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OCR for page 239
Materials Systems Research
in the United States:
An Overview
Executive Summed
Leadership in the materials field is essential to compete suc-
cessfully in areas of both conventional and high technology. Thus,
the economic well-being and security of the United States require
that actions be taken to ensure world leadership in the devel-
opment of materials systems that can meet the demands of a
technology-intensive future.
This report describes the results of a study conducted by the
Engineering Research Board's Panel on Materials Systems Re-
search.* The study encompassed identification of the important
classes of materials, emerging areas for future research, and the
national climate and infrastructure governing the conduct of ma-
terials systems research.
In the United States the science of materials has developed
into a recognized discipline with its own group of practitioners,
facilities, societies, meetings, and publications. Large amounts of
money are spent on basic scientific research in the materials field.
*We use the term "materials systems to denote advanced materials re-
quiring highly tailored design and specialized processing. "Materials systems
research refers to the closely interlinked science and engineering research
that underlies the development of these complex systems.
239
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DIRECTIONS IN ENGINrEERING RESEARCH
The result is a greatly increased understanding of the relationship
between the structure and properties of materials. However, we
have failed to place a comparable emphasis on research directed
at the application of this knowledge. Because of the economic
importance of those applications, that shortcoming has placed
the nation at considerable risk. Other countries have spent com-
paratively little on expensive basic scientific research, and have
concentrated their effort instead on the relatively inexpensive en-
gineering research needed to bridge the gap between pure science
and applications. Thus, they have been able to capitalize econom-
ically on the scientific knowledge for which we have paid a high
price. By comparison, our ability to put fundamental knowledge
to work in order to devise optimal designs for the processing of
materials remains seriously inadequate. We are suffering the con-
sequences in terms of declining international competitiveness not
only in the mineral, metal, automobile, and textile industries, but
now across an even broader spectrum of manufacturing.
If this trend is to be reversed, we must make at least as
much use of our basic material science as others `do. That will
require a focused and interdisciplinary effort on materials systems
research comparable to the investments made earlier in materials
science. We must attend not only to specific materials with special
characteristics important for our economic well-being and for our
national defense, but also to activities important to more than
one specific material. Thus, among the conclusions reached in the
report the following seven are particularly important:
1. We must increase the emphasis on engineering research in:
advanced ceramics;
semiconducting materials;
magnetic materials;
polymers;
high-performance composites;
performance-driven metallic materials; and
biomaterials.
2. There must be a recognition, through special research pro-
grams, of the importance of the following subjects that are generic
to materials research as a whole:
· processing;
durability and lifetime prediction;
tribology (friction, lubrication, and wear);
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MATERIALS SYSTEMS
241
computer modeling; and
. materials property data base.
3. Research on materials systems—especially research di-
rected at the engineering application of basic knowledge and the
processing of materials is seriously underfunded relative to the
opportunities and potential benefits that current basic knowledge
presents. Engineering research on problems in this area would
produce knowledge of immediate economic importance, but its po-
tential cannot be adequately tapped without substantially greater
federal funding for such research.
4. Expenditures on the order of $150 million are required
for materials processing research facilities of various kinds. This
amount could purchase roughly a dozen each of facilities for re-
search on composites processing, semiconductor processing, and
molecular beam epitaxy or organometallic chemical vapor deposi-
tion.
5. Individual-investigator, single-discipline research must con-
tinue to be nourished even as we provide a better climate and
facilities for multidisciplinary approaches to materials systems re-
search.
6. The stability of federal agency funding policies is vital if
we are to obtain the maximum benefit from the modest support
for fundamental engineering research and if we are to ensure the
needed continuity of valuable research programs.
Introduction and Background
INTRODUCTION
THE NEED
As a result of dramatic technological advancements in many
fields over the past two decades, the discovery and development
of new materials has become a national imperative not only for
the United States, but also for our major foreign competitors
and adversaries. To give just one example, the United States
is now engaged in fierce international competition to maintain
our supremacy in electronics, the loss of which to the Japanese
or others might be a more serious blow to national productivity
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DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
and security than were the earlier setbacks in the automobile and
steel industries. Electronic materials are a key element in this
competition. Without the continued development of a leading
position in semiconductor materials and fabrication technology,
the United States will not even have the opportunity to compete
in the information and computer fields (see, for example: General
Accounting Once, 1985~.
Materials are equally fundamental to many other commercial
areas in which our econorn~c fortunes are at stake. They constitute
a "gateway" technology; that is, advances in materials open up a
cascade of new possibilities in other technologies. A few examples
from the past, such as plastics, semiconductors, and the whole
range of useful metal alloys, suggest how sweeping the impact of
new materials can be.
SCOPE OF THE REPORT
Materials systems research involves the development of new
materials and the ~rnprovement of existing materials for appli-
cation in a wide range of advanced engineering systems. The
term "materials systems" recognizes the complex interrelation-
ships among structure, properties, processing, performance, and
reliability when viewed in the context of an engineering appli-
cation. It encompasses the activities of materials science and
engineering, which are "concerned with the generation and ap-
plication of knowledge relating the composition, structure, and
processing of materials to their properties and uses" (National
Research Council, 1974~.
In examining the engineering research opportunities and is-
sues associated with materials systems, the pane! addressed topics
related to the availability, application, and fundamental under-
standing of present and future engineering materials such as met-
als, ceramics, polymers, composites, sern~conductors, magnetic
and biomaterials. In addition, the pane] addressed questions im-
portant to the overall health of the materials field, including policy,
research funcling, and human resources issues.
BACKGROUND
At the outset, it is important to emphasize that the field of
materials science and engineering has undergone a fundamental
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MATERIALS SYSTEMS
243
and dramatic change over the past two decades. As characterized
by William Baker and Morris Cohen in the 1974 COSMAT report
of the National Academy of Sciences, the central element of this
change has been the emergence of the science- of the solid state
as a field of major importance in the latter half of the twentieth
century. Also contributing to this change has been the joining of
technologies from the ancient fields of metallurgy and ceramics
with the more recent fields of synthetic polymers (e.g., rubbers,
plastics, and fibers) and modified bioorganic substances. In order
to stimulate the exchange of ideas among experts in these fields
and to accelerate the development of new materials, the Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) of the Department
of Defense (DOD) established several interdisciplinary laboratories
in materials sciences and engineering at major American universi-
ties over two decades ago. These Materials Research Laboratories,
with the continuing support of the National Science Foundation
(NSF), have had a significant influence in unifying the subfields of
materials science at universities over the past 20 years.
Perhaps the most dramatic change has been a stronger sys-
tems orientation in the materials research community at large.
Instead of the formerly dominant focus on structure-property
relationships (i.e., understanding how structure controls specific
material properties), a greater integration of design, performance,
and processing requirements with materials properties and mi-
crostructures has occurred. As a result, a more rational tailoring
of final microstructures to specific applications has been achieved.
Materials themselves can now be designed (within limits) to fit the
desired use. A dramatic example is seen in large-scale integrated
circuits, in which, in addition to the circuit elements, materials
structures and transport properties are intricately integrated. The
ability to tailor applications to the properties of new materials has
also given new degrees of freedom to the product designer- "direct
replacements is not the only option.
In commercializing the new developments in materials, a
higher order of functional integration, involving still more dis-
ciplinary groupings, has been necessary. New requirements for
materials performance and reliability have emerged not only from
society's gradual shift from a consumption to a conservation ori-
entation, but also from world competitive forces that increasingly
place high market premiums on quality, reliability, and low oper-
ating and maintenance costs over the product's expected lifetime.
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DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
The additional requirements for greater productivity, man-
ufacturability, and profitability have demanded a broader tech-
nology base and detailed attention to a number of new technical
considerations. For example, productivity gains and cost advan-
tages have been achieved by some American manufacturers by
tailoring their processes to an optimal equipment design rather
than by insisting on customized equipment to accommodate an
optimal process design. Advances in quantitative nondestructive
evaluation have not only facilitated in-process inspection but have
also sometimes led to viable rework and recycling strategies for
high-value materials and components.
These advances have been further spurred by the advent of
computer-aided design and manufacturing, which have presented
the design engineer with new flexibilities for patterns of materials
use, as well as opportunities for design optimization based on
new materials or improvements of existing materials. Artificial
intelligence-based systems are emerging to improve the quality
of decision modeling and to reduce human error in production,
inspection, and testing activities.
New and improved materials have a vital effect on the na-
tion's welfare. The ability to maintain a competitive edge in
most engineering technologies depends on the development of am
propriate materials. Ceramics and coatings for use in adiabatic
diesel engines, advanced gas turbines, Stirling engines, and fuel
cells are pacing the rate of development of those systems; inter-
national competition is fierce (see, for example: U.S. Department
of Commerce, 1984; National Research Council, 1986a). Com-
posite materials are the key to developing lighter, stronger a~r-
frames and ground vehicles. Near net-shape processing combined
with advanced nondestructive evaluation methods and automated
process control are leading to cheaper and more reliable struc-
tures. New materials can contribute (along with construction de-
sign and codes) to upgrading the nation's infrastructure of roads,
bridges, railroads, and buildings through their characteristics of
high strength, low weight, and resistance to harsh environments.
Emerging requirements in manufacturing, computation, en-
ergy development, and defense are all based on the greater com-
plexity of technologies; these higher requirements will not be re-
aTized without new materials. Therefore, it ~ essential to the
nation's general welfare that a strong national materials technol-
ogy base be maintainer!. In addition, the bright young talent and
.
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MATERIALS SYSTEMS
245
scientific discoveries needed to advance this technology base must
be nurtured through support of university education and research
in materials science and engineering.
Especially linport ant or
Emerging Areas of
Materials Systems Research
RATIONALE FOR SELECTION
Out of the enormous range of possibilities that materials sys-
tems research represents, it seems almost presumptuous to identify
a few "especially important or emerging research areas. It is the
very pervasiveness of materials throughout a large fraction of en-
gineering that has caused the field of materials research to be
fragmented, duplicative, and difficult to codify. Despite these im-
pediments, we believe that the exercise of identifying important
areas for future research can actually have a unifying result, as we
shall point out next.
Out of the large number of valid candidates for research em-
phasis, we have selected those that appear particularly promising
in terms of three criteria: (1) a present or perceived future market
for the ultimate products of that research; (2) a current state of
the underlying science such that an advance of appropriate magni-
tude appears realistic; and (3) a sense of national priority for the
product. Given those criteria, we can list the high-priority areas
that, in our opinion, are especially well positioned for immediate
and intensive engineering research.
EMERGING RESEARCH AREAS
Seven classes of materials that lead to specific end uses need
the focused attention of the engineering research community. A
failure to focus that attention will prevent the nation from realizing
the potential for commercialization of products emanating from a
science base in which it has long held a position at or near the
forefront.
With no ranking implied, the seven product-specific materials
research areas are
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DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
1. advanced ceramics;
2. semiconducting materials;
3. magnetic n~aterials;
4. polymers;
5. high-performance composites;
6. performance-driven metallic materials; and
7. biomaterials.
The pane! strongly believes that there should be a greater uni-
fication of effort in materials systems research. This integration
can be accomplished by recognizing that it is wasteful and dan-
gerous to neglect areas of research that transcend specific product
or application lines. These five "generic" research areas, ranked in
order of importance for progress in materials, are
1. processing (including sensor research);
2. durability and lifetime prediction;
3. tribology;
computer modeling; and
materials property data base.
The remainder of this section is devoted to a discussion of
these research areas.
MATERIALS FOR SPECIFIC END USES
Advanced ceramics
Advanced ceramics are a rapidly evolving class of materials
whose usefulness is based on their ability to fill both functional
and structural roles. They can be tailored to have combinations
of electrical, mechanical, and chemical properties that make them
essential and irreplaceable in many new engineering applications.
Functional roles include (1) semiconductor device components
such as coupling capacitors and substrates, optical communica-
tion waveguides, optoelectronic modulators and demodulators,
magnetic components, and sensors and transducers; and (2) uses
in chemical processes for separations and catalysis. Structural
roles include service as load-carrying and wear-resistant compo-
nents, especially in circumstances requiring corrosion resistance
and high-temperature service.
Ceramic materials (like other advanced materials) are a "gate-
way" technology; rather than being an end in themselves, they
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MATERIALS SYSTEMS
247
open up new potentials in other technologies, thereby achieving
high degrees of leverage. The competitive performance of many
devices and large systems depends on ceramic components that
may make up only a small but vital part of the total. The fact
that many ceramics involve nonstrategic or nonimported materials
is another factor in their attractiveness.
Electronic ceramics are a large family of crystalline and glassy
materials serving as dielectric, semiconducting, magnetic, and op-
tical materials and components. Current limitations in both the
performance of devices and the growth of the field as a whole are
in many cases due to insufficient research on the actual ceramic
materials or components.
The impetus for the development of structural ceramics and
ceramic composites has been the promise of higher efficiencies
through the use of ceramics in heat engines. There are, however,
many other applications, both military and civilian, for struc-
tural ceramics that take advantage of their good specific strength
(strength-to-density ratio), specific stiffness, hardness, and wear
and corrosion resistance. Ceramics present special requirements
for successful applications under high stress because they charac-
teristically undergo brittle failure. Extreme control of processing
to minimize flaw size is required, which presents a special challenge
for large parts and complex shapes.
Areas of advanced ceramics more closely allied to process
technology than to ceramics per se may play additional func-
tional roles. For example, improved control over pore structure
has opened up new routes for selective catalysis, as well as novel
separations based on selective adsorption. New classes of zeolites
offer promise as shape-selective catalysts for reactions heretofore
limited to a small scale with homogeneous catalysts or biological
systems. One example is a new catalyst used for selective iso-
merization of xylenes. [n addition, the combination of ceramic
materials with organometallic complexes is leading to a new class
of catalysts with the selectivity of homogeneous catalysts and the
robustness of heterogeneous catalysts.
Despite the great diversity of applications for ceramics, a
few common technical themes stand out. In almost all cases one
is dealing with the behavior of materials near interfaces. Thus
one may be concerned with tnin-fiIm coatings to provide proper
wear resistance for ceramics, or with the behavior of coatings and
layer structures that in turn determine the behavior of ceramics
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DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
for functional applications (e.g., electronics or catalysis) and other
aspects of surface modification. Whenever one is faced with joining
ceramics, the preparation and properties of surface layers are, of
course, critical. These questions of interface behavior may apply
either at a near-atomic level (e.g., in assemblies of components for
microcircuitry) or on the bulk scale (e.g., in the manufacture of
large monoliths).
There is an urgent need to learn how to optimize collections
of properties simultaneously rather than a single property at a
time. Because of the dependence of all of these properties on the
fundamental constitution of a given material, there is also the
need to develop predictive methods that are rooted in a basic
understanding of material behavior.
Ceramic processing is in a state of rapid change. This change
is clue to improvements in the predominant technology based on
powder processing and to new chemical routes that combine or by-
pass some of the traditional steps. Ceramic processing increasingly
needs to be studied as a system extending from the raw material
to the finished product, with product design requirements taken
into account by the processor and processing limitations taken into
account by the designer.
Semiconducting Material
Over the past three decades, no single field of science or engi-
neering has had a greater impact on the national productivity and
quality of life in the United States than has semiconductor mi-
croelectronics. Semiconductors have revolutionized the communi-
cation, entertainment, and transportation industries, and created
the computer industry. Further advances that will have profound
consequences are possible through the development of optoelec-
tronics and lightwave technology.
There must be an increased emphasis on materials for use
in aclvanced generations of computers, optical storage elements,
and high data rate transmission and processing, because these
new materials may be critical for specialized applications involving
high-speed processing, optoelectronics, and resistance to radiation.
The following discussion summarizes briefly some of the most
important areas of research on semiconducting materials.
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MATERIALS SYSTEMS
249
Material for Optoelectronic and Microwave Devices Materi-
als for these uses, such as the binary compounds gallium arsenide
(GaAs) and indium phosphide (InP) must be improved in conduct-
ing and semi-insulating forms, and grown in large (at least 3-in.
diameter), single-crystal ingots. Specific research areas needing
emphasis are
.
.
.
Improved growth methods need to be developed for semi-
~nsulating GaAs and InP ingots. This effort will require better
modeling of the growth techniques.
. A determination of the necessary technology for produc-
ing ultra-flat polished GaAs wafers should be pursued. All as-
pects of wafer preparation should be included. Modern struc-
tural/analytical techniques should be extensively used to assess
wafer quality.
Compound Semiconductor Helerostructures This is one of
the most promising new materials technologies that has emerged
in recent years. It offers a high probability for truly revolution-
ary discoveries. In the area of optoelectronics, for example, ITI-V
quantum-well heterostructures and superiattices promise to have a
profound effect. With the advent of advanced crystal growth tech-
niques such as molecular beam epitaxy and organometallic chem-
ical vapor deposition, radically new structures have become avail-
able, with profound device applications. For the first time, crystals
can be synthesized layer by layer to yield entirely new compositions
of matter. Such structures, typified by superIattices, metastable
films, and complex multimaterial/multilayer sandwiches, are fre-
quently called artificially structured materials. In many cases these
structures possess unusual properties that offer promise for future
electronic and optoelectronic devices. Considerable research in
crystal growth, characterization of layers and interfaces, carrier
transport, and processing methods will be required.
Silicon Silicon is still the basic, largest-volume semiconduc-
tor material. Despite our considerable experience with it, many
problem areas still need research attention. In addition to im-
proving the art of crystalline growth generally, there are also more
specialized needs. For example, high-purity, floating-zone sili-
con serves a segment of the device market in which compositional
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DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARON
number coming from science disciplines such as physics and chem-
istry. As in other fields of engineering, attractive salaries in indus-
try draw many of the most talented students into the workforce at
the B.S. level, so that relatively few continue on toward a Ph.D.
and research. Materials researchers must have strong backgrounds
in both science and engineering. Thus, one disincentive for many
top students is the substantial time and effort involved in pursuing
a doctoral program in this field.
Because of the wide range of knowledge ant] skills required for
success in materials research, materials science and engineering
students tend to be very broad in their background and inter-
ests. Indeed, some enter the materials field through double-major
programs in conjunction with mechanical, aerospace, or other en-
gineering majors. Students who pursue advanced study tend to
proceed entirely through the Ph.D. program and to do produc-
tive work. However, it is generally apparent to faculty members
that the best students are not choosing to enter materials pro-
grarns, with the exception of certain well-publicized fields such
as electronic materials. It is difficult to compete with fields such
as computer science and bioengineering, which receive more fa-
vorable press than does materials science and engineering. There
is an image problem to be overcome in attracting the brightest
students at both the undergraduate and graduate levels.
Certainly one positive note is the influx of women into the
materials field in recent years. Indeed, the rise in the percent-
age of female students is the largest in any engineering discipline.
Women now make up about 14 percent of all graduate students
in materials and metallurgy (the closest relevant category) (En-
gineering Manpower Commission, 1985a). At some schools the
percentage of women is even higher 17 percent at MIT, for ex-
ample (Engineering Manpower Commission, 1985b, 1986~. These
women seem to perform well in materials graduate programs and
as researchers.
A continuing dilemma in materials research is the high per-
centage of non-U.S. citizens who are enrolled. Often these students
are superbly qualified from a technical standpoint, but are not able
to provide the level of interaction with faculty, graduate students,
and undergraduate students that leads to a healthy discipline.
After receiving an advanced degree, these foreign students often,
for economic or political reasons, return to their homeland. As a
result, we frequently train personnel who in turn are at the leading
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MATERIALS SYSTEMS
271
edge of technology in countries with which we are, or will be, in
direct economic competition.
ISSUES OF SUPPLY AND DEMAND
General Concerns
The output of materials science and engineering graduates is
adequate on average but inadequate at times of peak industrial
expansion. A central problem is the cyclical nature of the demand
and the long lead time in the university's response to changes in
the demand for engineers from a particular discipline or specialty
area. In particular, the longevity of tenured faculty appointments
leads to inertia in the ability to change emphasis within a disci-
pline. (This is also true in other rapidly developing fields besides
materials.) As a result, university administrators are cautious
when responding to the call from industry to increase the degree-
granting capacity of or shift the emphasis of a program relative
to a current "hot" discipline or area such as electronic materials.
This cautious attitude has been legitimized in recent years by a
growing tendency of employers to treat engineers (in research as
well as applications) more like a commodity than a resource.
If there is to be a better match of supply and `demand, positive
action must be taken. First, an improved method for forecasting
the need for engineering graduates at all degree levels must be
developed. Second, longer term commitments by employers are
needed. Third, some methods for protecting universities against
the Downside are required. The resources to implement this
protection should come from industry, but probably will have to
be provided by government before any real prospect of achieving
a better balance between supply and demand is to be achieved.
Graduate Degrees
The supply of M.S. and Ph.D. graduates in the materials field
is, as is suggested earlier, quite low. Even in the burgeoning field of
ceramics, for example, annual degree production nationally in 1984
was 87 at the M.S. level and 18 at the Ph.D. level (Engineering
Manpower Commission, 1985~. Ceramics is the only specialty of
materials for which data on degree production are readily available.
In the broader field of materials and metallurgical engineering,
in the same year there were 578 M.S. and 241 Ph.D. graduates
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DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
nationwide. It is not possible to determine how many of these
students were specialized in the advanced materials systems areas
addressed in this report.
The balance between supply and demand for those with ad-
vanced degrees in materials research appears to vary considerably
across specialties. Whereas the demand for Ph.D.s in electronic
materials and related fields is very strong, the hiring needs in some
other fields are static or declining. For example, virtually all M.S.
and Ph.D. graduates in ceramics are hired to fill positions related
to electronic and structural ceramics, rather than those related to
conventional ceramics.
The pane! believes that the growing dependence of the na-
tion's economy on new materials ensures a long-term increase in
demand for doctoral-level researchers in every area of the materi-
als field, for both industry and academe. Therefore, it is necessary
to take steps that will encourage more of the brightest undergrad-
uate students to enter graduate programs in material science.
Students should be counseled on the advantages of graduate edu-
cation in materials, particularly regarding the Ph.D. as an entree
to a research career. Undergraduate students in relevant disci-
plines should be exposed to materials engineering research. At
universities with strong graduate programs this could be done by
offering undergraduates (especially entering freshmen) opportuni-
ties for part-time and/or summer employment in such programs,
and by organizing undergraduate thesis programs.
A large pool of potential talent also exists at smaller schools
unable to offer such opportunities. Undergraduate seminars should
be given at these schools by academic and industrial researchers
to acquaint students with materials systems research fields. In
addition, summer jobs in industrial and academic research centers
should be made available to interested students. Federal and in-
dustrial funding ought to be provided to support these recruitment
activities.
Because a lack of awareness of the materials field is a large
factor in restricting the supply of graduates, the pane! believes
that efforts to increase students' interest should be made as early
as possible in the educational experience. Therefore, the existence,
importance, and challenge of materials systems research as a disci-
pline should also be communicated to high school students. Steps
should be taken to ensure that the materials field catches the in-
terest of young women as well as young men. Possible mechanisms
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MATERIALS SYSTEMS
273
to do this include industry sponsorship of engineering fairs (analo-
gous to science fairs); production of suitable video or film programs
by professional societies; and tours of academic, government, and
industrial laboratories engaged in materials research.
ADEQUACY OF GRADUATE PROGRAMS
This section deals with two factors perceived to be at the heart
of quality graduate programs in materials, namely, new programs
and the adequacy of the faculty.
DEVELOPMENT OF NEW PROGRAMS
There are relatively few established formal graduate programs
in materials. In ceramics, for example, only 10 schools produce
any advanced degrees at all, and only one program is accredited at
the master's level (Engineering Manpower Commission, 1985a). In
composites there are five formal graduate programs; in polymers
there are even fewer programs. New programs are needed in the
materials field to meet the emerging demand.
For new graduate programs to be most elective, they should
generally be specialized. Such programs should expect to build
on a student's strong grounding in fundamentals, and should fo-
cus their resources on achieving quality education in a single area
such as composites or ceramics. In any field of engineering the
development of a high-quality, broad-based program takes con-
siderable time and requires extensive resources. It seems unlikely
that many new broad-based programs will be able to compete
with established programs for full-time graduate students, espe-
cially in coming years, when there will likely be fewer students.
Without an adequate supply of full-time graduate students, strong
research programs of the type that characterize the great research
universities in the United States cannot develop.
There is probably adequate overall capacity in universities to
conduct materials research, at least in a time-averaged sense, but
sheer research capacity is not the sole motivation for developing
new programs. In fact, the development of new programs in engi-
neering is motivated as much by the need for graduate education-
especially part-time programs—as it is by research needs. That
driver seems to be closely tied to the shifting geographic locations
of the "market." This is especially true in the case of part-time
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DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
graduate study, in which case the university program must be
near the workplace to enable part-time students to commute from
school to work. In many cases, the new locations of industry are
not near well-established universities; thus, there is a tendency
for new programs to develop at regional universities and colleges.
The deceptive aspect of this is the time required for these new pro-
grams to achieve adequate academic stature. If the employers in
the new location recognize the need for new technology, then this
"quality issue becomes a major barrier to acceptance of the de-
veloping programs. That is, employers who recruit bachelor-level
engineers from the best schools in the country find that these peo-
ple have little interest in continuing their education on a part-time
basis at institutions of distinctly lower stature than those at which
they studied as undergraduates. Thus, whereas the development
of some new programs is inevitable, it may be more productive for
the existing established institutions to work harder at delivering
part-time graduate programs off-site using such means as visiting
faculty, teleconferencing, or videotaped instruction. There are a
number of prototype off-site programs that could be mentioned
in this context. The degree of success that these programs have
achieved is as variable as their formats.
Therefore, the need for programs offering part-time graduate
study in materials in areas where high-tech industries are locating
can best be served by established, first-rank institutions offering
such programs off-site.
.
ADEQUACY OF THE FACULTY
In the major existing programs the supply of faculty is gener-
ally adequate, with the possible exception of new directions within
these programs. Two examples of such directions are advanced ce-
ramics and electronic materials. Even in the few institutions in
which these relatively new activities began and are now expand-
ing, there are not enough faculty. Moreover, those new faculty
that are available come from only a few schools, so that a degree
of inbreeding inevitably occurs. (Here, programs of postdoctoral
research abroad offer some opportunity for ~cross-fertilization~;
France and West Germany in particular have attractive university
research programs.) Similar problems also occur in other emerg-
ing areas of materials research. There are probably fewer than
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MATERIALS SYSTEMS
TABLE 2 Materials Processing Faculty in the U.S., by Speciality
275
1978 1984
Speciality No. Percent No. Percent
Casting/solidification 22 32 16 17
Deformation processing 15 22 18 20
Design/systems 4 6 10 11
Powder metallurgy 13 19 14 15
Welding 14 21 16 17
Ceramic processing O O 10 11
Polymer processing 0 0 8 9
Total 68 92
PA different and probably more reliable census yielded numbers of 28 and 36
in this category for 1978 and 1984, respectively.
Source: American Society for Metals, 1985.
40 full-time-equivalent faculty involved in composites research, for
example.
Table 2 shows a recent estimate of the specialization of all
U.S. faculty in materials processing (American Society for Metals,
1985~. The absolute numbers cannot be assumed to be accurate
(see, for example, the notation regarding ceramic processing), but
their magnitudes and relative figures are probably reasonable.
One sees that even in this currently much-emphasized field, the
overall numbers are still quite small, and that the fields showing
high relative growth rates are in highly publicized speciality areas
within materials science.
There is some concern about the loss of faculty to industry,
especially in shots areas. This has become less troublesome since
universities began to realize that they must offer more competitive
salaries. However, improvements have been most marked in the
first-rate schools; qualified faculty members are still leaving many
institutions for better paying industrial jobs. To help alleviate
these problems, industry should be encouraged to support the
entry of new graduates into acacleme. The "forgiveable loans
program for graduate students sponsored by General Electric is
an example of such encouragement. In this program, loans of up to
$5,000 are made to Ph.D. candidates, and repayment is forgiven if
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DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
on graduating the student pursues an academic career for at least
4 years.
It is particularly hard for developing institutions to compete
for high-quality faculty, both on the basis of the environment they
can provide (facilities, colleagues, etc.) and on the basis of salary.
Therefore, in general it is probably true that quality is a bigger
problem than quantity in these programs. In the most competitive
areas of materials specialization, it may be difficult for emerging
programs to compete for any of the limited number of qualified
faculty candidates. In these areas, both quality and quantity are
a problem.
New Ph.D.s are especially hard for universities to recruit.
There are many disincentives that a recent Ph.D. graduate must
face as a new faculty member. Some candidates are uncertain
about widely publicized issues such as "publish or perish," ob-
taining research support, and the promotion and tenure decision
processes. The NSF's Presidential Young Investigator Awards help
somewhat to ease the question of research support, even though
the required industrial matching money has been difficult to oW
fain in many instances. In addition, it appears that university
administrators are beginning to recognize the need to provide a
transition period for young faculty to adjust to the spectrum of ac-
tivities they must learn to deal with simultaneously. The bottom
line is that outstanding young faculty can adjust to the university
climate ancI thrive. The ones who have succeeded serve as role
models for others and are a source of encouragement. Programs
that have no such role models often find it harder to present a
convincing case for their environment being "penetrable." These
programs may have more difficulty recruiting young faculty.
Continuing efforts should be made by universities to improve
the attractiveness of academic life for entry-levelfaculty, especially
in emerging or high-priority areas such as electronic materials,
advanced ceramics, and processing. The Presidential Young Inves-
tigator Awards or comparable long-term research grants represent
one effective mechanism for doing this. Government and indus-
try should both be willing to fund this type of grant in targeted
specialized areas.
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A~4TERIALS SYSTEMS
References
277
American Society for Metals. Mctallurgy/Matcr~als Education Ycar6001c. Metals
Park, OH: American Society for Metals, 1985.
Committee on Materials. Inventory of Federal Materials Research and Tech-
nology: FY82. Federal Coordinating Council for Science, Engineering,
and Technology. Washington, DC: Office of Science and Technology
Policy, June 1983.
Engineering Manpower Commission. Engineering and Technology Degrees,
1984. Part III: By Curriculum. Engineering Manpower Commission of
the American Association of Engineering Societies, Inc., 1985a.
Engineering Manpower Commission. Engineering and Technology Degrees,
1984. Part II: Minorities. Engineering Manpower Commission of the
American Association of Engineering Societies, Inc., 1985b.
Engineering Manpower Commission. Engineering and Technology Degrees,
1985. Part I: By School. Engineering Manpower Commission of the
American Association of Engineering Societies, Inc., 1986.
Federation of Materials Societies. R&D in Materials Science and Engineering.
March 1986.
Government Accounting Office. Support for Development of Electronics
and Materials Technologies by the Materials Technologies by the Gov-
ernments of the United States, Japan, W. Germany, France, and the
United Kingdom (GAO/RCED-85-63~. Washington, DC: Government
Accounting Office, September 1985.
Margolin, S. V. ROD in Materials Science and Engineering. Report prepared
by Federation of Materials Societies, May 1985b.
National Research Council. Mat Trials and Marie Needs: Mat Trials Scicnec
and Enginecnug. National Research Council Committee on Strategic
Materials. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1974.
National Research Council. Science Base for Materials Processing: Selected
Topics (NMAB-355~. National Materials Advisory Board of the National
Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1979.
National Research Council. High-technology Ceramics in Japan (NMAB-
418~. National Materials Advisory Board, Committee on the Status
of High-technology Ceramics in Japan. Washington, DC: National
Academy Press, 1984c.
National Research Council. Major Facilities for Materials Research and
Related Disciplines. National Research Council Committee on Major
Materials Facilities. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1984b.
National Research Council. Magnetic Materials (NMAB-426~. Report of the
Committee on Magnetic Materials, National Materials Advisory Board.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1985.
National Research Council. Surface Modification of Electronic Materials in
the United States and Japan: A State-of-the-Art Review (NMAB-443~.
Report of the Panel on Materials Science, National Materials Advisory
Board. Prepared for the National Science Foundation, March 1986.
National Science Foundation. In lieu of the original. Mosaic 2~33:18-25, 1971.
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278
DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
National Science Foundation. Trends and Opportunities in Materials Re-
search. Report of the Materials Research Advisory Committee, Division
of Materials Research. Washington, DC: National Science Foundation,
1984.
U.S. Department of Commerce. A Competitive Assessment of the U.S.
Advanced Ceramics Industry (NTIS-PB84-162288~. Industry Analysis
Division, Office of Industrial Assessment. Washington, DC: National
Technical Information Service, March 1984.
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MATERIALS SYSTEMS
Appendix
Responses to the Engineering Research
Board's Request for Assistance from
Universities Professional Societies, and
Federal Agencies and Laboratories
279
Requests for assistance were sent by the Engineering Research
Board to a number of universities, recipients of Presidential Young
Investigator Awards, professional societies, and federal agencies
and laboratories in order to obtain a broader view of engineering
research opportunities, research policy needs, and the health of the
research community. Some of the responses included comments on
engineering research aspects of materials systems research; these
were reviewed by this panel to aid in its decision-making process.
The pane! found the responses most helpful and wishes that it
were possible to individually thank all those who took the time
to make their views known. Because that is not practical, we
hope nevertheless that this small acknowledgment might convey
our gratitude.
Responses on aspects of materials systems research were re-
ceived from individuals representing 46 different organizations,
listed in Table A: 22 universities (including 9 represented by re-
cipients of NSF Presidential Young Investigator Awards), 11 pro-
fessional organizations, and 13 federal agencies or laboratories.
Some comments covered specific aspects of the panel's scope of
activities, whereas others provided input on a variety of subjects.
Although most of the responses addressed priority research
needs, several respondents did reflect on policy issues. Many of
the research needs and issues of policy and health addressed by the
respondents were similar to those noted by pane} members. The
broadened! perspective provided by the responses to the survey
was most beneficial in the panel's deliberations.
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DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
TABLE A-1 Organizations Responding to Information Requests Relevant to
Materials Systems Research
UNIVERSITIES
Clarkson University
Lehigh University
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
North Carolina State University
Northwestern University
Ohio State University
Oregon State University
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
State University of New York, Buffalo
Texas A&M University
University of Connecticut
University of California, D avis
University of California, Los Angeles
University of Florida
University of Illinois—Urbana/Champaign
University of Kansas
University of Michigan
University of Oklahoma
University of Pennsylvania
University of Texas at Austin
University of Utah
Washington University at St. Louis
PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
American Chemical Society
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
American Institute of Chemical Engineers
American Society of Civil Engineers
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Council for Chemical Research
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
Institute of Industrial Engineers
Industrial Research Institute
Society of Automotive Engineers
Society of Engineering Science, Inc.
AGENCIES AND LABORATORIES
Air Force Institute of Technology
Air Force Office of Scientific Research
Army Materials and Mechanical Research Center
Army Research Office
Brookhaven National Laboratory
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory
NASA Langley Research Center
NASA Lewis Research Center
Naval Research Laboratory
Office of Naval Research
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Sandia National Laboratory
Representative terms from entire chapter:
magnetic materials
