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OCR for page R1
Materials and Man’s Needs Materials Science and Engineering: Volume 1 The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering
MATERIALS AND MAN’S NEEDS
MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE SURVEY OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
VOLUME I
THE HISTORY, SCOPE, AND NATURE OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
WASHINGTON, D.C.
1975
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Materials and Man’s Needs Materials Science and Engineering: Volume 1 The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering
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Materials and Man’s Needs Materials Science and Engineering: Volume 1 The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering
MATERIALS AND MAN’S NEEDS
MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE SURVEY OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
VOLUME I
THE HISTORY, SCOPE, AND NATURE OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
WASHINGTON, D.C.
1975
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Materials and Man’s Needs Materials Science and Engineering: Volume 1 The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering
NOTICE
MATERIALS AND MAN’S NEEDS
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE SURVEY OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING (COSMAT)
The content of this Supplementary Report is part of the basis for the Summary Report of the NAS Committee on the Survey of Materials Science and Engineering. In contrast to the Summary Report, however, the views expressed here are those of the various contributors and do not necessarily represent a consensus of COSMAT.
Frontispiece: A schematic representation of the materials cycle, portraying its global nature and principal stages.
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Materials and Man’s Needs Materials Science and Engineering: Volume 1 The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering
PREFACE
The Summary Report of the Committee on the Survey of Materials Science and Engineering (COSMAT) was published in the Spring of 1974. It was based on informational inputs generated by numerous committees, panels, and individuals. That background information has now been organized into this Supplementary Report, Volumes I to IV.
In assembling this extensive resource, a complete editorial function was not attempted. Thus, occasional redundancies and overlaps as well as some unevenness in style and coverage will be noted. There will also be found views, and perhaps contradictions, that did not make their way into the Summary Report, inasmuch as the latter reflects a consensus of COSMAT. Nevertheless, we believe that it will prove useful to the science and engineering communities, as well as to others concerned with the broader implications of technology, to have available the rich store of information that was collected by COSMAT.
We have organized the present Supplementary Report as follows:
Volume I—The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering, containing Chapters 1, 2, and 3, is concerned mainly with tracing the history and evolution of materials technology, and of materials science and engineering in particular; also with describing the dimensions of the present role of materials in society; and with a study of the way in which materials science and engineering operates as a multidisciplinary field.
Volume II—The Needs, Priorities, and Opportunities for Materials Research begins, in Chapter 4, with a discussion of how materials research is related to various national goals or “areas of impact.” In Chapter 5, the results of a comprehensive survey of materials research priorities are presented, both for applied research related to these areas of impact and for basic research. Chapter 6 provides a description of several of the more prominent materials research opportunities, again both basic and applied.
Volume III—The Institutional Framework for Materials Science and Engineering (Chapter 7) describes the industrial, governmental, academic, and professional activities in materials science and engineering in the U.S. In the industrial section, emphasis is given to illustrative descriptions of materials technologies and to the roles of materials scientists and engineers in various types of industry. The governmental section describes the ways in which the federal government is involved with the performance and support of materials science and engineering. The academic section contains detailed qualitative and quantitative information on the status and trends in university education and research both in “materials-designated” and “materials-related” departments and in materials research centers. In the professional section,
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Materials and Man’s Needs Materials Science and Engineering: Volume 1 The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering
consideration is given to the characteristics and numbers of materials scientists and engineers, as well as to their professional activities and opportunities.
Volume IV—Materials Technology Abroad (Chapter 8) deals with many facets of materials technology, as practiced in other countries. In collecting this information, it was often difficult, or even impossible, to delineate policies and practices specific to the materials field from those pertinent to science and technology in general, In such cases, the broader situation has been reviewed on the assumption that its applicability to the materials sphere is implicit. Volume IV surveys national policies and administrative structures for science and technology, education, R & D, institutions, technology-enhancement programs, technical achievements, and international cooperation. Much of the content revolves around the general theme of technological innovation.
It is surely obvious from the magnitude of this Supplementary Report that COSMAT is enormously indebted to a wide diversity of committees and individual contributors, whose inputs and insights have proved so valuable. The COSMAT Panels, Committees, and Consultants are listed in the Summary Report. They and other individual contributors are also referred to in this Supplementary Report.
COSMAT is deeply grateful to Marguerite Meyer, Beverly Masaitis, and Judy Trimble for their indefatigable efforts in the typing and assembling of these four volumes; theirs was a prodigious task, indeed. We are also most indebted to Amahl Shakhashiri for her careful editing of these volumes.
And once again, COSMAT wishes to acknowledge the support of the National Science Foundation and the Advanced Research Projects Agency in this undertaking, carried out under the aegis of the Committee on Science and Public Policy of the National Academy of Sciences.
Morris Cohen, Chairman
William O.Baker, Vice Chairman
Committee on the Survey of Materials Science and Engineering
September 1975
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Materials and Man’s Needs Materials Science and Engineering: Volume 1 The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering
COMMITTEE ON THE SURVEY OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING (COSMAT)
*Morris Cohen (Chairman)
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
*William O.Baker (Vice Chairman)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.
Donald J.Blickwede
Bethlehem Steel Corporation
Raymond F.Boyer
Dow Chemical Company
*Paul F.Chenea
General Motors Corporation
Preston E.Cloud
University of California, Santa Barbara
*Daniel C.Drucker
University of Illinois
Julius J.Harwood
Ford Motor Company
I.Grant Hedrick
Grumman Aerospace Corporation
Walter R.Hibbard, Jr.
Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corporation
*John D.Hoffman
National Bureau of Standards
Melvin Kranzberg
Georgia Institute of Technology
*Hans H.Landsberg
Resources for the Future, Inc.
Humboldt W.Leverenz
RCA Laboratories, Inc.
Donald J.Lyman
University of Utah
Roger S.Porter
University of Massachusetts
Rustum Roy
Pennsylvania State University
*Roland W.Schmitt
General Electric Company
Abe Silverstein
Republic Steel Corporation
Lawrence H.Van Vlack
The University of Michigan
Ex Officio Members
*Harvey Brooks (as former Chairman, Committee on Science and Public Policy, NAS)
Harvard University
*N.Bruce Hannay (as Chairman, National Materials Advisory Board, National Research Council, NAS-NAE)
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.
*Ernst Weber (as Chairman, Division of Engineering, National Research Council, NAS-NAE)
National Academy of Sciences
*
Members of the Executive Board
Survey Directors
Alan G.Chynoweth
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.
S.Victor Radcliffe
Case Western Reserve University
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Materials and Man’s Needs Materials Science and Engineering: Volume 1 The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering
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Materials and Man’s Needs Materials Science and Engineering: Volume 1 The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering
MATERIALS AND MAN’S NEEDS
Supplementary Report of the Committee on the Survey of Materials Science and Engineering
Volume I
The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering
Chapter 1;
Materials and Society
Chapter 2:
The Contemporary Materials Scene
Chapter 3;
Materials Science and Engineering as a Multidiscipline
Volume II
The Needs, Priorities, and Opportunities for Materials Research
Chapter 4;
National Objectives and the Role of Materials Science and Engineering
Chapter 5:
Priorities in Materials Research
Chapter 6:
Opportunities in Materials Research
Volume III
The Institutional Framework for Materials Science and Engineering
Chapter 7:
Industrial, Governmental, Academic, and Professional Activities in Materials Science and Engineering
Volume IV
Materials Technology Abroad
Chapter 8:
Aspects of Materials Technology Abroad
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Materials and Man’s Needs Materials Science and Engineering: Volume 1 The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering
TABLE OF CONTENTS FOR VOLUME I
Chapter Number
Page Number
1
MATERIALS AND SOCIETY
INTRODUCTION
3
IMPORTANCE OF MATERIALS TO MAN
6
MATERIALS IN THE EVOLUTION OF MAN AND IN PREHISTORY
9
BRONZE AND IRON AGES
14
MATERIALS IN CLASSICAL CIVILIZATION
18
MEDIEVAL MATERIALS
20
THE START OF A SCIENTIFIC MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY BASED ON CHEMISTRY
27
THE NEW SCIENCE OF MATERIALS BASED ON STRUCTURE
36
THE NEW SCIENCE OF MATERIALS AND ITS RELATION TO PHYSICS
40
ENGINEERING ATTITUDES TOWARD MATERIALS IN THE 19th CENTURY
44
THE TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTION OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
47
RECOGNITION OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING AS A COHERENT FIELD
50
GOVERNMENT SUPPORT OF MATERIALS RESEARCH
52
PERSPECTIVES ON MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
58
2
THE CONTEMPORARY MATERIALS SCENE
THE NATURE OF MATERIALS
67
THE NATURE OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
68
MATERIALS IN THE U.S. ECONOMY
69
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Materials and Man’s Needs Materials Science and Engineering: Volume 1 The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering
THE MATERIALS CYCLE AND THE ROLE OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
80
INNOVATION IN THE MATERIALS FIELD
83
The Materials Revolution
83
The Systems Approach
84
Science-Intensive and Experience-Based Technologies
85
Pace of Innovation
85
Disciplinary to Interdisciplinary
86
MATERIALS IN A CHANGING CONTEXT
87
Changing National Priorities
88
Materials Resources
89
Energy, Environment
92
The U.S. Trade Balance
92
Technology Assessment
93
The Federal Approach to Materials
93
NATIONAL AND INSTITUTIONAL CAPABILITY
95
Manpower
96
Trends in Basic and Applied Research
98
Government Support of Materials Science and Engineering
98
Universities
110
Materials Degrees
111
Research Funding
111
Industrial Research and Development
114
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Materials and Man’s Needs Materials Science and Engineering: Volume 1 The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering
OPPORTUNITIES FOR MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
122
APPENDIX 2A PROFILE OF MANPOWER IN MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
124
Method of Analysis
124
The Engineers Register
125
The Science Register
139
Total Number of Materials Scientists and Engineers
149
Attachment 2A.1 Specialty Areas in the 1969 National Engineers Register with MSE Score Greater than 45
151
Attachment 2A.2 Specialty Areas from the 1968 National Register of Scientific and Technical Personnel with MSE Score Greater Than 45
154
3
MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING AS A MULTIDISCIPLINE
MATERIALS, THE MATERIALS CYCLE, AND THE ROLE OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
163
INNOVATION IN MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
164
CHANGING CHARACTER OF MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY
166
Science-Intensive and Experience-Based Technologies
166
Relative Pace of Innovation
168
Disciplinarity, Interdisciplinarity, and Multidisciplinarity
169
DEFINITION OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
170
SOME ASPECTS OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
170
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Materials and Man’s Needs Materials Science and Engineering: Volume 1 The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering
Materials
170
Disciplines
171
Activities and Style
171
Relevance
172
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
172
Some Past Achievements
172
Heatshield Design Problems
177
Transistors
177
Razor Blades
177
Synthetic Fibers
178
Textured Materials
178
Integrated Circuits
179
Aluminum Conductors
179
Polymer-Modified Concrete
179
TV Phosphors
180
Ceramic Oxides
180
Problems and Failures
180
CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
182
General
182
Nature of Materials Research
183
Nature of Materials Development, Design, and Engineering
186
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Materials and Man’s Needs Materials Science and Engineering: Volume 1 The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering
Systems Approach to Materials Development
187
Technological Systems of Materials
187
Materials Cycle
188
Methodology
188
Contemporary Expansions of the Systems Approach
190
Multidisciplinary and Interdisciplinary Activities
190
COUPLING WITHIN THE FIELD OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
191
Loosely-Coupled Multidisciplinary Activities, Tightly-Coupled Interdisciplinary Activities
192
Factors Aiding Interdisciplinary Coupling in Materials Science and Engineering
193
Basic Theme and Concepts
194
Materials Preparation
194
Experimental Techniques and Instrumentation
195
Computers
195
Importance of Purpose
195
Institutional Aspects of Coupling
197
Departmental Composition
197
Geographical Barriers
197
Size of Organization
197
Member-of-the-Club Principle
198
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Materials and Man’s Needs Materials Science and Engineering: Volume 1 The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering
Some Human Aspects of Coupling
199
Key Individual
199
Personal Satisfaction
199
Nature of Groupings
200
Supervision of Group
200
Coupling Through Mobility of Personnel
201
Roadblocks to Effective Coupling
202
IMPLICATIONS OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING FOR UNIVERSITIES
202
Education in Materials Science and Engineering
202
University Research in Materials Science and Engineering
206
Funding and Reward Mechanisms
208
OUTPUTS OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
208
NEW OPPORTUNITIES FOR MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
210
Changing Nature of Materials Science and Engineering
210
Changing Industrial Scene for Materials Science and Engineering
211
Changing Societal Goals for Support-Base for Materials Science and Engineering
213
Opportunities for Materials Science and Engineering in Some Areas of Concern to Society
218
Resources, Substitutes, and Synthesis
218
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Materials and Man’s Needs Materials Science and Engineering: Volume 1 The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering
Materials for Housing and Urban Renewal
219
Environmental Quality
219
Materials Science and Engineering in Medicine and Biology
219
Energy
220
Diffusion of Materials Science and Engineering into Low-Technology Industries
220
MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING AND THE BROADER SCENE
221
CASE STUDIES OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
222
Appendix 3A Heatshield Design Problems
222
Appendix 3B Discovery of the Transistor
229
Appendix 3C The Development of Coated Stainless Razor Blades
234
Appendix 3D Synthetic Fibers
236
Appendix 3E Textured Materials
241
Appendix 3F Integrated Circuits
243
Appendix 3G Aluminum Conductor Telephone Cables
248
Appendix 3H Polymer Latex-Modified Portland Cement
250
Appendix 3I Phosphors for TV
253
Appendix 3J Sintering of Ceramic Oxides, e.g. Lucalox
258
Appendix 3K Interdisciplinary Research—An Exploration of Public Policy Issues
259
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Materials and Man’s Needs Materials Science and Engineering: Volume 1 The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering
LIST OF FIGURES FOR VOLUME I
Figure Number
Page Number
CHAPTER 1. MATERIALS AND SOCIETY
CHAPTER 2. THE CONTEMPORARY MATERIALS SCENE
2.1
Steel Mill Products, Physical Output, Actual and Deflated Average Unit Costs and Cost Proportions, 1899–1939.
76
2.2
Supply-Demand Relationship for Copper in 1969
78
2.3
Factors Involved in the Flow of Materials
82
2.4
Materials Utilization Shows Social and Technical Pressures on the Materials Scientist and Engineer
91
2.5
Research and Development Spending in the United States, 1953–72
100
2.6
Conduct of Federal Research and Development
101
2.7
Trends in Federal Basic and Applied Research
102
2.8
Direct Government Funding for Materials Research and Development
103
2.9
Percentage of Register Respondents in MSE vs. MSE Cutoff Score
126
CHAPTER 3. MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING AS A MULTIDISCIPLINE
3.1
Change with Time of Coupling Between Science and Engineering in the Materials Field
185
3.2
Example of Systems Engineering Applied to MSE Taken from OECD Report on “Problems and Prospects of Fundamental Research in Selected Scientific Fields—Materials.”
189
3.3
Key Integrated-Circuit Developments, 1958–1971
247
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Materials and Man’s Needs Materials Science and Engineering: Volume 1 The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering
LIST OF TABLES FOR VOLUME I
Table Number
Page Number
CHAPTER 1. MATERIALS AND SOCIETY
CHAPTER 2. THE CONTEMPORARY MATERIALS SCENE
2.1
Consumption of Selected Basic Materials in the U.S.
70
2.2
Distribution of National Income of the United States by Industry Category, 1965
71
2.3
Distribution of National Income of the United States within Selected Industry Categories, 1965
73
2.4
Selected Industry Components of the Gross National Product, 1971
74
2.5
U.S. Trade Balances in Illustrative Product Categories
94
2.6
Estimates of Manpower in Principal Disciplinary Sectors of Materials Science and Engineering
97
2.7
Distribution of Materials Scientists and Engineers by Category of Activity
99
2.8
Distribution of Federal Materials R&D Effort by Class of Materials
104
2.9
Distribution of Federal Materials R&D Effort by Research Activity
104
2.10
Distribution of Federal Materials R&D Effort by Performing Organization
104
2.11
Distribution of Federal Materials R&D Effort by Supporting Agency
105
2.12
Distribution of Federal Materials R&D Effort by Agency and Material for FY 1967 and 1971
106
2.13
Direct Federal Funding of Materials Research and Development by Agency, Type of Research, and Performer for FY 1971
108
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Materials and Man’s Needs Materials Science and Engineering: Volume 1 The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering
2.14
Direct Federal Funding of Materials Research and Development by Agency and Field of Materials for FY 1971
109
2.15
Distribution by Field of Science of Federal R&D Support to Universities for FY 1970
113
2.16
Distribution of Federal Agency Support for “Metallurgy and Materials” R&D at Universities for FY 1970
115
2.17
Proportion of Federal Agency Materials R&D Funds Allocated to Universities for FY 1970
116
2.18
Comparison of Federal Materials R&D Support at Universities Between “Materials Departments” and “Other Departments” for FY 1970
117
2.19
Industrial Research and Development (Includes federally-funded industrial R&D)
118
2.20
Industrial Research and Development as Percent of Sales
119
2.21
Federally-Financed Industrial Research and Development
120
2.22
Company-Funded Industrial Research and Development
121
2.23
Comparison of Materials Engineers with All Engineers
128
2.24
Society Membership
129
2.25
Percentage of Ph.D.’s Among Materials Engineers by Product Group
131
2.26
Principal Functions of Materials Engineering
132
2.27
Materials Engineers Receiving Government Support
133
2.28
Product or Service Related to Employment
135
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Materials and Man’s Needs Materials Science and Engineering: Volume 1 The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering
2.29
Leading Employment Specialties of MaterialsEngineers (%)
136
2.30
Leading Employment Specialties of Materials Engineers (Ph.D., %)
136
2.31
Some “Agreed” Areas of Technology and Science (MSE = 75) in Materials Engineering
137
2.32
Characteristics of Materials Engineers in Sixteen “Agreed” Areas of Technology and Science in Materials Engineering
138
2.33
Numbers of Materials Scientists, By Discipline
140
2.34
Leading Major Subjects of Highest Degree Among Materials Scientists
140
2.35
Leading Professional Identifications of Materials Scientists
141
2.36
Number of Materials Scientists with Selected Professional Identification
143
2.37
Criteria for Inclusion in the Science Register
144
2.38
Employment of Materials Scientists by Institution and Work Activity, 1968
146
2.39
Median Basic Annual Salary of Materials Scientists by Age and Type of Employer, 1968
147
2.40
Number of Materials Scientists in Specialty Areas from 1964 to 1970
148
2.41
Estimated Total Number of Materials Scientists and Engineers in the United States
150
2A.1
Specialty Areas in the 1969 National Engineers Register with MSE Score Greater Than 45
151
2A.2
Specialty Areas in the 1968 National Register of Scientific and Technical Personnel with MSE Score Greater Than 45
154
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Materials and Man’s Needs Materials Science and Engineering: Volume 1 The History, Scope, and Nature of Materials Science and Engineering
CHAPTER 3. MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING AS A MULTIDISCIPLINE
3.1
Some Achievements in Materials Science and Engineering
173
3.2
Comparative Characteristics and Attributes of Some Disciplines Involved in MSE
204
3.3
Federal Funds for Total Research in Metallurgy and Materials Engineering in FY 1966 through 1971 (Est.)
215
3.4
Typical Reentry Environment Parameters for Reentry Vehicles Entering the Earth’s Atmosphere
224
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