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Information, Communication,
Computation, and Control Systems
Research in the United States:
An Overview
Executive Summary
In today's world, information is the key to a successful technol-
ogy-based society. The speed and effectiveness of information
communication, processing, and use are critical to the success or
failure—of our national economic enterprise. Entire industries,
such as banking, insurance, and law, have become dependent on
computer data bases. Airline ticketing offices and the stock ex-
changes can handle an enormous volume of transactions with the
use of modern information processing technology. Information,
communications, computation, and control (iC3) technologies are
also crucial elements of our national defense, both in its manage-
ment and its weapons systems. Because it is so pervasive, this area
of engineering can be considered basic to all others as the world
moves into the information age.
That pervasiveness means that iC3 technologies are now the
focus of intense competition among nations for technological lead-
ership and the domination of the enormous commercial markets.
Indeed, no battlefield in the struggle for international competitive
superiority in technology is as strategic as this one. It is an area
in which the United States has led the world, but in which we
are being severely challenged by foreign competition. Our eco-
nomic survival as the leading technological nation depends on our
performance in key areas of ~C3 technologies.
182
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IC3 SYSTEMS RESEARCH
183
At the center of these information-based technologies is the
concept of an "information system. An information system con-
sists of an input, at which information is gathered; a processing
section, at which computation takes place; and communication
of the information from input to processor and from processor
to a point of control, an output, or both. Such systems are ba-
sic to all intelligent processes. The engineering research problems
they represent have grown enormously as our ability to transmit
and process greater quantities of information per unit time has
increased, making possible orders-of-magnitude greater complex-
ity and productivity in every area of information processing and
control.
Information systems consist of hardware (i.e., sensors, actu-
ators, operating devices, and other subsystems in their physical
embodiments) and software (i.e., the set of instructions that gov-
ern system or subsystem operation). System design requires that
the functioning and interactions of both the hardware and the
software be understood, and that these elements be efficiently in-
tegrated and implemented. In general, the trend has been for
information processing hardware to decrease in size, weight, and
cost while becoming faster and more powerful. At the same time,
software has tended to become more complex. Although there has
been a rapid increase in the complexity and performance of hard-
ware over roughly the past two decades, our ability to design and
produce software has improved less rapidly. Greater productivity
in software development needs to be emphasized in our national
engineering research priorities, along with strong support for con-
tinued increases in hardware performance.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. The speed of electronic devices has increased, whereas size,
power dissipation, and cost have decreased dramatically over the
past two decades. We recommend that research into materials,
processing, circuits, and interconnection technologies for lC3 de-
vices and components be given high priority so that the nation can
maintain and strengthen its competence and leadership in these
areas.
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DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
2. The complexity of computer-based systems has increased
because of advances in technology and escalating end-user re-
quirements. Increasingly sophisticated architectures and operat-
ing systems are necessary to make such computer systems operate
effectively. We recommend that increasing the power of complex
systems and the productivity of software development for them be
set as national engineering priorities. This will require substantial
progress in architectures (especially distributed and parallel pro-
cessing), in the integration of software, in data base management,
and in large-scale communication networks.
3. The versatility and end-user friendliness of lC3 systems can
be greatly improved. We recommend increased attention to both
input devices (e.g., sensors, text and speech recognition transduc-
ers) and output devices (e.g., graphics displays, speech synthesiz-
ers, robotics manipulators) so that the true potential of advances
in IC3 can be realized by humans as well as by technological sys-
tems.
4. Government, industry, and universities should address the
inadequacies of present engineering research facilities and equip-
ment in universities, so that future practitioners and faculty in ~C3
technologies can be educated to fulfill a critical national need.
5. Universities should evaluate their organizational structures
and their reward systems so that more cross-disciplinary work can
flourish in both engineering research and teaching.
Introduction
No battlefield in the struggle for international competitive su-
periority is as strategic as that of information, communications,
computation, and control (DECO. These disciplines are at the root
of our national strength and health in most of the key components
of industry and national defense. Furthermore, they are areas
in which U.S. leadership is seriously challenged by international
competition, mainly from the Far East. We must exert our best
efforts to maintain high-technology leadership where we have it,
and to regain whatever leadership we have lost. This is a matter of
national urgency; the outcome of the competition is by no means
decided. If the United States is to remain economically, militarily,
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IC3 SYSTEMS RESEARCH
185
and politically strong, information has to be more quickly com-
municated to the point of decision and more quickly assirn~lated.
To accomplish that, the country must place a high priority on key
parts of these areas of engineering.
Each of the disciplines of ~C3 contains both a hardware tech-
nology component and a systems and software component. We
must have vital engineering research programs in each of these
areas. It is a fallacy to believe that we can emphasize either sector
and leave the other to the competition. Software and hardware
most strongly interact precisely at the leading edge of technol-
ogy development. That is where advances in one sector can be
capitalized on most rapidly by the other in the creation of new
capabilities and new systems.
The United States has been a world leader in integrated cir-
cuits and other aspects of hardware technology, as well as in soft-
ware systems design. It is of critical importance not only that we
continue to lead in these two areas, but also that we more effectively
integrate progress here. The panel notes that academia, which is
funded for research primarily by government agencies in these
areas, is not always able to find equipment and funds for some
types of research that are important to industry. For example,
bipolar integrated circuits are the foundation of most high-speed,
large-scale computers; however, metal oxide semiconductor-type
integrated circuits predominate in university research and teach-
ing. Matching that portion of university research that is directed
toward future national needs with a more clearly defined percep-
tion of what those needs are likely to be is a continuing challenge.
Finally, advances in ~C3 technology are crucial to several other
important areas of engineering. Manufacturing now depends on
robotics and automation, which in turn require a host of advances
in effective and reliable computation, communication, and control.
Engineering design of a vast range of key products and systems-
such as computer chips, automobiles, buildings, and industrial
processing depends critically on ~C3. Therefore, it is essential
that we consider the measures that can be taken to strengthen
engineering research in these areas.
Given the importance and impact of these technologies on
defense, in industry and commerce, and in the lives of individual
citizens, coupled with the strong research base that their advance-
ment requires, it is not surprising that government support and
policies play an important role in determining the pace and vigor
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DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
of research in these fields. Thus, in addition to identifying key
research needs, the pane} also examines federal policy toward re-
search in ~C3 technologies as well asthose policies that affect the
conduct of engineering research in general.
In a concluding section, special topics relating to the overall
health (both present and future) of research in these areas are
addressed. Particular attention is paid to the working environment
for university faculty in lC3 and to the adequacy, both quantitative
and qualitative, of graduating engineers who form the talent pool
for research.
Research Needs The Most Import ant
Areas of ~formation, Communications,
Computation, and Control
Systems Research
In view of the critical importance of research advances in this
field to our national competitiveness and security, this section of
the report is the primary focus of the panel's work. The pane!
considered more than 70 distinct research topics in the broad
categories of research encompassed by its scope of concern. In the
course of its evaluation, the pane! took into account the opinions
expressed by engineering deans and faculty, selected researchers,
and various professional engineering organizations in response to
a survey conducted! by the Engineering Research Board (see the
Appendix).
The results of this assessment are discussed in the following
pages. The discussion is organized In terms of (1) the hardware
and (2) the software and systems research needs associated with
~C3 technologies. It is important to bear in mind the point made
in the introduction: that hardware and software/algorithms in
~C3 are two indispensable sides of the same coin and must be
supported equally. Across the spectrum of engineering research
needs identified here, there is an urgency with respect to national
interests that must not be ignored.
A number of the identifiecl research topics reflect the panel's
perception that the use of information processing systems is often
Innited by the input of real-worId (i.e., analog) information into
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IC3 SYSTEMS RESEARCH
187
the systems, and by the output of information in a form that is
usable either for control or for human interpretation. Thus, input
and output devices ant] their associated software and algorithms
are a bottleneck in the full application of systems whose processing
capabilities have, at present, exceeded their general utility.
HARDWARE ELEMENTS
IC3 systems are constructed from hardware elements. Rapid
improvements in the function, density, and performance of these
hardware elements have been the driving force behind the revo-
Jution in electronics. Continued progress requires ever-increasing
sophistication in our ability to control the materials and processes
required for component fabrication. This is extraordinarily fertile
ground for the expansion of engineering research to solve problems
relating to international technological competitiveness.
The issue of how to achieve vastly improved manufacturing
techniques for the production of lC3 hardware, especially com-
puter and communications devices, is very important. A detailed
discussion of IC3-related manufacturing research needs is outside
the scope of this report. These issues are addressed in general in
the report of the Pane! on Manufacturing Systems Research of the
Engineering Research Board. Some of the issues specific to the
fabrication of computer devices are addressed in the report of the
board's Panel on Materials Systems Research. (Both reports are
in this volume.)
COMPUTER DEVICES
Several categories of devices underlie progress in computation;
these are integrated circuits, interconnection structures (so-called
~packaging"), and magnetic and optical storage. In addition, the
need for improved methodologies for testing these devices is be-
coming very pressing. Continued progress in theoretical and ex-
perimental research in each of these areas is vital to the future
health of the U.S. computer industry. (See also the discussion
of "Semiconducting and Magnetic Materials in the report of the
Panel on Materials Systems Research.)
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DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
Integrated Circuits
Progress in integrated circuits for computers takes place in two
principal directions: logic circuits and memory circuits. In the case
of memory, the principal thrust (as is well known) is increasing
density, as measured by the number of bits stored per chip. In
the case of logic chips, there are again two principal thrusts: high
performance, as measured by circuit switching speed, and high
density, as measured by total number of logic circuits per chip.
Very large-scale integration (VSLI) has been applied to mem-
ory and to logic circuitry. However, none of the very large-scale,
general-purpose computers, and few engineering-scientific super-
computers, rely on metal oxide semiconductor VESI for their crit-
ical circuitry. Instead, the hundreds of thousands of logic circuits
in these economically and scientifically important computers are
almost exclusively bipolar silicon logic circuits. These circuits are
much faster than microprocessors, although they are of substan-
tially lower circuit density, and are usually the best means for pro-
ducing the desired high performance. The continued improvement
and enhancement of bipolar silicon logic is of great significance to
the future well-being of U.S. computer technology. In the minds of
some, its significance wit' be as "Teat as the continued improvement
in VI S] memory and logic density, size, and performance. In both
VLSI and bipolar technologies there is substantial engineering re-
search to be done; however, the pane! notes the remarkably small
amount of attention given in universities to the technology that
Is fundamental to the present and future success of large-scare,
general-purpose and scientific computing, namely, silicon bipolar
devices, processes, and chips. International competition in this
area is very keen, with great strides being made in Japan.
Nigh-Density Structures and Fabrication
Two advances in semiconductor devices are critical to con-
tinued performance improvements of integrated circuit-based sys-
tems: (1J advances in submicrometer device structures and fabrica-
tion methods and (2) advances in three-dimensional (~-D) devices
and CiTCUits. Both of these research efforts seek to continue the
growth in complexity at the integrated-circuit chip level, while im-
proving speed and function. Both tasks pose substantial challenges
for industrial and university laboratories alike. The fabrication
of submicrometer structures requires special process equipment
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IC3 SYSTEMS RESEARCH
189
whose registration and resolution are capable of dimensions less
than the wavelength of visible light. Similarly, successful 3-D
structure processing* requires sophisticated equipment capable of
depositing defect-free materials.
Packaging and Interconnection Technology
Because large-scale, general-purpose and scientific computers
require so many high-performance, relatively low-density chips,
the "package" that interconnects their hundreds of signal and
power connections is of crucial importance to achieving desired
system performance. This desired performance involves fast signal
propagation, rapid heat removal, and highly reliable mechanical
and electrical interconnection with the next level of the packaging
hierarchy.
Improvements in signal delay, power dissipation, and parasitic
coupling all require more sophisticated technology than is now avait-
able. Although these have not traditionally been v dewed as techni-
cally interesting problems, their solution is essential to achieving
the highest possible system performance. Ceramic and polymer
engineering, thin-fiIm metallurgy, the mechanical properties of
composite structures, and optical interconnection are all relevant
disciplines here, and all are areas in which university research can
and should be vigorous. Novel approaches to package design are
of potentially high leverage, and much more innovation is needed.
Magnetic and Optical Storage
With regard to information storage media and devices, there
are a number of promising approaches that can increase storage
density by several orders of magnitude. For magnetic storage, both
vertical recording and signal encoding techniques offer significant
improvements over the current state of the art. Vertical recording
offers a means for packing magnetic transitions more densely;
signal encoding techniques offer a way of using those transitions to
store information more efficiently. Run-length coding is one form
of signal encoding in use today that achieves about two to three
times the storage capacity of unencoded data. Yet this gain is
small compared to what is theoretically achievable.
*3-D devices have circuit elements stacked vertically to conserve space
on a chip.
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DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
Optical storage technology has developed to the point that
it could potentially supplement magnetic storage for auxiliary
memory. However, erasing an] retrieval of store] information is
not possible for some optical storage devices, and for others it is far
slower and more costly today than for magnetic storage systems.
Research into optical storage may be able to eliminate these and
other drawbacks of the technology so as to create storage svatems
superior to magnetic storage.
As in many engineering research fields, the application of
computer-aided design (CAD) technology is crucial in improving
the productivity and quality of all forms of computer logic and
memory circuit design. Engineering research on new design tools
ant} methodologies has played and will continue to play a vital role
in this aspect of the technology.
. ~ ,
Hardware and Subsystem Testing
CAD is also of great potential value for testing devices and
subsystem assemblies. The chips and packages of present and
future computer systems are so complex that their testing and
simulation now consumes a large amount of time and adds sum
sta~tially to their cost. Even the methodology for economical
testing of large-scale logic chips and systems is poorly understood
and needs further work. Testing should be able to be accomplished
on three levels: (1) the design phase (i.e., is it a good design?), (2)
the chip-manufacturing phase (i.e., does each chip work?), and (3)
the in-operation phase (i.e., self-testing by the chip to ensure that
it is functioning correctly). New types of testing methods, such
as "contactless" Abeam and laser-assisted testing, are needed.
These methods will require considerable research.
COMMUNICATIONS
The devices and components that support communication also
offer substantial challenges to engineering research. Device re-
search for optical communication is a very important area, one in
which the Japanese are very strong and in which there is enormous
commercial potential. Devices that permit the switching of light
signals from one transmission channel to another are emerging
as an important area of research; this switching technology cur-
rently requires more attention than does the technology of optical
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IC3 SYSTEMS RESEARCH
191
transmission, which is being well researched. Research on devices
that efficiently transform electrical signals into optical signals,
and vice versa (i.e., lasers and detectors), is of great technological
importance in communications. Particularly promising materials
include both the ITI-V and IT-V! compound semiconductors. Im-
portant and novel structures include superIattices and quantum
wells, in which a strong interaction between optical and electrical
signals can be obtained.
In order to build the all-optical communications systems of
the future, a number of devices familiar in radio will need to be in-
vented in the optical domain. Such optoelectronic devices include
amplifiers, filters, isolators, multiplexers, and switches. These op-
tical "plumbing" building blocks will enable the implementation
of multichannel communication systems similar to those found in
radio transmission, except that the capacities of the optical sys-
tems will be enormously greater than their radio counterparts.
After these optical devices have evolved, still another generation
of development and research waif be required to integrate them
onto rn~crochips in the manner in which electronic circuitry Is now
produced.
SENSORS FOR CONTROL OF SYSTEMS
A great deal of progress has been made in general computa-
tion; however, not enough progress has been made in getting infor-
mation to the computer. The hardware elements that gather data
are sensors. These input devices translate temperature, move-
ment, thickness, flow, and many other physical parameters into
electrical signals that may be used in communication, computa-
tion, and control applications for example, in automation of the
total manufacturing process. There is a great need for improved
sensitivity, linearity, resolution, wavelength response, and degree of
miniaturization and integration of sensors, as well as for sensors
for parameters not now amenable to sensing (e.g., gas phase chem-
ical composition or the fidelity of a manufactured part to desired
specifications). We note, moreover, that real-t~me control is de-
pendent on the ability to rapidly and accurately sense process and
control variables, so that in certain applications it is the sensor
and/or actuator technology that is limiting further progress. The
development of sensors is important for improving control of large
systems in which the placement, location, and number of sensors
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DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
is a critical matter. Thus, research on sensors and actuators is
greatly needed.
SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE, ALGORITHMS,
AND SOFTWARE
The foregoing discussion dealt with hardware-oriented re-
search needs in IC3. To make those devices and components
functional that is, to give functionality to the systems in which
they are embedded requires corresponding advances in systems
architecture, algorithms, and software. Indeed, many of the most
difficult problems today in the IC3 field are in designing special
computer architectures, in producing enormously large and com-
plex software programs, and in evolving efficient computational
algorithms for problems of overwhelming size.
COMMUNICATIONS
Many U.S. researchers are now working on problems in the
communication field. However, certain problems still require high-
priority attention. For example, one of the largest software efforts
in coming decades will be the development of a system underlying
the national communication network. This network will eventually
overlay the current telephone network with a fiber-optics-based
network combining voice, data, and video transmission. The ma-
jority of transmissions will be in a digital format. Switching will be
accomplished by the time-interchange of bits within transmitted
data streams, and by the routing and storage of packets of infor-
mation containing address headers. The need for traffic and flow
analysis of these streams of packets, and for efficient and reliable
protocols to manage the interchange of data, has grown in recent
years.
As long-haul communications have become more and more
efficient, much of the research interest has turned toward the bot-
tIenecks in local distribution and collection. Networks of users
(generally computer terminals) within the area of a building, a
campus, or an industrial complex require methodologies for shar-
ing a broadband medium such as a coaxial cable or fiber. Such
a network is known as a local area network. On the next higher
level, the breakup of the Bell System and the evolution of a range
of choices for communications access have led to increased interest
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Recommendations
The essential character of university research in maintaining
OUT leadership in high-technology industry, coupled uoith the high
cost of adequate facilities and staff, requires cooperative initiatives
to Upgrade the facilities, capital equipment, and salaries of univer-
sity faculty and research staff. These initiatives, if they are to be
sustained;, must provide direct benefits to industrial sponsors white
retaining freedom of research and of publication by the universities.
We commend the federal and state initiatives for establishing
research centers. These research centers should complement, and
not replace, investigator-initiated research.
The Health of the Field: An Assessment
THE HEALTH OF THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
In this section we examine the health of the educational system
in the iC3 field. A primary focus is on the quality of life of uni-
versity faculty in this field. Other important topics discussed are
the status of equipment and facilities, and the cross-disciplinary
research approach.
We also examine the adequacy of new talent, in terms of both
quality and quantity at all levels (B.S., M.S., and Ph.D.~. In
particular, we comment on the continuing need to retain foreign
Ph.D.s both in industry and academia.
FACULTY
For a variety of reasons, the working environment for univer-
sity faculty in virtually every engineering discipline has declined
sharply in recent years. In those disciplines most closely associated
with the lC3 field, key issues include
high student-to-faculty ratios;
diminished ability to attract new faculty (especially recent
Ph.D.s);
salary levels;
adequacy of research and teaching equipment;
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DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
limited funds for new facilities; and
the difficulty of attracting and keeping research staff.
Despite the enormous growth in enrollments, there has been
no comparable increase in the number of the faculty members
in these departments. Neither is the imbalance likely to correct
itself. The growing rate at which high-technology products are
propagated into our society argues for a continuing demand for
electrical engineering and computer science graduates in the next
decade, so that student demand for these courses of study is likely
to remain high. Partly because electrical engineering and com-
puter science departments have been unable to fill empty faculty
slots, and partly to ensure a reasonable balance in enrollments
within the engineering school, many universities have had to limit
enrollments in those departments (to about one-third of total en-
gineering enrollment in most cases). As a result, many qualified
students wishing to major in this vital field must be turned away.
This pressure of students wishing to major in computer science
may be lessening, but it is offset by students in different fields who
wish to acquire a deeper knowledge about computing.
At the same time, the attractiveness of opportunities in indus-
try has reduced the number of students seeking the doctorate, as
well as the number of new Ph.D.s interested in academic positions.
This reduction has made it difficult to recruit the additional faculty
needed to lighten the teaching and supervision load. The Institute
of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE [19854) reports that
openings in this field now exceed several hundred, and many more
new openings would certainly appear if the existing ones were
filled. The situation has tended to be exacerbated further by the
departure of mid-career faculty to industry. According to a recent
Office of Technology Assessment (1985) study, the rate of outflow
of faculty in computer science is twice that of any other engineer-
ing field. Clearly, many are leaving to join new entrepreneurial
companies bringing the latest research advances to market in the
form of high-tech products. (Recent downturns in the computer
industry are probably stemming the outflow, however.)
The pane] believes that TV- and computer-based instructional
resources, used imaginatively, can reduce some of the pressure on
faculty by providing an alternative way to present undergraduate
engineering students with high-quality instruction. Educational
technology could be particularly applicable in beginning courses
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IC3 SYSTEMS RESEARCH
207
with large enrollments. With or without the greater application of
educational technology, there will still be a need for more teaching
assistants to leverage the efforts of faculty in electrical engineering
and computer science departments.
Industry/academ~a salary differentials have been a major con-
tributor to the faculty shortage problem. Recognizing that fact,
state legislatures and university administrators have made a de-
termined effort to increase starting salaries for new faculty in
these disciplines so that they might compare more favorably with
starting salaries for Ph.D.s in industry. At some institutions, this
corrective measure has created a serious compression of the salary
structure although this is by no means a universal problem. In
general, electrical engineering/computer science faculty salaries
are improving and are somet~rnes very competitive. Indeed, panel
members from prestigious companies report that their organiza-
tions have, on occasion, found it difficult to match university offers
to their high-level research employees. In addition, consulting sum
stantially augments faculty income at all levels especially in IC3.
Increasingly, the main problem is not industry/academia salary
differentials for Ph.D.s, but simply the unattractiveness of pursu-
ing a Ph.D. given the strong appeal to B.S. graduates of jobs in
these fast-moving fields in industry.
Recommendations
University administrators should continue granting competitive
salaries to faculties in electrical engineering and computer science
departments. Attention must be paid to the salary structure of
mid-career and senior faculty as well as to that of junior faculty.
A new program of faculty fellowships should be instituted by
industry and/or the federal government. Such fellowships should
not require the preparation of lengthy proposals or reports. They
would give faculty members flexibility in their research that is not
presently available. The Presidential Young Investigator Awards
program is one example of this kind of support; more such sup-
port is needed, especially for more senior faculty members. These
programs would be especially useful in the case of well-established
researchers who wish to shift the focus of their research, perhaps
to new areas of inquiry in which results would not be immediately
produced. The number of fellowships available for this purpose
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DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
would be small (a few percent of the total); but they would offer
established researchers an opportunity to "break out of the mold."
With regard to educational technology, the pane] supports
the recommendation of the Committee on the Education and
Utilization of the Engineer (CEUE [National Research Council,
19854) namely, "These tools should be applied as rapidly and as
fully as practicable in all academic programs in such a way as to
enhance the quality of engineering education. Engineering schools
should be encouraged to create programs for development of edu-
cational technology by faculty, with shared institutional, industry,
and government funding.
EQu~PMENT AND FACILITIES
Much attention has recently been paid by industry and govern-
ment to the problem of obsolete research and teaching equipment
in colleges and schools of engineering (especially in undergraduate
labs). The cost to modernize this equipment has been estunated
to be $1.2-$2 billion and growing (Haddad, 1983~. The most se-
vere problem is in those areas in which technology is advancing
the fastest that is, electrical engineering and computer science.
Companies have been generously responsive to this problem. For
example, in 1983 IBM and Digital Equipment Corporation to-
gether donated $50 million in equipment to MIT. In the same
year, Hewlett-Packard donated some $22 million to universities,
mostly in the form of equipment. Apple Computer, Inc., has do-
nated more than $21 million in personal computers to schools at
ah levels. Other contributions have been made by Wang, IBM,
NCR Corporation, and Honeywell.
Despite this assistance, however, the problem remains enor-
mous; and it is a moving target. Adding to the situation is the
fact that gifts of equipment do not involve funding for maintenance
and other operating costs which can greatly exceed a university's
budget for overhead expenses of this type. Advanced electronic
equipment, no matter how current and valuable, is useless if it
cannot be operated and adequately maintained.
The state of buildings and laboratory space so-called Bricks
and mortar" is a related problem for engineering departments
generally. Because the federal government essentially eliminated
support for construction of facilities in the 1960s, physical plants
have deteriorated alarmingly. This problem is especially acute
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in lC3, because the rapid changes in the field cause facilities to
become obsolete very quickly.
Because the state of the art in lC3 equipment changes so
fast, universities face an additional problem relating to their cost
accounting practices. For determining indirect costs, they use a
different depreciation schedule from the accelerated depreciation
currently used by industry. Equipment is depreciated over 16 23
years and capital equipment over such long periods, universities
encounter a financial problem in the renewal of advanced equip-
ment for research.
Recommendation
A tong-term program for support of both equipment and facil-
ities is urgently needed). The pane! strongly supports the recom-
mendation of the Committee on the Education and Utilization of
the Engineer in this regaTd that is, industry, academia, and the
professional societies need to join forces in promoting legislation
wherever necessary to facilitate gifts of laboratory equipment to cot-
leges of engineering. In the special case of Cricks and mortar,"
the federal government and industry should be prepared to match
those funds raised for this purpose by state governments or from
philanthropic sources.
In addition, universities and the government should change
their cost accounting practices to repect the faster real depreciation
of equipment in the rapidly changing IC3fietd. Depreciation should
be over S-7 years in the case of equipment, and 15-80 years in the
case of buildings.
CROSS-DISCIPLINARY RESEARCH
The inclusion of research on IC3 systems within the purview of
a single panel suggests the heavily interdisciplinary nature of this
field. Like other areas of engineering research that are currently
acquiring great economic and technological importance, work in
lC3 systems cuts across traditional disciplinary boundaries. Yet
the requirement for cross-disciplinary approaches to research and
teaching runs counter to the established structures and practices of
most university engineering departments, which have long empha-
sized specialization. By the same token, cros~disciplinary research
is not easily encompassed within the traditional academic depart-
ment structure or the reward system for university faculty. These
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DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
problems impede the needed transition to new modes of research
and practice in the nation's schools and industries.
Interdepartmental laboratories are a very useful organiza-
tional mechanism within universities for dealing with research
problems that span several departments or disciplines (e.g., VESI,
robotics, manufacturing). One key to their success is the use
of directors who are able to devote a substantial part of their
time to management. Another great advantage is the presence of
research staff members. The attractiveness of university life to
these research staff members has been greatly reduced by many of
the problems described earlier, in particular those of salaries and
equipment. In addition, the status of these personnel within the
university community is a matter for concern. Unlike the faculty
members, they do not vote in university councils; nor are they
a part of the academic policymaking process. Thus, they are to
a great extent isolated from university life. As a result of these
problems, they have recently been leaving universities in great
numbers.
Recommendation
Universities must evaluate both their organizational and reward
structures to permit the cross-disciplinary approach to Nourish, in
research as well as in teaching. In addition, university admin-
istrators must improve the salary structure for interdepartmental
laboratory research staff and devise other mechanisms for inte-
grating them into university affairs and otherwise improving their
overall morale.
HUMAN RESOURCES: ADEQUACY OF NEW TALENT
THE B.S. AND M.S.
Students entering the disciplines associated with IC3 include
many of the very best students attending universities. Enrollment
limitations in force at many institutions have raised the high-
school grade point averages and Scholastic Aptitude Test scores of
majors in electrical engineering and computer science to the high-
est levels in memory (Horgan, 19843. The number of graduates
in these disciplines at the B.S. and M.S. levels is at an all-time
high and apparently still growing, despite signs of a downturn in
engineering enrollments generally. There are now some reports of
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IC3 SYSTEMS RESEARCH
211
declining demand for engineers even for those in the information
and computer fields, in which growth has been phenomenal for a
number of years (e.g., Inside RED, 1985; Office of Technology As-
sessment, 1985~. However, the pane! believes that although there
may be fluctuations, demand for these graduates will continue to
grow for the next 5-10 years. Model-based projections tend to
confirm this expectation (see, for example, Vanski, 1984~.
THE PH.D.
As we discussed earlier, a major reason for the current faculty
shortage in this field is the shortage of new Ph.D.s. Although it has
increased slightly in the past 2 years, the number of engineering
doctorates is not substantially greater than it was in the late 1960s,
and is, in fact, considerably below the level of the early 1970s. The
number of Ph.D.s earned in computer science has remained level,
at roughly 20~250 per year over the past decade, whereas the
number in computer-relatecI areas of electrical engineering, for
example, has been no higher than that.
The quality of these doctorates is high; but their number is
clearly insufficient- especially in ~hot" areas such as artificial in-
telligence, CAD, robotics, VEST, computer architecture, graphics,
and computer systems. The need for doctorates in these fields will
not abate in the next decade. As noted earlier, computers and
electronics are permeating all aspects of life and work; ~C3 Will
continue to be research-intensive. In addition, whether the supply
of B.S. ant] M.S. graduates comes into balance with demand or
not, many more Ph.D.s will be needed to staff university faculties.
The number of Ph.D.s could be increased greatly if more
women sought doctorates in engineering. More to the point, the
overall quality of engineers and engineering education could be
raised if more women participated, bringing a new source of highly
talented people into practice and teaching. {C3 does not seem to
attract a large share of the women who do enter engineering, how-
ever, and most of those who are in ~C3 are involved in software.
The difficulty seems to be traceable to the early grades, in which
a difference can be seen between boys and girls in the relative
appeal of mathematics, laboratory exercises, and even the use of
computers. It IS difficult to say what could be done to entice more
women into advanced study in iC3. Women involved in research
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DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
in both academia and industry can help by actively communicat-
ing its excitement to their qualified female students and younger
colleagues and by encouraging them to follow this path.
The pane] notes that, among Ph.D. students currently study-
ing at American universities, the proportion of foreign-born stu-
dents on temporary visas to American-born students has risen
sharply in recent years, to more than 40 percent (National Re-
search Council, 1985~. It must be said, however, that these
foreign-born students have provided many of the new young fac-
ulty members who are in such short supply; some 25 percent of all
junior faculty in engineering are reported to have taken the B.S.
at foreign schools (Office of Technology Assessment, 1985~.
Foreign-born graduates are also extremely valuable in U.S.
industry a point that is often overlooked. It is frequently found
that a large proportion of the engineering employees in the most
advanced areas of R&D are foreign born. Training them in this
country is thus a goof! investment. This access to some of the
rest of the worId's best talent gives the United States an edge in
international competition an edge the Japanese, for example, do
not have. To discourage these people from staying (or, even more
so, from coming) would reverse that advantage.
The long-term health of lC3 in the United States requires a
substantial increase in the number of Ph.D.s who can stay in the
country to enter academia and industry. Attitudes toward doctoral
study must change. The leading B.S. and M.S. graduates must be
able to weigh the advantages of a Ph.D. against the alternatives
and decide that it is worthwhile to pursue a doctorate.
Recommendation
More students must be induced to pursue the Ph.D. To that
end, the pane! recommends that more substantial fellowships foe
offered to American doctoral candidates, with a stipend equiva-
lent to one-half the starting salary of an entry-level B.S. engi-
neer in industry. In particular, the pane! commends initiatives
by Hewlett-Packard and the American Electronic Association to
award fellowships containing loans that are forgiven if the recipient
remains in academia as a professor. Some quid pro quo in these
fellowships might be useful; that is, requiring periods of work,
reporting, or some other form of accountability in order to build a
sense of responsibility in the recipients.
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IC3 SYSTEMS RESEARCH
References
213
Farber, D. Information Systems Engineering Perspectives. Paper presented
at a National Science Foundation Workshop on Opportunities for En-
gineering Research Focused on Emerging Engineering Systems, 15 July
1985.
Haddad, J. A. Key issues in U.S. engineering education. The Bridge 13~2~:11-
16, 1983.
Horgan, J. Technology '84 education. IEEE Spectrum 21:94-96, 1984.
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc. An IEEE Opinion on
Research Needs in Information and Computing Technology. Report
of an IEEE Task Force to the Engineering Research Board Panel
on Information, Communication, Computation, and Control Systems
Research, February 1985.
Inside ROD, 14~6) :XXX, 1985. Editorial.
National Research Council. Engineering Education and Practice in the United
States: Foundations of Our Tcchno-Economic Future. Washington, DC:
National Academy Press, 1985.
National Science Foundation. Scicnec Indicators: 1982. Washington, DC:
National Science Foundation, 1983.
Office of Technology Assessment. Information Technology ROD: Critical Agenda
and Induce (OTA-CIT-268~. Washington, DC: Office of Technology As-
sessment, February 1985.
Vanski, J. Projected labor market balance in engineering and computer
specialty occupations: 1982-1987. In: Labor Market Conditions for Engi-
necra: Is There a Shortage? Proceedings of a Symposium. Washington, DC:
National Academy Press, 1984.
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DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
Appendix
Responses to the Engmeermg Research
Board's Request for Assistance Tom
Universities, Professional Societies, and
Federal Agencies and Laboratories
Requests for assistance were sent by the Engineering Research
Board to a number of universities, recipients of Presidential Young
Investigator awards, professional societies, and federal agencies
and laboratories in order to obtain a broader view of engineering
research opportunities, research policy needs, and the health of the
research community. Some of the responses included comments on
engineering research aspects of lC3 systems research; these were
reviewed by this panel to aid in its decision-making process. The
pane! found the responses to be most helpful and wishes that it
were possible to individually thank all those who took the time
to make their views known. Because that is not practical, we
hope nevertheless that this small acknowledgment might convey
our gratitude.
Responses on aspects of IC3 systems research were received
from individuals representing 53 different organizations, listed in
Table A-1: 29 universities (including 11 represented by recipients
of NSF Presidential Young Investigator Awards), 9 professional
organizations, and 15 federal agencies or laboratories. Some com-
ments coverer! specific aspects of the panel's scope of activities
whereas others provided input on a variety of subjects.
Although most of the responses addressed priority research
needs, several respondents did reflect on policy issues. Many of
the research needs and issues of policy and health addressed by the
respondents were similar to those noted by pane! members. The
broadened perspective provided by the responses to the survey
was most beneficial in the panel's deliberations.
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IC3 SYSTEMS RESEARCH
TABLE A-1 Organizations Responding to Information Requests Relevant to
Information, Communication, Computation, and Control Systems Research
215
UNIVERSITIES
California Institute of Technology
Carnegie-Mellon University
Clarkson University
Lehigh University
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
North Carolina State University
Oregon State University
Oregon Graduate Center
Princeton University
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Texas A&M University
University of Arizona
University of California, Berkeley
University of California, Davis
University of California, Los Angeles
University of Colorado
University of Georgia
University of Hawaii
University of Illinois—Urbana/
Champaign
University of Iowa
University of Kansas
University of Maryland
University of Michigan
University of Oklahoma
University of Pennsylvania
University of Rochester
University of Texas at Austin
University of Utah
Washington University
PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
Association for Computing Machinery
American Institute of Aeronautics
and Astronautics
American Institute of Chemical
Engineers
American Society of Civil Engineers
American Society of Mechanical
Engineers
Industrial Research Institute
Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers, Inc.
Institute of Industrial Engineers
Society of Engineering Science, Inc.
AGENCIES AND LABORATORIES
Air Force Institute of Technology
Air Force Office of Scientific Research
Argonne National Laboratory
Army Research Office
Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory
NASA Ames Research Center
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory
NASA Lewis Research Center
NASA Langley Research Center
National Center for Atmospheric
Research
Nava! Research Laboratory
Office of Naval Research
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Sandia National Laboratory
.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
fundamental engineering
