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Energy, Mineral, and Environmental Systems Research in the United States An Overview Executive Summary . Energy, mineral, and environmental resources are critical to the domestic economy, to national security, and to both human welfare and the quality of life in the United States. These resources are fundamental to other technologies as both input (energy and minerals) and output (environmental effects). As such, they form the base on which virtually all other economic activities are built. Environmental quality is determined to a large extent by the way in which energy and mineral resources are recovered and used, and as a result, environmental considerations often play a major role in the development of energy and rn~neral resources. It is thus essential that a sufficient level of fundamental engineering research be maintained in these three resource areas so that the United States will be in a stronger position to cope with crises and needs as they arise. Fundamental engineering research on energy, mineral, and environmental systems is conducted to varying extents by univer- sities, federal and national laboratories,* and industry. This type *A federal laboratory is an in-house laboratory of the federal govern- ment; a national laboratory, although essentially supported by federal funds, 142
ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 143 of research has been and should continue to be funded largely by the federal government, with supplemental support from the private sector. The resources at issue here are of such broad sig- nificance that no single industry or economic sector would be the major beneficiary of technological advancements in these fields. This is particularly true of the environment, which is in essence a public good. Thus the federal government has the chief responsi- bility for long-range research in these areas, carried out chiefly by universities and the federal and national laboratories. Federal support for engineering research in energy, mineral, and environmental systems (both fundamental and applied) has tended to be erratic and highly responsive to immediate concerns, public opinion, and changing national priorities. Indeed, insta- bility of funding has characterized this area more than any other examined by the Engineering Research Board. Federal funding for engineering research in the fields covered by this report is, in most areas, substantially lower than it was just a few years ago. When such reductions in funding occur, fundamental research, which already represents only a small percentage of expenditures, is often cut back to very low levels. However, this is exactly the type of research that should be maintained at a high level at all times to build the knowledge base that will be needed in the fu- ture when problems once again become critical. Such periods will surely come. Thus, national interests in these fields will be best served, instead, by a national commitment to a long-term, stable research environment. Because of the critical importance that energy, mineral, and environmental resources have for meeting national goals, and in order to counter the instability of funding, the panel recommends with a sense of urgency that federal funding for engineering re- search in these fields be increased at least to the levels (in equiv- alent constant dollars) of 5 years ago. As a first priority, such increases should go to universities in order to preserve their dual role in long-term fundamental engineering research and in educat- ing tomorrow's research talent. A commitment needs to be made within mission agencies, as well as within the National Science Foundation (NSF), to stable funding of university engineering research in the energy, mineral, is independently administered by an industrial firm, a university, or another nonprofit organization.
144 DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH and environmental fields so that excellence in research and edu- cation can be maintained and the knowledge base in these fields can be expanded. The nation's interests would be well served if mission agencies allocated, on a multiyear basis, a fixed percent- age of their budget to this research. "Quick-response" initiatives should be undertaken as add-one to this funding base. Increasing the NSF's budget for basic and exploratory research in these areas is another step that would greatly improve their long-term outlook and stability. Environmental issues will continue to play a major role in industrial development. Significant environmental problems may be associated with the high-technology fields as well as with the chemical, mining, transportation, and energy industries. The most important engineering research need in this area is for long-term research on the movement, fate, ejects, and control of contami- nants in the air, water, and soil. Such research is needed in order to optimize new and existing industrial processes and to improve the technological basis for proper environmental regulation. As a subset, this requires fundamental research on physical and chemi- cal processes (especially combustion), on biotechnology, on sensors and measurement techniques, and on the environment's capacity to assimilate the broad range of chemicals and other materials that are hazardous to humans and ecosystems. Critical areas for energy research are those that conic enable the United States to become reasonably self-sufficient in energy, so as to insulate it from the disastrous consequences of a loss of imported energy for any reason. A comprehensive program of continued engineering research fundamental as well as applied must be maintained to better develop and utilize all indigenous energy sources, including coal, oil, shale, nuclear and solar power, and natural gas. To ensure a broad range of future options, the primary areas recommended for engineering research in this field are the development of alternative fuels and technology, as well as continued efforts to improve the efficiency of energy conver- sion devices. Examples within these areas with high potential include the direct combustion of coal for power generation and process heat; the liquefaction, gasification, and beneficiation of coal; the use of coal and of! shale for transportation fuels; im- prove~d photovoltaic devices; improved energy storage techniques; and improved energy efficiency in industrial processes, buildings, and transportation systems.
ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 145 At the next level of priority, engineering research should con- tinue to ensure that the environmental consequences of energy utilization are adequately addressed; risk assessments and control technology development should be integral parts of energy-related R&D. This should especially include research into the accident po- tential of and Carnage mitigation at nuclear power plants. The d~ velopment of integrated environmental control systems addressing liquid, solid, and gaseous effluents from coal utilization technology is also essential. The most critical area of engineering research for mineral re- sources is on processes for the economic recovery of minerals from low-grade ores. As mineral resources are expended, increasingly lower grade ores will need to be used. Engineering research to meet this future requirement is inadequate and should be ex- panded, especially in areas such as (1) the development of sensors, instrumentation, and equipment for exploration, remote mining, and mineral processing control; (2) new separation technologies for improved mineral recovery; (3) colloidal, biological, and electro- chemical processes for mineral concentration; and (4) interracial behavior of mineral fines in processing streams. Introduction This report of the Pane! on Energy, Mineral, and Environ- mental Systems Research is one of seven prepared in support of a major study conducted by the Engineering Research Board. The report acIdresses issues sin connection with those areas of research critical to the future development, utilization and protection of energy sources and air, water, and mineral resources of the United States. Thus, it examines engineering research needs in a wide range of major resources.* Given its enormous breadth of coverage, and given the limited tune and budget available for its preparation, this report is not comprehensive, nor was it intended to be. Its primary purpose is to provide an overview of engineering research needs in these three *Certain important resources- most notably agricultural and forest resources were not included in the study and are not considered in this report.
146 DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH broad fields and, secondarily, to suggest ways of strengthening the nation's engineering research effort in them. For the most part, the report addresses fundamental engineering research that provides the basis for solving many of the long-range problems that industry and society face in connection with energy, minerals, and the environment. Such research is conducted by universities, federal and national laboratories, and industry, as well as by certain other nonprofit, nonacademic research institutions. BACKGROUND The three areas of research examined here are closely inter- connected. Together, they bear directly on matters of critical national importance. Our national security depends on the con- tinued availability of energy and mineral resources. Our domestic economy as well as our performance in the world economy also are both strongly dependent on energy and on materials derived from minerals. The quality of life in the United States, which derives in large part from the strength of our economy, also is greatly af- fected by the quality of the environment, in particular the vital air and water resources. In turn, the quality of these environmental resources increasingly depends on how we use the nation's energy and mineral resources. v' In a very real sense, energy, mineral, and environmental re- sources form the base on which virtually all economic activities are built. They are (in the case of energy and minerals) the raw input and (in the case of environmental impacts) the ultimate output of human economic activity. It is for this reason that political and social attention and pressure focus so intensely on matters con- nectec] with them. Changing economic circumstances, changing national priorities, and changing social attitudes all combine to alter the :lirections of research in these fields. Changes in relative prices and increased woric~wide availabil- ity of crude of] have, for the tune being, reduced concern about petroleum supplies; these changes have not removed the long-term vulnerability of the United States to a cutoff of imported oil. Both a diversity and balance of energy sources are needled to ensure a dependable supply of energy in the future. Complete energy in- dependence may not be attainable; greater self-sufficiency would reduce the nation's vulnerability to unpredictable external events, however. The goal of reasonable energy self-sufficiency for this
ENERGY, MINER-AL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 147 country requires a substantial R&D effort toward developing in- novative means of energy production, distribution, and end use, along with the definition and acceptable control of any associated environmental problems. In addition, in the case of nuclear power, major changes in public perception are required before this energy source can contribute more substantially to the nation's energy needs. As is true of petroleum, support for research on the extraction of minerals is also influenced by market forces and by changing degrees of access to mineral resources in international markets. Given the varied quantity and quality of domestic supplies, the United States currently imports certain strategic minerals, along with many others of broad commercial importance. Both techno- logical and economic factors drive us to rely on external sources. Because our access to the full range of needed mineral resources depends on our ability to maintain often-tenuous international ar- rangements, it is prudent for the United States to act in ways that ensure the strongest possible knowledge base from which future energy and mineral resource exploitation technologies can be de- veloped. Here again, improved technology can reduce the nation's vulnerability to external forces. New research needs are constantly appearing in the energy, mineral, and environmental fields because they are so closely in- terlinked with every other area of scientific, technological, and eco- nomic development. The opportunity to achieve success in prom~s- ing new technological areas can be severely compromised if we are unable to deal effectively with the energy/mineral/environmental resource infrastructure in which these technical advances must function. It ~ therefore essential to the continuer} health of tech- nology development in the United States that we continue to in- crease our fundamental understanding of these matters, so that we will be able to cope successfully with the challenges and problems that new technologies in any field tend to create. SCOPE In this report we exarn~ne a number of key issues affecting the health and effectiveness of engineering research in energy, minerals, and the environment.* At the heart of the report is the *Engineering research is research conducted to expand our useful knowl- edge about the man-made and natural worlds in order to discover engineering
148 DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH identification of important areas of research now needing attention if our capabilities and knowledge are to progress in a balanced fashion commensurate with emerging needs. The panel's scope of coverage encompassed engineering research: . to provide an information base and methods for assessing tradeoffs among resource utilization, environmental protection, and economic development; . on alternatives to petroleum as an energy source, including nuclear fission and fusion, other fossil fuels, solar power, and other renewable energy resources; ~ on new or improved technologies for petroleum recovery, including economical assisted-recovery techniques; ~ on new or improved technologies for the production, dis- tribution, and storage of electric power; . on new or improved technologies for more efficient end use ~ e ~ e d. of energy In its various forms; ~ on the exploration, mining, and processing of mineral re- sources; ~ on new or improved technologies for the utilization and protection of air and water resources; and ~ on the reduction, control, and management of hazardous materials. This scope includes a mixture of fundamental and applied en- gineering research areas, but emphasizes long-term, fundamental work. Policy Isgnes BASIS FOR FEDERAL POLICIES ON THE SUPPORT OF RESEARCH Over the past three decades the nation's commitment to the support of basic and applied research has provided extraordinary benefits to society and, in the process, has established the United principles by which significant improvements can be obtained in the processes of engineering design and production. (For further definition, see the chapter on Engineering Research in the United States: An Overviewed.
ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 149 States as a world leader in science and technology. The federal government's involvement in research derives from its responsibil- ity for national security and from its obligation to provide for the general health and welfare of its citizens. The scale of research in emerging technological fields is often too large for private compa- nies to undertake; in general there ~ also too little incentive for industry to support extensive long-range engineering research. In addition, areas of general public health and welfare such as environ- mental quality are not normally targets of industry research. Yet the public interest demands that this type of research be pursued. Therefore, regardless of where it is performed at universities, in federal or national laboratories, in industry, or elsewhere the majority of research in these fields is funded by the federal govern- ment. This federal support is especially prominent in the case of fundamental research. A basic premise on which the federal government must plan for research in the energy field in particular is that the demand for energy in the United States will continue to grow over the long term, notwithstanding very significant efforts in the direc- tion of conservation and efficient energy use. Recent studies have shown that whereas total U.S. energy consumption is no longer directly coupled to the gross national product (GNP), there Is still a demonstrable direct correlation between the consumption of electrical energy and the GNP (Whittaker, 1984~. At the same time, the mix of basic energy resources available to support eco- nomic activity and growth may change. Clearly, it ~ in the na- tional interest that aggressive engineering research continue on ways to utilize energy more efficiently in a variety of forms, and in a wide range of industrial, commercial, residential, and trans- portation applications. Improvements in this area could partly compensate for the growth in energy consumption brought about by an expanding population that aspires to a higher, more energy- intensive standard of living. On a worldwide basis, the growth in the consumption of energy in less developed nations, with their exploding populations and rising expectations, Is likely to be even more dramatic. Perhaps the most important implication of this energy-demand growth is that a range of energy options must foe maintained, so that disruptions in the availability or economics of any particular fuel do not leave the United States in a vulnerable portion. GIob- ally as well as nationally, the impact of [ong-term energy growth
150 DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH on the environment will also be significant, and must be carefully addressed. Further steps must be taken in assessing the adverse environmental consequences of energy production, as the nature of some "side effects" is still unknown. For example, tacit rains and the "greenhouse ejects currently are potentially major en- vironmental concerns associated with fossil fuel utilization; the resolution of these issues is particularly important for determining the relative role that coal will play in the future. Likewise, dis- posal of radioactive wastes remains a major problem with nuclear energy. All three of these concerns are characterized by serious uncertainties about the severity of the problems, and by the fact that there are political as well as technical dimensions to their solutions. Although these particular problems differ significantly in terms of their geographical spread and time scales of concern, they all could potentially alter future costs and patterns of energy utilization in this country and elsewhere. Prudence thus demands that vigorous R&D continue on alternative energy sources (includ- ing nuclear fusion and solar power), to ensure as wide a range of future options as possible. Industry must continue to be a strong partner with government in the support and performance of this area of R&D. The same reasoning applies in the case of mineral resources, for which new technology could give the United States a wider range of sources and options. At present, adequate technology for efficient and safe mining and processing of low-grade, finely dis- persed domestic ores does not exist. There Is very little engineering research being done either to develop such technology or to build the fundamental knowledge base required for its development. The range and potential size of these problems, and the diffi- culty of solving them, suggests that viewing energy, minerals, and the environment as separate and distinct concerns is no longer a workable approach. Now more than ever before there is a need for the federal government to identify tradeoff and achieve bat- ance between energy and resource utilization, on the one hand, and environmental protection on the other. Developing the needed technical information and tools for assessing such tradeoffs will require input from the various engineering disciplines as well as a number of scientific fields. Unfortunately, government policies in a specific area (e.g., energy, environment, etc.), once officially promulgated, often are
ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 151 interpreted in an absolute sense that provides little room for trade- offs among the environment, energy supply, jobs, economic devel- opment, national defense, quality of life, and so on. The federal government's support of research should be structured so as to provide an informed basis for making those tradeoffs and balanc- ing the many competing interests and requirements that converge on these vital areas. NEED FOR LONG-TERM CONTINUITY IN SUPPORT OF RESEARCH In energy, minerals, and the environment, the federal govern- ment's support of engineering research sometimes seems chaotic indeed, this is more often the case in these fields than in any other. New issues, sudden crises, alla changing expectations frequently alter the research priorities of federal agencies and bring about erratic changes in emphasis. These shifts occur at the expense of the knowledge base needed to address future problems. The mis- sion agencies are most subject of all to the shifting political winds. Although it may be politically attractive to Force feeds selected areas of research in hopes of achieving quick fixes, national inter- ests in energy, mineral, and environmental resources will be best served by a national commitment to a long-term, stable research environment. The crises that frequently stimulate engineering re- search in these fields may be so compeDing that, for political reasons, they cannot be ignored. However, such ~quick-response" initiatives should be undertaken as add-one to continuing and sta- ble support of both fundamental and applied engineering research. There are undoubtedly many ways to ensure a more stable commitment to research. One possible means would be to increase the NSF's research budget in these areas. Long-term research needs in these areas might be better served if the NSF were to take a greater Tole in fundamental and exploratory engineering research programs that the mission agencies do not see as part of their objectives. The mission agencies, for their part, need to recognize that the training of researchers over the long term is not exclusively the NSF's province; each agency also has a responsibility here. Therefore, another very useful step would be for mission agencies to allocate, on a multiyear basis, a fixed percentage of their budget to university engineering research in appropriate fields. This approach would
152 DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH improve stability in both education and research, and would help attract the best available talent to these fields. RETHINKING ROLES The role of the government in supporting large-scale research facilities also needs to be carefully considered. In many areas, federal participation in scale-up projects, along with significant private support where obtainable, can substantially accelerate the development of new technology. Also of special urgency is the need to address the relative research roles of the universities and the various federal and national laboratories working in the energy, mineral, and environmental fields. Universities not only provide diverse fundamental and applied research ideas and results, but are also essential to the education of the research engineers and scientists needed to maintain a strong national research establish- ment and to enhance industrial innovation. For this reason, the tendency to protect the federal and national laboratories at the expense of university research during budget reductions (see, for example, Office of Science and Technology Policy, 1983) must be resisted. The importance of this issue has been confirmed in many recent reports, including a series of studies by the Energy Research Advisory Board of the U.S. Department of Energy (1985~. Consideration might also be given to emulating more widely the Japanese process of "bottom-up" (or participative) planning of R&D, at least to the extent of gathering information and sift- ing through the various ideas, rather than allowing major policy decisions on R&D activities to be dictated by the most recent perturbation In the budgeting process. Although this kind of ac- tivity is already going on to some extent, it should be more widely and systematically adopted for energy, mineral, and environmental R&D planning. Trues Dete~n~ng the Health of Energy, Mineral, and Environmental Systems Research The health of engineering research in energy, mineral, and en- vironmental systems can be assessed by identifying the objectives
ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS ~- - - . 153 of that research and asking how well they are being achieved. In energy research, primary objectives are focused on improving the scientific and technical understanding of energy conversion pro- cesses in order to: develop a wider range of alternative energy resources, increase energy efficiency, lower costs, and reduce en- vironmental impacts and other hazards of energy use. Research objectives are similar with respect to mineral and environmental research: that is, greater cost-effectiveness and safety in extrac- tion and processing, better and less expensive means for controlling pollutants and reducing risks to the health of the environment (in- cluding human health), and a broader range of options. Secondary objectives in all three cases include the training of scientists and engineers to ensure a future resource base of skilled personnel. Given such goals, the general question to ask is, how well are we doing? Is there a healthy research environment leading to recognizable imp: ovements in these areas? Is new knowledge being generated and is it resulting in new and better processes for the utilization of energy and for the extraction and processing of domestic mineral resources? Is the supply of new talent enter- ing the field adequate to ensure its future vitality? With regard to environmental research, a key question is whether the current research climate is conducive to identifying and resolving the crit- ical environmental problems of our times- particularly man-made problems over which we have the greatest control. In addition, are we anticipating potential future problems and taking steps to address them? Is the level of research consistent with identified needs, and have recent historical trends been in the right direction? Clearly, it is much easier to pose these questions than to answer them definitively. A very wide range of activities are en- compassed by the areas under consideration here, and there is in- variably some degree of subjectivity in selecting specific measures for addressing them. ~ general, however, it ~ clear that engineer- ing research over the past several decades has been vital to the development of energy technology, mineral resource utilization, and improved environmental quality, and that the maintenance of a healthy and aggressive research environment continues to be a high priority for the continued well-being of the nation. Given this importance, our pTincipat concern is that a "Towing sense of complacency appears to be entering the national mood with respect to the importance of energy, mineral, and environmental research.
154 DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH Such a trend will, if sustained, have adverse consequences for our national economic development and well-being. The research areas of concern here are distinct from many others in that they deal to a large extent with matters of the public welfare. Thus, they demand a particularly strong govern- mental role in many facets of R&D. Although industrial and other private-sector support r~ important, the extent of government in- volvement must be considered a critical determinant of research "health. Federal agencies support research in these areas by providing funds to a variety of performers, including universities, federal ant! national laboratories, and private companies. Intra- mural research centers such as those operated by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the Depart- ments of Defense (DOD) and Energy (DOE) perform a significant amount of research in these fields. In addition, a substantial portion of the federally supported research in these areas is carried out by the national laborato- ries. These include, for example, the Argonne National Labora- tory, the Brookhaven National Laboratory, the E. O. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, the LincoIn Laboratory, the Los Alamos Na- tional Laboratory, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, the Sandia National Laboratories, ant] the Solar Energy Research Institute.* They are all involved in research on questions of energy generation, storage, and/or use and, as in the case of the intramural research centers active in these areas, receive their principal support from the DOD, DOE, and NASA. Improvement of existing fossil fuels and nuclear power systems is a common focus, along with the effort to develop alternative energy sources. Most of the laboratories also pursue some research on the mitigation of the environmental impacts due to energy generation through use of environmental control technology and on the tech- nologies that permit the development and conservation of water and energy resources. These programs of engineering research are for the most part reasonably well funded, and in content run the gamut from the very fundamental to the directly applied. *The panel received input from several of the national laboratories in response to the Engineering Research Boards request for information and suggestions (see Appendix). These responses were valuable in identifying pressing research needs.
ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 1,200 1'000 In As o 800 400 200 DOE Approprlatlons for Total Fossil Energy - A Current Dollars ~ \\ Constant\\\ 1 977 Dollars O i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1977 1978 1979 1980 155 1981 1982 1983 1984 YEAR FIGURE 1 Federal fossil energy appropriations peaked in the early 1980s and have since been sharply reduced. (SOURCE: National Research Council, 1984.) Current and comprehensive data regarding overall national support of research in energy, minerals, and the environment, both federal and private, are not readily available. Thus, it is difficult to generalize about the spread of research efforts across specific areas of research. However, federal agency funding statistics do offer a rough measure of relevant trends. FUNDING TRENDS ENERGY In the energy area, federal policy over the past 5 years has sought to shift applied research and demonstration projects to the private sector, focusing government activities solely on what are defined as ~Iong-term, high-risk, high potential payoff" projects. Figure 1 illustrates one example of the impact of this policy on funding. In general, nondefense R&D expenditures by the DOE have decreased significantly since 1980, with R&D on fossil fu- els, nuclear fission, energy conservation, and solar power being curtailed most sharply [National Research Council, 1984; Science, 1985~. Still-deeper cuts are slated for FY86, as seen in Table 1. Other fundamental engineering research in energy is sponsored
156 TABLE 1 Department of Energy R&D Trends DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH Budget ($millions, current year) Percent 1984 1985 1986 change, Category (actual) (est.) (est.) 1985-1986 Defense R&D (weapons) 1,380.1 1,810.1 1,868.2 3 Energy supply R&D 2,059.9 1,833.2 1,669.6 -9 Supporting research and technical analysis 342.4 446.9 426.6 -4 Magnetic fusion 469.1 434.0 390.0 -10 Nuclear fission 697.7 416.3 371.8 -11 Environment 229.4 230.9 228.3 -1 Solar power and other renewables 218.8 211.8 175.6 -17 Other 102.5 93.3 77.3 -17 General science and research 634.6 728.3 685.4 -6 Fossil R&D 342.4 347.1 242.7 -30 Conservation R&D 176.6 176.0 145.1 -18 Total 4,593.6 4,894.7 4,611.0 -6 SOURCE: Chemical and Engineering News, February 18, 1985, p. 14. by DOD and NSF; however, it is difficult to extract the needed energy-related information here as it is intertwined with other research areas. ENVIRONMENT In the environmental field, recent federal priorities for re- search have tended to focus on high-visibility problem areas such as toxic substances, hazardous waste disposal, and acid rain; other programs have been in decline. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), together with the National Oceanic and Atmm spheric Administration (NOAA) and DOE, are the major federal agencies involved in environmental R&D. There have been sum stantial reductions in EPA's research budget since 1979, in both current and constant dollars, as illustrated in Figure 2. Whereas a small upward trend over the past 2 years has at least accounted for inflation, the dollar amount is still below that of 1976 (when viewed in constant dollars), and less than half that of 1979. In ad- dition, funding for EPA's Exploratory Research Grant Program, initiated in 1980 to promote long-term fundamental research in universities, has been cut by more than 60 percent in actual current-year doBars from the peak year in 1981 (Table 2~; the
ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 157 drop in funding has been even more severe (about 70 percent) in constant dollars. A strong resurgence in 1985 seems to have been only an anomaly in the downward trend. As indicated in Table 1, environmental research within DOE was funded at a lower level in FY86 than in FY84 (although envi- ronmenta] research did not fare as badly as other components of DOE's research). Detailed data on environmental R&D programs in NOAA are not available, although some indication of the trend may be derived from that fact that NOAA expects to receive a 33 percent budget cut in 1986 R&D funding, including marine and atmospheric research programs (Science, 1985~. The NSF is also a source of federal research funds for envi- ronmenta] engineering. Under the new organization of the Engi- neerir~g Directorate at the NSF, funding for environmental engi- neering is provided within the Division for Fundamental Research 275 250 225 200 175 at o - 150 125 100 75 50 25 - /' Consent \ 1976 Dollars \ Current Dollars \\ - - - - _ O 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 YEAR FIGURE 2 Environmental Protection Agency obligations for research, FY76-FY85. (SOURCE: National Science Foundation, 1985.)
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ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS TABLE 3 Federal Obligations for Research in Metallurgy and Materials ($millions) Category of Research Annual Percent Year Basic Applied Total Changea Totalb 1982 155.9 153.2 309.1 1983 182.9 149.6 332.5 7.5 3.5 1984 194.9 151.5 346.4 4.2 0.0 1985 207.0 162.2 362.9 4.8 0.0 bCurrent-year dollars. Constant 1982 dollars. SOURCE: National Science Foundation (1985~. 159 in Emerging and Critical Engineering Systems. Funding from this source is proposed to be unchanged from FY85 to FY86, at ap- proximately $5.4 million. MINERAL RESOURCES The situation for funding in mineral resources research is mixed. Overall, there has been a gradual increase in federal funding for metallurgy and materials research, sufficient only to compensate for inflation (Table 3~. These figures reflect primarily research on the characterization, properties, and behavior of ma- terials, rather than on the extraction and processing of mineral resources. At NSF, with the reorganization of the Engineering Di- rectorate, minerals engineering research has been split into three programs under two of the new divisions. The focus has shifted from mineral extraction and processing per se, to the integration of minerals recovery with the overall cycle of materials processing and product fabrication. With this change, the pane! is concerned that needed fundamental engineering research on mineral recovery will not be receiving explicit enough attention in the context of this "big picture" treatment. It wiD take a great deal of coordination and planning on the part of the NSF to ensure that the "components (e.g., minerals) are not neglected. This is particularly unport ant in light of the fact that the Bureau of Mines' support of engineering research on
160 DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH mineral resources has declined sharply, from $71 million in FY82 to $53.7 million in FY84. OVERVIEW As Figure 3 illustrates, overall nondefense R&D support by the federal government has remained static in current dollars (decTin- ing in constant dollars) since 1980 (National Science Foundation, 1982~. Federally funded engineering research overall has fared about the same as total research, as indicated in Figure 4. Engi- neering research in general is on the rise in NSF, as evidenced by the NSF's budget proposal to increase engineering support from $150 million in FY85 to $170 million in FY86. However, as we have seen, research in most areas of energy, mineral, and environmental systems is experiencing constant or decreasing dollar support from year to year. It can be expected that only a small part of the decre- ment in federal sponsorship of energy, mineral, and environmental research will be made up by private industry and foundation sup- port. Privately supported engineering research projects tend to be highly focused and application~oriented, rather than basic or exploratory in nature. In this climate of greatly reduced real funding, there is in- creased competition for research funds, particularly between uni- versities and national laboratories. Survey responses from individ- uals and organizations throughout the country have pointed to the shortage of funds as a particular problem affecting the universities' mission to teach and train new students, as well as to carry out needed research. (See the Appendix.) Thus, as measured by recent trends in public spending, the outlook for the health of research on energy, minerals, and the environment is not promising. Given its already limited support, fundamental research is often cut to very low absolute levels when funding is reduced. Yet this is precisely the type of research that is necessary to build the knowledge base needed to address future problems in energy, minerals, and the environment. Although the pressure is off these areas now, they are sure to become critical again in the future. The time to devote resources to fundamental research is now, when the needs are not so immediately pressing. When the needs become critical, it is too late for research.
ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 55 50 45 40 35 In ~ an O "v - ._ m ~9 20 15 10 o 161 Total R&D / / Defense R&D/ 1 1 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 Year - - - - Nondefense R&D Source: Office of Management and Budget. FIGURE 3 Federal support of non-defense RED has been roughly level since 1980 (in current-year dollars). It has been slipping in constant dollars. Defense RED accounted for 48 percent of RED spending in 1966, 70 percent in 1986. HUMAN RESOURCES Evidence of decline is seen in statistics on the number of new people entering the field particularly new Ph.D.s, who represent the future of fundamental and applied engineering research. Rel- ative to the situation a decade ago, today's Glamor areas" are in computer science, electronics, and biotechnology, and it is toward these fields that younger engineering talent is strongly gravitating. Engineering in general ~ healthy, based on enrollments, but the energy, mineral, and environmental fields generally do not share that strong student interest. For example, whereas overall under- graduate enrollment in engineering increased by 16 percent from 1979 to 1984, civil engineering enrollment (a common training ground for entrants into environmental engineering) decreased 14 percent over the same period; environmental engineering majors dropped by 19 percent, and nuclear engineering enrollments fell
162 DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH a' - _ o C ~ o c - C CJ \' _ ~ o ~ 16 x 106 4 x 106 Total Engin~rlng Research / (all agency) Total Research (all agencies) 12X106 3X106 // / 8 x 106 2 x 106 // // 4 x 106 1 x 106 1967 1970 1975 1980 1985 FISCAL YEAR FIGURE 4 Federal funding for engineering research is keeping pace with total federal funding for research. (SOURCE: National Science Foundation, undated). 14 percent. Metallurgical and materials engineering enrollments increased 3 percent, but this was slight in comparison to over- all undergraduate engineering enrollment increases (Engineering Manpower Commission, 1985~. Similar trends are seen in graduate study for most of the sum ject fields. During the 1979-1984 period, overall graduate engi- neering enrollment increased 38 percent, but graduate enrollment
ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 163 in environmental engineering decreased 8 percent and in nuclear engineering by 7 percent. Given the lag in graduate enrollments compared to same-year undergraduate enrollments, the greater decrements in 1984 undergraduates by now are likely affecting graduate enrollments (although current data are not available as of this writing). Whereas the challenges to understanding and discovering means of solving new and complex issues in these areas remain, it is clear that reductions in research funding affect the trends for student enrollments and student quality in engineering; these effects are now being seen in the energy, mineral, and environ- mental systems areas. Student interest ant] research opportunities have already dwindled sharply in some areas, such as environ- mental and nuclear engineering. Diversity of training in technical fields, even in areas not currently accorded great importance by the market, is necessary in order to maintain our capacity to meet rapidly emerging needs. The nation will continue to need a cadre of highly qualified researchers in the fields of energy, minerals, and the environment. The decline in student interest underscores the importance of long-term stable research funding to counteract the negative signals given by the market. A stable research environment is es- sential to attract and train the best minds and talent in a given field, and to ensure its continued well-lbeing. As a nation we must constantly ask whether we are making sufficient intellectual invest- ments in key areas of energy, mineral, and environmental research to ensure the long-term integrity of these vital areas. It is in our best interest to do so. The first priority should be research support of the faculty and graduate studentsin universities with engineering school and colleges. This is the most cost-effective way to develop the needed knowledge bases, and is an important source of new ideas. These engineering faculties, given adequate support for research and for their graduate students, generate the highly educated individuals needed to protect and advance the national interest in these fields and to supply the skilled manpower needs of industry. Finally, the panel observes that the nature of many critical research problems in energy, minerals, and the environment in- creasingly demands a multidisciplinary perspective and approach to solutions. A problem such as acid rain, for example, may in- volve specialists from different fields of engineering, chemistry,
164 DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH physics, economics, forestry, and so on, whose joint efforts are needed to piece together an understanding of an environmental problem of this complexity. S~rnilar situations apply in the areas of energy and mineral resource utilization. Advances in materials science and engineering, for example, may permit progress along many fronts in all three areas. Thus, another determinant of the health and vitality of research in these areas is the extent to which funding mechanisms are in place to recognize and encourage mul- tidisciplinary research. Although the importance of this has been generally recognized, much more remains to be done to overcome organizational impediments to multidisciplinary research within re- search organizations (including the universitie~J, as well as within (and among} government agencies responsible for identifying and funding critical research. Research Opportunities The pane] was charged with identifying "important or emerg- ing research needs~ in the energy, mineral, and environmental fields. The research topics we have identified, which are presented in the following sections, represent a combination of these two cri- teria. Aid of the topics are important, for the reasons outlined, and all are emerging, In the sense of having not yet reached that plane of activity at which broad solutions to large problems are in view. Indeed, some research is currently being pursued in each of the areas selected; much more research is needed in all of them, how- ever, before the potential they represent can be realized. Given the dramatic declines in funding described in the previous section, our first concern is to safeguard the future of important fledgling research thrusts, rather than to propose entirely new programs. Where it seemed feasible to do so, we have suggested relative priorities of unportance among the various research topics iden- tified within each of the three main areas. There is no point in attempting to establish relative priorities across the three areas themselves, as they are quite disparate. It might be said, how- ever, that the time frames of the national needs associated with them differ. We would characterize energy and minerals research
ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 165 in general as being of longer term importance, whereas environ- mental research has applications that are of immediate indeed, urgentconcern. We would, however, emphasize that "longer term" does not mean that any of the research efforts described here can be postponed. The topics themselves are generally long term in nature, and now is the time to begin pursuing them in greater earnest. ENVIRONMENT The activities of a highly industrialized society inevitably re- sult in the generation of large quantities of "residuals or waste materials, some of which can be detrimental to the health of hu- mans and/or the environment. In order for society fully to enjoy the rewards of its accomplishments, the adverse impacts of its waste substances (liquids, solids, and gases) must be electively addressed. These effect are proving to be one of the most dif- ficult and costly problems facing the nation. In order to take better advantage of available technical opportunities and improve our productivity and competitiveness, adequate national resources must be directed toward solutions to current and emerging waste management problems. The most pressing waste management issue ~ that involving hazardous materials. Over the past 25-30 years, our awareness of this problem and its pervasiveness has continued to grow, as has our understanding of the widespread impacts of hazardous waste materials on human health and that of the environment. However, the nation ~ still far from developing adequate solu- tions, and new cases of serious environmental degradation appear almost daily. Two issues that are currently receiving widespread national and international attention are acid rain and groundwa- ter contarrunation. Both conditions derive from the introduction of waste materiab into the environment, and both have major adverse impacts on critical national resources. All manufacturing industries, inclu~ling high-technology as well an the chern~cal, electrical power, fuel, and mineral process- ing industries, contribute in a significant way to the widely felt damages from uncontrolled hazardous and toxic waste materials. Therefore, research directed toward the cost-effective alleviation of these environmental hazards wall have a direct impact on the
166 DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH health of U.S. industry as well as on society and the environment in general. Landfi~Is or perpetual storage are now the most common means used to manage hazardous waste; these practices are un- likely to be continued indefinitely, because constituents will very likely leak and migrate into the groundwater (National Research Council, 1983~. No single alternatives technique or method is presently available that can solve all of these problems. One im- portant practice is industrial process modification to reduce or eliminate the volume of specific hazardous wastes or to permit re- cycling and reuse of residual materials rather than throwing them away. Conversion techniques are also important. These include a wide variety of physical, chemical, and biological techniques, such as thermal processes, including incineration and pyrolysis, and bi- ological processes, which can convert haTmfu! organic chemicals into inorganic compounds that are haTmiess constituents of the en- vironment. In addition, the environment itself can assimilate a certain portion of the residual with little significant harm either to humans or to itself. Such ultunate methods of disposal are particularly attractive. Important opportunities in these areascombustion technol- ogy, biological processes, evaluation of the environment's assimila- tive capacity, and sensors and measurement methods for monitor- ing contaminants are discussed in the following subsections. COMBUSTION Combustion is an extremely important area for future re- search, as it has a direct impact on a wide variety of environmen- tal problems as wed as on energy conversion. Indeed, combustion offers perhaps the greatest opportunity for eliminating hazardous organic wastes, through conversion to harmless compounds such as carbon dioxide, water, ant} chlorides. Combustion often results in the formation of other products that escape as residuals into the environment; prominent examples of these products are oxides of nitrogen and sulfur from fuel combustion, and chlorinated dioxins formed from the combustion of solid wastes. Insufficient informa- tion is available on the complex transformations of chemicals that occur during combustion of mixtures. A much better fundamental understanding of the overall physics and chemistry is needed to help in the development of combustion technology for controlling
ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 167 environmental potintants. Advances in basic catalytic chemistry and in materials science and engineering will likely hold important keys to progress in combustion technology. MICROBIAL TRANSFORMATION A general characteristic of most of the hazardous organic chemicals that are of greatest concern for human and environmen- tal health is their resistance to natural processes of purification by which organic chemicals might be converted to harmless residues. Because they are not readily destroyed in the environment they can persist for years, or perhaps centuries, during which time they can be transported throughout the ecosystem to cause environmental damage on a broad scale. Examples are DDT and PCBs, which are now found in the tissue and fatty materials of most animals, even in remote locations. Others are halogenated solvents, such as 1,1,1-trichIoroethane and trichIoroethylene, which currently are among the most prevalent groundwater contaminants. Recombinant DNA methods might be used to develop strains of microoganisms with a broad-scale effectiveness In transform- ing environmental pollutants. In addition, recent studies have demonstrated that under proper environmental conditions, some species of microoganisms that are natural inhabitants of the soil can become adapted to the biotransformation of a wide range of hazardous chemicals. Such microorganisms might be exploited on a large scale to destroy contaminants in relatively dilute aqueous environments conditions that are not suitable for destruction through combustion. More complete basic knowledge is needed about the microoganisms, their physiology, biochemistry, and ecol- ogy, in order to more fully develop the biotechnology for transform- ing dilute hazardous waste. ASSIMILATIVE CAPACITY OF THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT Although the natural capacity of the environment to assimi- late hazardous chemicals ~ limited and can be easily overwhelmed, research directed toward understanding the movement, fate, and effects of chemicals in the environment is most important in de- veloping control strategies, identifying those areas of research that are likely to be fruitful, and assessing the ability of the env~ron- ment itself to deal safely untie contaminants. Indeed, biological and
168 DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH chemical processes used for contaminant control often mimic nat- ural processes; thus, what is learned about natural mechanisms can often be applied to produce the same transformations in a much more rapid, controlled, and cost-effective fashion. This area of research deserves a high level of research support. SENSORS AND MEASUREMENT METHODS Another research area that could lead to immediate and signif- icant progress in the control of hazardous waste materials is that of sensors for detecting and monitoring chemicals in the environ- ment. Appropriate methods of measurement must be developed as well. Control technology is severely limited by the inability to monitor continuously the efficiency and reliability of a process for removing contaminants. In addition, knowledge of the presence, movement, and fate of contaminants in ground- and surface water, soils, and the atmosphere is greatly hampered by the lack of in- struments to measure rapidly the broad range of contaminants of concern. Current and evolving technology is providing us with the potential to cIevelop sensors and analytical methods that could be used in a great variety of applications, from detection and monitoring to the control of environmental contarn~nants. The ability to gather better and more comprehensive information using sensors will require development of analytical modeling techniques that can both integrate this information and identify viable control strategies. Research in these areas could lead to major payoffs in environmental protection. ENERGY Energy R&D supported by the federal government should be directed toward achieving national energy goals and/or support- ing such national energy policies as are implicit in legislation, regulation, and national debate. As a rn~nimum, the fundamental objectives of energy research should be to ensure for the nation the following: an adequate and reliable supply of energy to support economic development, a diversity of energy sources to minimize undue dependence on any single source and reduce vulnerability to political embargo, and efficient and economic energy conversion systems that limit environmental impacts to acceptable levels.
ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 169 Any review of energy research opportunities can touch only a few key areas. The following are viewed as especially important areas for federal support of engineering research. ALTERNATIVE FOSSIL F UEL S OURCES AND TECHNOLOGY Coal is abundant in the continental United States and is a possible source of fuels and lubricants for transportation (applica- tions) in addition to direct use in furnaces and boilers. Liquefaction of coal aimed at transportation fuels; coal gasification to produce pipeline-quality methane or methanol as a possible engine fuel, or other chemicals; and coal beneficiation, to remove impurities prior to combustion all are important areas of research on coal utilization. Another alternative source of transportation fuels is oil shale, which is present in the western United States in large amounts. Extraction and processing of of! shale is a promising research area, and one that would benefit from continued research on mining, waste handling, grinding, and chemical processing. Finally, an aggressive and sustained program of basic and ap- plied research related to the direct utilization of coal for process heat and electric power production ~ clearly needed. The demonstra- tion of advanced concepts (e.g., pressurized fluid bed combustion) also should be pursued in conjunction with previously sponsored research efforts to ensure that promising options are effectively commercialized. SOLAR ENERGY Research on solar energy should be pursued vigorously because it is the only potentially large source of nonfossi] fuel energy other than nuclear energy. Research on photovoltaic devices aimed at higher efficiences over their useful life and lower manufacturing costs could result in their more extensive use as a replacement for fossil fuels. IMPROVED PETROLEUM PRODUCTION SYSTEMS With the advent in recent years of higher oil prices, more ex- pensive and efficient techniques for increasing recovery of petro- leum from known reservoirs "e being used. Water flooding; stream flooding of shallow fields; and injection of carbon dioxide, nitrogen,
170 DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH or gaseous combustion products are some of the techniques now in commercial use. Research on improving these techniques or on finding viable chemical treatments could result in recovery of more oil-in-place, and at lower cost. Related to this, there also is impor- tant research to be undertaken on understanding and Instigating the environmental impacts of of! production systems, including, for example, the assessment of groundwater contamination and the fate of injected water or chemicals. IMPROVING THE NUCLEAR OPTION Nuclear fission currently produces about 15 percent of the elec- tricity generated in the United States; however, no other plants beyond those under construction are expected for the remainder of the century. Research efforts that could improve the nuclear option include (1) continued efforts to improve our capacity to evaluate ac- curately the magnitude of potential accidents against which a plant must be designed, (29 development of plant designs that inherently mitigate against the adverse consequences of potential accidents, (~) development of decommissioning methods for nuclear plants, and (4) resolution of the nuclear waste disposal issue. Nuclear fusion may also become an option in the future, once the current technical barriers to it are explored and overcome. In the case of nuclear waste, partitioning of the actinides (Iong-lived heavy isotopes produced by neutron absorption) from the fission products, with subsequent burn-up of the actinides in nuclear power plants or fusion devices, could change the nature of the nuclear waste disposal problem by significantly decreasing the decay time of the residual waste and the nature of the containment process (Croff et al., 1980~. INTEGRATED ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL SYSTEMS Environmental control technology for fossil fuel power plants generally has been treated as an "add-on" to basic energy conver- sion systems, rather than as an integral part of the process design. As these systems have grown more numerous and complex, the need to consider air pollution, water pollution, and solid waste control systems as key components of energy conversion technol- ogy has become increasingly apparent. Development of advanced fossil energy technologies such as two-stage combustion, slagging
ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 171 burners, sorbent injection systems, and fluidized bed boilers (both atmospheric and pressurized), which incorporate environmental controls into the basic design of the plant represent important ar- eas of research, as does the development and integration of other precombustion, combustion, and postcombustion control technol- ogy. Research should focus on: (1) basic process mechanisms (e.g., combustion, multiphase transport, etc.~; (2) the engineering of process components; and (3) the optimization of overall sys- tem designs, to improve overall plant efficiency and reliability and reduce adverse multimedia (i.e., air, water, land) environmental impacts. EFFICIENT USE OF ENERGY Energy conservation and the efficient use of energy have re- ceived increased attention as energy costs have risen. Energy- intensive industries such as refineries, chemical plants, mines, and smelters have had a compelling incentive to increase the efficiency of their energy usage. Many of the improvements have come from operating changes, some from capital expenditures to in- stall more efficient equipment, and some from the introduction of advanced digital computer-based process control systems. Com- mercial buildings and houses also have reduced energy usage, pri- marily for heating and cooling. Sustained research supporting the development of more energy-efflcient utilization systems and de- vices for electricity (motors, control systems, heating and cooling systems, etc.), fossil fuels (engines, boilers, chemical processes, etc.), and solar energy is essential. Successful efforts in these areas will delay the need for constructing additional energy generating and production facilities, and may be more cost effective than constructing new facilities to increase the energy supply. FUEL QUALITY Economic conversion of low-grade or low-quality fuels (e.g., tar sands, refuse, and fossil fuels with high suIphur or metallic content) into electricity or other energy forms is very important for effective utilization of domestic reserves. Thermal energy con- version equipment (boilers, burners, gasifiers, etc.) capable of efficiently utilizing low-grade fuels also must be developed. These are essential components of any program to reduce dependence on
172 DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH foreign energy resources. An improved understanding of process mechanisms is particularly essential to progress in this area. EXTENDING PLANT LIFETIMES An important emerging area of energy-related engineering re- search is the issue of extending the lifetime and upgrading the per- formance and reliability of existing energy conversion and power generation facilities. In the face of increasingly higher costs for new facilities, there are strong incentives to seek ways of modi- fying, repowering, or upgrading existing plants with the goal of extending their useful lifetimes by 2~30 years (i.e., beyond the nominal historical lifetimes of about 35-45 years). Research is- sues are generally related to materials behavior, methods of boiler repowering, electrical and mechanical equipment reliability, and design of turbine generators and environmental control systems. In nuclear plants, the critical issue is the demonstration of anneal- ing to remove radiation-induced effects in certain key components, such as the pressure vessels, coolant piping, and control systems. A focused program of federal research, in conjunction with indus- trial support, could be important in providing basic and applied research support for many facets of this problem. ENERGY STORAGE Finally, improved energy storage systems (for electricity, syn- thetic gas, etc.) is another area in which innovative research is needed. Load-leveling through the use of storage systems could significantly delay the need to construct new energy facilities by increasing the utilization (Ioad factor) of existing facilities. Research on all of these subjects must address their technical and economic viability, while bringing full consideration to the need for acceptable ways to handle or satisfactorily mitigate their environmental impacts. In the case of certain technologies, pilot facilities must be built and operated to validate performance and costs, to establish a baseline of environmental impact data, and to demonstrate the successful mitigation of such impacts. There is an appropriate role here for federal participation (direct or indirect) to ensure that promising options are effectively brought to commercialization.
ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS MINERAL RESOURCES 173 Mineral resources have contributed significantly to the devel- opment of a strong industrial base in the United States. Common characteristics of the mineral deposits that are now being ex- ploited are that they lie deep in the ground, are low in grade, and are difficult to process. Challenges that the mineral industry in the United States wit! face in the future include finding new deep ore bodies and developing technology for the processing of increas- ingly low-quality, finely dispersed ores. Mining and processing of these ores will have to use energy efficiently and be accomplished within stringent environmental constraints. Most important, the technology has to be made more efficient than it currently is in order for domestic products to be econorn~cally competitive in the international market. Mineral resource recovery generally involves extracting the material out of the earth, cornminut~ng it to a size such that the mineral grains are liberated from each other, and then separating the valuable mineral particles from the waste rock. With complex, fine-grained ores, very fine particles that resist treatment are often produced. Better technology ~ required to improve size-reduction technologies, the processing of fine particles, and the disposal of wastes. In some cases, chemical treatment of complex ores may afford an opportunity to exploit them. In certain cases, in-situ methods can replace the ruining and the physical concentrating step altogether. Because existing mining and processing techniques are not fully adequate for exploiting many of our low-quality domestic re- serves, there is a great need to develop new techniques. Important opportunities in this regard are . the development of sensors and instrumentation for explo- ration, remote control mining, and metallurgical operations; . the continued development of computer-assisted design and systems analysis of the entire mining and extraction process; . the application of new technology based on photoelectro- chemical, colloidal, and biological processes for developing new concentration and effluent-treatment techniques; and . the development of a fundamental data base on the be- havior of rocks and minerals during fracture (mining or crushing), dissolution (solution mining and hydrometallurgy), and adsorb tion and flocculation (mineral beneficiation).
174 DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH S ENS ORS Research in the development of new geophysical methods- for example, electromagnetic sensing- should be undertaken to provide technology useful in exploring for ore bodies that lie sev- eral hundred feet below the surface. Development of sensors and remote control equipment for automatic mining is important both to enhance productivity and to reduce health and safety hazards. There is a similar need for sensors in computer control of all mineral processing operations, including grinding, classification, flotation, flocculation, and electrowinning. In addition, we need to develop a better understanding of the physicochemical behavior of particles, aggregates, and dissolved species of minerals as well as the impurities in process streams. Eventually, the domestic rn~neral industry may have to go to the ocean and its floor for many minerals; yet the technology for exploring, mining, and processing such deposits is far from established. A better understanding of the origin and localization of deposits should help in identifying the best sites for exploration, whether on the ocean floor or on land. SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND CONTROL Design and systems analysis of the entire mining and extrac- tion process to increase the overall efficiency of mining is equally important. It will be necessary to formulate quantitative descrip- tions of the operations used in mining and processing, with par- ticular attention to possible complex interactions between various operations on different scales. A major overall consequence of de- creasing ore grade has been an increase in the scale of mining and processing operations. However, scale-up principles are not yet adequately established. It is important to develop the required basis for scale-up as well as scale-down for process equipment. Such clevelopments should help increase the productivity of mines and mills. IN-SITU LEACHING AND BURNING On a larger scale, new opportunities exist with in-situ op- erations using leaching and burning techniques. In this regard, information needs to be developed on the geological structures
ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 175 involved, as well as the techniques for preparing the entire body to accept and use the leaching solutions. Methods to better delineate subsurface geological structures or underground fracturing of rock are required. An understanding of the flow of solutions through geological pores also needs to be developed so that possibilities for groundwater contamination can be estunated with sufficient reliability. COLLOIDAL AND BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES Leaching also holds great promise for the processing of very Tow-quality ores, particularly using microorganisms genetically en- gineered for increased efficiency and for higher toxicity tolerance. Interdisciplinary research is needed to derive information on the electrochemical and colloidal behavior of mineral fines and mi- croorga~isms in various media. Interaction among microbiologists, physical chemists, and mineral engineers should prove fruitful in this endeavor. A complete understanding of the surface and colloidal chemical interactions of fine particles in aqueous media containing various electrolytes, surfactants, and polymers is needed in order to utilize fully certain techniques based on selective aggregation that have emerged recently for the treatment of ultrafines. Selective floc- culation processes hold tremendous potential when followed by flotation, elutriation, and so on. Currently, however, applica- tion is limited to a couple of ore bodies and it has become clear that further development will depend on our understanding of all combinations of particle/particle/water/oil/gas interactions in the · . su omicron size range. SIZE REDUCTION METHODS Similar problems exist in developing efficient techniques for comminuting the mineral to the fine size range suitable for the abo~rementioned processes. The notoriously poor efficiency of com- munition processes in terms of energy consumption and indiscrim- inate intragranular fracture continues to be the most serious hin- drance for the effective processing of mineral raw materials. Here again, what is required is the development of an understanding of the microprocesses involved in the fracture of mineral grains and transport of the particles in the grinding and ciasmfication streams,
176 DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH along with an understanding of the manner in which these pros cesses are influenced by changes in the hydrodynamic and chemical properties of the environment around the particles. References Croff, A. G., J. O. Blomeke, and B. C. Finney. Actinide Partitioning- Transmutation Program, Final Report: One Overall Assessment. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, June 1980. Department of Energy. Guidelines for DOE Long-Term Civilian Research and Development Vols. (DOE/S-0046~. Report of the Energy Research Advisory Board, December 1985. Engineering Manpower Commission. Engineering Enrollments: 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1983. New York: American Association of Engineering Societies, 1984. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA Office of Exploratory Research Grant Program, bookkeeping data. Personal communication, 1985. National Research Council. Manapcmcnt of Hazardous Wastce: Research and Dcvelopmer~ Needs (NMAB-398~. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1983. National Research Council. Research Priorities for Advanced Fossil Energy Technologies. National Research Council, Energy Engineering Board, 1984. National Science Foundation. Science Indicators- 1982. Washington, DC: National Science Foundation, 1983. National Science Foundation. Federal Funds for Research and Development- Detailed Historical Tables: Fiscal Years 1955-1985. Division of Science Resources Studies. Washington, DC: National Science Foundation, undated. Norman, Colin. The science budget: A dose of austerity. Scicnec 227:72~728, 1985. Office of Science and Technology Policy. Report of the White House Science Council, Federal Laboratory Review Panel. Washington, DC: Office of Science and Technology Policy, 1983. Whittaker, R. Electricity: Lever on Industrial productivity. EPRI Journal 9~8~:1~14, 1984.
ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS Appendix Responses to the Engineering Research Board's Request for Assistance Mom Universities, Professional Societies, and Federal Agencies and Laboratories 177 Requests for assistance were sent by the Engineering Research Board to a number of universities, recipients of Presidential Young Investigator Awards, professional societies, federal agencies, and federal and national laboratories in order to obtain a broader view of engineering research opportunities, research policy needs, and the health of the research community. Some of the responses included comments on engineering research aspects of energy, re- sources, and the environment; these were reviewed by this panel to aid in its decision-making process. The pane} found the responses most helpful and wishes that it were possible to individually thank all those who took the time to make their views known. Because that Is not practical, we hope nevertheless that this small acknowI- edgment might convey our gratitude. Responses on aspects of energy, resources, and the environ- ment were received from individuals representing 44 different or- ganizations (Table A-1~: 21 universities (including 4 represented by recipients of NSF Presidential Young Investigator Awards), 9 professional organizations, and 14 federal agencies or federal and national laboratories. Some comments covered specific aspects of the panel's scope of activities, whereas others provided input on a variety of subjects. RESEARCH NEEDS Research needs that were recommended as being of high pri- ority are summarized in Table A-2. In the energy field, the single most frequently cited priority was for research on coal. Coal was recognized as a major energy resource within the United States, and one that is in need of much greater development. Almost all recommendations on this topic dealt with the environmental problems associated with sulfur and nitrogen in coal as it relates to acid rain, and emphasized the need for better ways to clean coal or to remove oxides of nitrogen and sulfur after coal combustion.
178 DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH TABLE A-1 Organizations Responding to Information Requests Relevant to Energy, Minerals, and Environmental Systems Research UNIVERSITIES Cornell University Duke University Northwestern University Princeton University Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Syracuse University Texas A&M University University of Arizona University of California, Davis University of California, Los Angeles University of Florida University of Georgia University of Hawaii University of IllinoisUrbana/ Champaign University of Michigan University of Minnesota University of Missouri, Columbia University of Pennsylvania University of Texas at Austin University of Utah University of Wisconsin PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS American Academy of Environmental Engineers American Chemical Society American Institute of Chemical Engineers American Society of Civil Engineers American Society of Mechanical Engineers Council for Chemical Research Institute of Industrial Engineers Society of Engineering Science, Inc. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. AGENCIES AND LABORATORIES Air Force Office of Scientific Research Argonne National Laboratory Brookhaven National Laboratory Jet Propulsion Laboratory E. O. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory NASA Ames Research Center NASA Goddard Space Flight Center NASA Langley Research Center NASA Lewis Research Center National Center for Atmospheric Research Oak Ridge National Laboratory Office of Naval Research Pittsburgh Energy Technology Center (DOE) Sandia National Laboratories
ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS TABLE A-2 Energy, Minerals, and Environmental Research Areas Most Frequently Cited by Responding Organizations Research Area Number of Organizations Citing Energy Coal E`ission and fusion Alternative sources Storage, transmission, efficiency Environmental tradeoffs Environment 12 10 16 14 13 Contaminant movement, fate, effects Hazardous waste control and management 9 Acid rain Groundwater contamination Water reuse, conservation Monitoring and sensors Combustion processes 27 11 12 13 11 15 179 Many comments concerned the need for more research on combus- tion technology, air cleaning processes, and the movement, fate, and effects of contaminants. Research on nuclear fission and fusion was recommended by several respondents as a major alternative to fossil fuels, consid- ering both the environmental problems associated with fossil fuels and the long-term problem of limited energy resources. Many respondents were concerned with the dependency of the United States on other nations for fuel, the ~rnpact it could have on indus- trial development, and related strategic problems. The need for a diverse energy supply was noted by many, with several recom- mending the development of alternative sources, including solar energy. For similar reasons, energy conservation, efficiency in en- ergy conversion, and better methods for storing and transporting energy were frequently mentioned. The majority of respondents noted that environmental con- cerns were associated with the development of most major forms of energy, and that energy development had to go hand-in-hand with
180 DIREC17ONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH safeguards against environmental deterioration. Consequently, re- search in environmental areas associated with energy development was frequently given high priority. Regarding engineering research on environmental questions, there was a general need expressed for more knowledge about the movement, fate, and effects of chemicals in the environment, including the air, land, and both surface and groundwater. Re- sponclents believed that this is an important avenue for research that will have significant impacts in all technological areas of de- velopment. Associated with this need was the need for research on hazardous waste control and management, and chemicals asso- ciated with acid rain and groundwater contarn~nation. A frequent recommendation was for research on combustion processes asso- ciated with burning coal, hazardous wastes, and other materials, as well as in vehicle transportation. The limited water resources in many areas of the country resulted in several recommendations for research on water reuse and conservation. In addition, many respondents expressed a need for better monitoring tools to track pollutants in the environment, and also for sensors that could be used to discover and track contaminants through treatment processes and in the environment. POLICY AND HEALTH ISSUES Whereas most of the responses addressed priority research needs, several respondents did reflect on policy issues. Concerns were frequently expressed about the recent decreases in funding for basic and long-term engineering research in both the energy and the environmental fields. In this regard, several respondents noted that the national laboratories are obtaining a greater share of the remaining funds, leaving the university research programs vulnerable and in a state of declining health. The significant ad- verse impact this would have on the important role of universities in educating research engineers needed for the future was pointed out a number of times. Some also believed the recently established NSF engineering research centers would lead to less funding being available to researchers at universities or in programs not linked to the centers. Also of concern were the fluctuations in research funding that make continuity of research programs difficult to sustain.
ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 181 Many of the research needs and issues of policy and health addressed by the respondents were similar to those noted by pane! members. The broadened perspective provided by the survey re- sponses was most beneficial In the panel's deliberations.
