, 543-546 chemical compound information needed for, 100 for chronic diseases, 431-432 comparative potency approach, 544 dose determination for, 368 of diesel-engine exhaust, 543-546 exposure data for, 211, 232, 283 limitations of methodologies, 18, 432 research needs, 7 . . , uncertainty In, ~ Ruckelshaus, William D., 1-2 Rural areas . . . . mlcroenvlronments potentla. . y Important for exposure assessment, 215 ozone concentrations in, 80 Russell, Armistead G., 161-205 Ryan, P. Barry, 207-238 S Samson, PerryJ., 77-97 Schlesinger, Richard B., 239-298 Sensitive populations definition of, 5-6, 395, 417
Index 689 epidemiological studies of, 395-399, 405, 509-510 identification of, 24, 25, 432-433 monitoring exposure of, 214 to ozone exposure, 432-433 to respiratory infections, 500, 509 Sexton, Ken, 207-238 Sinusitis, chronic, 273 Small airways disease Soot animal models of, 449 biochemical evidence of, 451-453 cigarette smoking and, 446, 449 concept and quantitation, 446 definition, 446 morphological evidence of, 446, 451, 453 mucous hypersecretion and, 446 multidisciplinary studies, 453-454 physiological evidence of, 450-451 progression to COPD, 402 relationship of vehicular emissions to, 450-454 Smog chemistry, 140-141, 142, 144, 177 Smooth muscle cellular response associated with atheroscle- rosis, 607-609, 619-620 chemical mediation of, 476, 477-478, 486 epithelial-derived relaxing activity, 481 innervation, 475-476 modeling, 485 reactions to allergens, 469, 474 cellular response to, 314 concerns about, 139, 141 lung clearance rates, 303 Source apportionment, modeling, 163, 168, 169, 174-175, 178, 181, 184, 189-192, 193-195, 230 Species differences in alveoli, 246, 253 modeling of, 376 in nasal toxicity to formaldehyde, 376, 584-585 in respiratory tract, deposition of pollu- tants, 255, 283 in respiratory tract structure, 23, 241-245, 248, 249, 253, 255, 258, 281, 324-325, 369, 447 in responses to pollutants, 427 scaling procedures for, 23, 248, 262 in size, controlling for, 417 see also Animal studies/models; Animals, laboratory Stationary sources of pollutants ammonia, 166 asbestos, 224 benzota~pyrene, 301 butanol, 150 carbon dioxide, 147 carbon monoxide, 20, 100, 166, 224 classes of, 166 exposure assessment, importance in, 81, 166 formaldehyde, 150, 223-224 heterocyclic organic compounds, 151 hydrocarbons, 20, 148, 166 indoors, 147-148, 150, 221, 223, 399 lead, 100, 224 in Los Angeles basin, emission rates, 100 nitrates, 142 nitrogen dioxide, 221, 224, 399 nitrogen oxides, 20, 100, 135, 147-148, 193, 166 nitrosamines, 150 ozone, 148, 224 particulates, 20, 100, 151, 166, 188, 224, 301-302 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 301, 556-557 radon, 224 reactivity with automotive emissions, 166 sulfates, 142, 224 sulfur dioxide, 148, 224 sulfur oxides, 20, 100, 166 volatile organic compounds, 20, 224 see also Source apportionment, modeling Structural models, bronchial tree, 244, 327-328 Sulfates analytical methods for characterizing, 63, 189 disposition of inhaled particles, 280-282, 281, 284 diurnal behavior, 142 formation, 113, 142, 167, 184, 189 indoor concentrations, 154, 155 monitoring of, 213 sources, 224 synergism between ozone and, 431, 480 urban aerosol concentrations, 142, 154, 155 see also Sulfuric acid Sulfides, organic, analytical methods for char- acterizing, 63 Sulfonyls, atmospheric, formation, 113
690 Sulfur dioxide atmospheric chemical reactions, 118, 139 atmospheric concentrations, 138-139, 153, 154, 155, 184, 580 atmospheric lifetime, 107 control program, 80-81 conversion to sulfate, 81, 184 dose/response data, 360-361 dosimetry modeling, 350 dry deposition velocity, 108 health effects, 302, 306, 360, 399, 466, 473 indoor concentrations, 148, 154, 155 measurement of, 63 personal monitoring of exposure to, 212-213, 399 pulmonary transport and uptake, 324, 339, 348, 353-357, 359-360, 376, 431 rate constant for gas-phase chemical removal reactions, 106 reduction strategies, 148 respiratory tract reactivity, 331-332, 374 solubility, 332-333, 350 sources, 224, 580 synergistic reactions, 431 transfer coefficient in conducting airways, 338, 340, 355-356 Sulfur hexafluoride tracer gas studies, 82, 84 Sulfur oxides animal studies of long-term exposure, 453 atmospheric transformations, 113 from diesel-engine exhaust, 63 regional-scale transport of, 89-90 sources, 20, 90, 100, 166 Sulfur, particulate, dry deposition velocities, 108 Sulfuric acid atmospheric transformation and removal, 113, 280-281 effects on respiratory tract clearance, 273, 281-282, 284 formation, 62, 113 synergism with ozone, 431, 473 Sun, James D., 299-322 T Tetrachloroethene, 108 Thiols, aliphatic, formation, 114 Tissue/organ cultures carcinogen metabolism, 309, 310, 520-521 human bronchial tissue, 487 Index measurement of biochemical properties of inhaled gases in, 362, 487 mucosal binding affinity, 513 oxidant effects on ciliary integrity, 507- 508 Toluene, 106, 107, 119, 122-123, 137, 634-635 Toxic substances, see specific substances Toxicity carcinogenesis, role in, 525, 526, 531-533, 541, 585 determinants, 21, 22, 305 mechanisms in neurobehavioral effects, 636-638 neurochemical evaluation for, 636-637 neuropathological examinations for, 637 neurophysiological examinations for, 637-638 repeated exposure experiments, 634 response mechanisms, 23-24 retention of particle-associated organics and, 305 testing guidelines, 633, 649-650 ~ ~. . . ox~co. .ogy advances in, 7 research needs and strategies, 7, 26-34 Tracheobronchial tree absorption efficiency for metal particles in, 277 airflow patterns in, 249, 258, 327-328, 349 cell types, 371 clearance mechanisms, 264, 275, 283, 302 clearance rates and times, 254, 269-270 individual variability in, 244 liquid lining, 369-370, 373 mass transfer coefficients of gas-phase pol lutants in, 340 metabolism of particle-associated carcino gens, 309-310 models, 244, 327-329, 340, 349, 353, 358 ozone depletion in, 336 particle deposition in, 252, 256, 258, 260 particle retention in, 270 pollutant gas transport and uptake, 324, 349 species differences in, 242-244, 249, 253 structure, 241-244, 249, 324-325, 327-329, 347, 369, 442 ventilatory parameters, 246-247 Weibel ordering system, 242 Transport of pollutants, see Atmospheric transport and dispersion of pollutants
Index 691 Trichloroethylene, biological markers of exposure to, 225 Tricosane, washout ratio, 108 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene, 106, 107 Triphenylene, 559 Trucks, see Automobiles/light-duty vehicles; Vehicles, heavy-duty U Ultman, James S., 323-366 Undecane, 562 Upper respiratory tract absorption characteristics of nose and mouth, 356 absorption efficiency for metal particles in, 277 airflow patterns in, 249, 253, 325-327 cell types, 371 clearance mechanisms, 264, 302 clearance rates and times, 268-269, 303 definition, 254 deposition of particles in, 250, 255-259 functions, 347 irritants, 144 liquid lining, 369-370, 373 metabolism of particle-associated carcino gens, 309 species differences in, 241, 255 structure, 240-241, 324-327, 346, 369 Urban areas aerosol constituents in, 140, 142 aldehyde concentrations, 144-145 automotive emission contribution to air pollution in, 19-20, 93, 100 cancer incidence in, 300 concentration of pollutants in, 79-81, 86, 92, 136-137 ground-level emissions vs. point-source emissions, 92, 94 human exposure to pollutants in, 81, 92 93 microenvironments potentially important for exposure assessment, 215 nitrite aerosol concentrations in, 142 nitrous acid in, 103 nonmethane hydrocarbon concentrations in, 136 organic carbon concentrations, 140-141 ozone concentrations in, 80, 81, 93 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concen trations, 145 street canyons, 78, 80, 81, 85-88, 93, 138, 174-175, 193 transport and dispersion of pollutants in, 81, 88-89, 93, 174 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Criteria Documents, 18 enforcement responsibilities, 4 future role of, 6-7 models, 52-53, 83-84 neurobehavioral toxicity testing guidelines, 633 Total Exposure Assessment Methodology project, 222 vehicle emission models, 53-54, 83-84 V Vanadium, disposition of inhaled particles, 280 Vehicles light-duty, see Automobiles/light-duty ve- hicles trace gas concentrations within, 149 Vehicles, heavy-duty diesel-powered, 46, 49-50, 52-53 emission control technology, 4, 40-41, 46, 49-50 emission rates, 45 emission standards, 45, 46, 53 fuel economy in, 47 gasoline-powered, 46 tampering with control devices, 53 weight, 43, 45 Ventilation anatomical measurements related to, 325 effect on dose, 253, 258-259, 261, 378-379 exposure and, 219 modes, 253 oronasal breathing, 253, 347 parameters, 23, 246-248, 253, 329-331, 379 particle sedimentation and breathing rate, 251 physical activity and, 247, 337 Vinyl chloride, 213, 225 Volatile organic compounds adsorption onto particles, 20 biological markers of exposure to, 225 correlation of outdoor measurements with individual exposure, 219-220, 221-222 diurnal variation in concentrations, 222 indoor concentrations, 222 outdoor concentrations, 222 source contributions, 20, 223-224
692 Index Total Exposure Assessment Methodology project findings, 222 W Watson, Ann Y., 11-13, 17-36 Weather, role in transport and dispersion of pollutants, 78 Wood, Ronald W., 631-657 Wright, Joanne L., 441-463 X Xenobiotics, 307, 309, 311, 592 Xylenes, 106, 107, 123, 137
