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OCR for page 53
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(which embraces a mix of disciplines and subdisciplines very similar to those
defined by COSMAT as within the field of MSE). More recently, NSF has
engaged in the support of applied research through its RANN Program although
its resources, administrative as well as financial, for this program may not
be at all commensurate with the needs. An additional avenue for the support
of applied research is the Commerce Department's Technology Incentives
Program, administered through the NBS, but its resources are also very
limited.
EDUCATION
Statistical Information on Scientists and Engineers
Table 8.7 summarizes some data, drawn principally from OECD sources,
on the levels of effort being put into higher education in several advanced
countries in the mid-sixties. To facilitate comparisons, the second part of
the table shows the data normalized to a figure of 100 for the U.S. Perhaps
the most striking feature of these data is the completely different emphasis
placed by Japan (and the Soviet Union) on the distribution of resources
between the educating of scientists and engineers. Compared with the U.S. in
the mid-sixties, Japan was educating proportionally far fewer science
students and far more engineering students at the first degree level. The
ratio of science to engineering students in Japan was about one-tenth of that
in the U.S. while, in proportion to the population of the labor force, the
total number of Japanese students Call disciplines) was about one-third of
the U.S. total. At the doctorate Revel, Japan also was producing far fewer
science and engineering graduates than the United States.
While there are differences among the educational patterns of Canada,
France, Germany and the U.K., none is so different from the U.~. picture as
is Japan. Nevertheless, it should be observed that all other countries, and
especially the U.K., were devoting a greater proportion of their higher
education effort to science and engineering than to other disciplines.
By comparing 1955 with 1965 data (Figure 8.1), trends in emphasis on
science (S) vs. engineering (E) enrollments for university-level education
can also be discerned; these are summarized as follows:
Country Emphasis in 1955
-
Canada S - ?
E - Average
Emphasis by 1965
S — ~
.
E - Had dropped considerably
France S - Very high S - Increased even higher
E - ? E - ?
Germany S - Average S - Held constant
E - Slightly above average E - Dropped slightly to
average
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8-54
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OCR for page 57
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Country Emphasis in 1955 Emphasis by 1965
Japan S - Very low S - Still very low
E - Average E - High
U.K. S - High S - Still high
E - Above average E - High
U.S.A. S - Average S - Below average
E - Low E - Dropped lower
These data strongly confirm the view that at a time when Japan was
relatively early on its sigmoidal curve compared with other advanced
countries, it chose a policy of emphasizing engineering rather than science
in order to "catch-up" technologically. If what seems to be the national
scenario can be applied more narrowly to an industrial sector, then part of
the Japanese prescription for a lagging industry is to increase the national
effort in the relevant applied science and engineering education.
Now that Japan has caught up in many ways, it is of interest to see
whether the same formula will move Japan forward to establish an overall
technological lead or whether its investment mix in science and engineering
education will move closer to those of the other countries. It is noticeable,
for instance, that up till now Japan has lagged considerably behind the western
countries in Nobel Prizes for science, imperfect indicator though this may be
of national scientific leadership. (1-2/3 physics; O chemistry; out of 73
awards in each field).
Curricula and Interdisciplinary Education for
the Materials Field
The U.S. appears to have led the way in establishing interdisciplinary
materials science centers for working towards advanced degrees at universi-
ties. In other countries, education for the materials field still seems to
follow mainly along traditional departmental lines - physics, chemistry,
metallurgy - though a few of the newer universities, for example in the U.K.
(see below), are developing interdisciplinary undergraduate curricula some-
what similar to the broader approach common in U.S. colleges. It is
difficult to make meaningful comparisons of the curricula for science and
engineering students among various countries let alone assess the quality of
the education vis-a-vis that of the U.S.
An -interdisciplinary University
In England, the University of Sussex, founded in 1961, was designed from
the start to operate with an innovatory curriculum and with a new form of
internal organization. The unit of university development was to be not the
7
From Interdisciplinarity. OECD, Paris' 1272.
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single-discipline department but a mu] tidiscipline school, with interdisci-
plinary courses in each schools The schools included Mathematical and
Physical Sciences, Molecular Sciences, Biological Sciences, and Applied
Sciences.
Undergraduate education was to combine specialization in one discipline
with common work in clusters of disciplines. The plan also entailed re-
placing the department with a professorial head by a school with a dean, part
of whose responsibility would be to encourage multidisciplinary and inter-
disciplinary work.
In the sciences, a common introductory course was developed on "The
Structure and Properties of Matter," to be taken by all science undergraduates
and stressing concepts cutting across traditional disciplines. At a later
stage in the undergraduate program, courses were designed linking Biological
and Physical Sciences and other scientific disciplines. The School of Applied
Sciences abandoned the old professional distinctions between Machanical,
Electrical and Civil Engineering, and introduced new common courses on
subjects like Control Engineering and Materials Science.
Some tentative conclusions about the Sussex experience can now be drawn:
(a) There seems little danger of any revision into "departmentalism."
(b) It has been necessary and valuable to retain some "subject" organization
alongside interdisciplinary work.
(c) Success depends on attracting good faculty with genuine interdisciplinary
interests.
(d) With the right kind of faculty, new "unplanned" interdisciplinary
activities nucleate and grow e.g., a Medical Research Group came into
existence even in the absence of a Medical School. It included bio-
chemists, engineers, sociologists, and educationists and established
close contact with hospitals.
(e) New schools, with new combinations of cours es are now being canvas sed ,
some of which focus attention on problem areas of great practical
importance as well as of intellectual stimulus. It is to be expected
that such schools will help counter the trend in undergraduate enroll-
ment from the science to the arts.
(f) The Sussex system has emerged within the framework of national educa-
tional policy; it has had no privileged position in relation to cost,
capital provision, or staff/student ratios.
(g) It has involved much effort on the part of the faculty in planning new
courses, etc.
(h) Educational technology is being explored, such as television and
programmed learning.
(i) Only a minority of graduate students are engaged in interdisciplinary
work.
(j) There are also 18 units, Centers and Institutes at the University, most
of which are interdisciplinary in purpose and staff, e.g., the Science
Policy Research Unit.
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United Kingdom
Capital requirements of universities and the support of undergraduate
education in the U.K. are largely the responsibility of the University Grants
Committee (UGC) of the Department of Education and Science. The UGC has
recently assessed educational needs in the field of "Materials Studies,"
covering mainly metallurgy, ceramics and glass technology, polymers, and
electronic materials. The UGC found that the emphasis of materials studies
varies from university to university, ranging from heavy concentration on
the engineering use of materials, and sometimes on their preparation, to
emphasis on the structure and behavior of the material per se, usually in-
volving close links with departments of applied chemistry and applied
physics. They conclude that there is no single block of work that can be
labelled materials studies and treated as a comprehensive discipline.
Comparison is made with the USA where they note that the traditional
patterns of departmental structures have been modified in favor of the growth
of interdisciplinary organizations such as materials science centers, and
this has stimulated the treatment of neglected but important areas of
materials research. "Over the years, however, the tendency has been for the
centers to become divorced from the teaching functions of the original
departments. The centers have also been criticised for lack of technological
motivation or interest and failure to build up their contacts and inter-
relationship with industry to the degree that had at one time been hoped."
In the U.K. the following forms of organization occur:
Undergraduate level
(a) 3- or 4-year courses, including sandwich (or cooperative) courses,
recruiting directly from school or industry, in which the student
normally continues in the same discipline throughout the course.
Courses in metallurgy are an example.
(b) 3- or 4-year courses combining specific disciplines, and therefore
entailing a streamlining of "traditional" content so as to fit the
studies into the period of the course. An example of this is a
course in engineering metallurgy.
(c) 3- or 4-year course in which the first part is common to several
disciplines, usually of the "pure science" or "applied science"
type. The second part comprises various options in materials as
well as other subjects. These courses are often located in well-
established schools where there is administrative oversight of a
wide range of courses bearing on materials and related scientific
disciplines.
Graduate level
(d) The taught courses vary in length from short postexperience ones
intended mainly for graduates from industry to those open to 1-
year MSc and 3-year Phd students. Their organization generally
follows the pattern adopted by the individual university concerned,
but there are examples where there is a loose connection between
departments even though a postgraduate "core course" is run.
(e) Sometimes the research takes place within a school of materials
technology or science. This can be a closely knit organization
where there is sponsorship of interdisciplinary groups of
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researchers tackling different facets of a common problem; but more
usually it is a much looser organization of research activities that
is in practice no more than oversight by an interdepartmental
committee.
Interdisciplinary graduate courses centered on metallurgy are usually
successful in attracting high quality students if they are organized in close
collaboration with industry. The tendency for research in metallurgy is for
it to broaden across disciplinary lines, leading university research workers
to think more in interdisciplinary terms just as industry has to. For
historical reasons, large research schools in metallurgy are often located
in centers of the metallurgical industry, thereby enhancing the opportunities
for university-industry coupling, although questions are being raised whether
there is some overlap and redundancy in the overall metallurgical effort
which might be rationalized. One of the problems encountered in regard to
university-industry coupling is that where a large proportion of-under-
graduates are industrially based, as they are in the technological universi-
ties, it is very difficult to build up a strong research school. The research
has, therefore, tended to be shorter-term, much of it on a contract-basis for
industry.
There are two principal schools for ceramics and glass science and tech-
nology - Leeds and Sheffield. The total output of graduates per annum for
these and other schools is about 40. There is an uncertain demand for such
graduates at present and in consequence' the addition of any more ceramics
or glass schools is not being encouraged.
Polymer science and technology is finding its way into an increasing
number of academic syllabuses, often as a specialized option in the latter
years of metallurgical courses. However, polymer science as such is not
regarded as a suitable subject for a complete first degree course in the
present stage of development, but more as a graduate course based on a sound
undergraduate foundation in physics and chemistry. At the graduate research
level, much progress has been made at implementing the interdisciplinary
approach but more needs to be done to equip polymer scientists for work in
industry.
The study of electronic materials at universities has generally grown
up in departments of electronics, electrical engineering, and applied
physics, and is likely to continue so. The strongest departments appear to
be those in which teaching and research are closely integrated and, in
particular, where the materials research is aimed specifically at device
applications. However, collaboration with departments of physics, chemistry,
etc. can be fostered by the sharing of common facilities such as electron
microscopes, X-ray equipment, etc. This seems to be preferred to the
establishment of materials centers where the motivation of technological
application is often absent.
Many universities appear unwilling to appraise critically the quality
of their work in materials studies relative to their resources and abilities.
Some research programs are superficial, others are poorly supported.
This leads to the question of universities establishing research
centers in "materials science." The general idea of universities interested
in centers is that they would concentrate mainly on contract work for industry
or government, and as such would be particularly fitted to conduct medium-term
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research and to attract postdoctoral fellows. One center has not been a
success apparently because it failed to gain sufficient moral and financial
support from the contributing departments. This is liable to happen unless
the departments concerned are convinced that it is in their long-term
interests to give up a proportion of the research they would otherwise under-
take, together with the limitation of research opportunities this is bound
to cause for their own staff. The UGC suggests therefore that universities
should approach the idea of a research center with caution. Their present
attitude is to discourage the development of additional centers until more
experience is gained from the operation of existing ones in Britain.
As regards the administration of Materials Studies, where the oversight
is vested in a Council, or Board of Studies, or Faculty Board, the general
arrangement is for the main departments involved to be represented on the
Council or Board,'although the arrangements for the chairing of such a body
vary a good deal. A conscious and sustained effort is required of university
staffs to maintain the vitality and advantages of such interdepartmental
organizations and to prevent them from recrystallizing into a collection of
individual departments with little concern for each other's activities in
Materials Studies.
There has been a decline in the undergraduate enrollment for metallurgy
and materials science courses of 18% over the period 1965-1970, although
within this total decline, the enrollment for materials courses has increased
fourfold while that for metallurgy alone has declined by 35%. This is
attributed to the increasingly favorable image of materials science, and to
the desire of students to keep their options open as long as possible. As a
result, it is felt in the U.K. that an increasing proportion of students of
only moderate ability are entering metallurgy courses and, in consequence, no
more university departments of metallurgy should be established in the near
future. There has also been a tendency recently to emphasize physical
metallurgy at the expense of chemical metallurgy; however, extractive
metallurgy has begun to feature more prominently in some university syllabuses.
The signs are that the latter subjects collect the somewhat less able students
who are destined for careers in production rather than research.
The breadth of materials science courses makes it more difficult to
cover production technology than in metallurgical courses. Another dis-
advantage of the broad approach is that many companies to which students
subsequently go are specialized into certain classes of materials - metals,
ceramics, polymers or electronic materials. Thus, advantages are seen in
materials courses which start out broadly but then give an opportunity to
specialize in the final year. But universities should be wary of giving
broad courses to weak students. There is some danger that a first degree in
materials science (or materials technology), dealing with so many topics
that none can be studied in depth, will produce a man who cannot be said to
have professional training for a career in any particular field. Universi-
ties should embark on such programs only if they are confident that they will
attract high quality students. A first degree course in one of the older
established disciplines, followed by a graduate course in a more specialized
aspect of materials, is seen as a good way for training materials scientists.
In conclusion, the UGC finds that in the U.K. the' concept of a materials
studies school is not in every case as successful as claimed by the university
I
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concerned; collaboration between departments in the school can sometimes be
more on paper than in practice. Whatever the local arrangements may be, a
conscious and sustained effort is required of university staffs to maintain
the vitality and advantages of such interdepartmental organizations and to
prevent them from recrystallizing into a collection of individual depart-
ments.
UGC has also concluded that the development of additional materials
science centers should be discouraged until experience is gained from the
operation of the few existing ones in Britain. Also, universities should
persevere with arrangements which make possible the transfer of under-
graduates to metallurgy or materials science courses after the first or
second year of a science course in another field.
Materials studies should be a proper, fully integrated and continuing
part of any engineering course, whatever the specialist engineering discipline,
and not simply regarded as a first year topic to be "got out of the way."
Universities wishing to provide courses covering new topics and founded
on new integrating principles should do this only if they are confident that
they can obtain enough students of high calibre; and they should be ready to
suppress these courses if the good students fail to appear in sufficient
numbers.
In these circumstances, universities might experiment by first providing
the broader courses at graduate level following on from a first degree in
one of the older established disciplines. Only a university which had made
successful provision along these lines should then contemplate provision also
of a first degree course in materials science for able students.
There are advantages in operating materials courses with a broad intro-
duction to all materials, provided there is the opportunity to take a
specialist option in the final year.
Japan
The most important of the National Universities of Japan are the seven
former Imperial Universities. These receive a large share of their financial
support directly from the Japanese government, attract the best students, and
do most of the nation's academic research. The University of Tokyo is con-
sidered the most prestigious and its graduates succeed to many of the
important positions in government, education and industry. In close
succession follow the Universities of Kyoto and Osaka, and the other four
(Tohoku, Nagoya, Hokkaido, and Kyushu) in less definite order. Career
prospects for graduates seem to be pegged accordingly.
The larger universities are divided into several campuses, each
accommodating one of the major divisions of the university, e.g., faculty of
medicine, faculty of arts and sciences, etc. The faculty of science may
comprise physics, chemistry, biology, etc., each with its own chairman. The
role of chairman is not quite as strong as in the U.S. since individual
professors within a department enjoy a semi-autonomous position as heads of
their respective research units, each of which has its own permanent budget
granted directly by the Ministry of Education.
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Often associated with a National University are one or more National
Institutes, somewhat like the Lincoln Laboratory associated with M.I.T.
Thus, the Institute for Solid State Physics is managed by a board of physics
professors from the Institute itself and from the University of Tokyo. Each
National Institute is devoted to a specific technical field usually
restricted in scope but pursued at considerable depth. Some Institutes accept
graduate students who do thesis work under a professor permanently assigned
to the Institute, but more frequently the best graduate students are retained
by the parent university.
The Ministry of Education, with its power to determine budgets for
research and education, exercises extraordinary power over the academic and
intellectual community throughout Japan. Participation by prominent
professors in the decisions of the Ministry helps to make it partly respon-
sive to local requirements.
Examinations for university entrance are the sole admissions criterion,
each university designing its own examination. The four-year undergraduate
curriculum is divided into 1-1/2 or 2 junior years and 2-1/2 or 2 senior
years. In general, the senior course is highly specialized with emphasis on
deep knowledge within a given field. Graduate school consists of a 2-year
"Master" course and a 3-year (or more) "Doctor" course of research, the two
separated by a stiff examination. Upon graduation, arrangements for a
position for the graduate as an assistant in some university, or in industry,
are usually made through personal contacts by his thesis professor. The
American practice of postdoctoral fellowships is not generally followed.
After 5 years or so as an assistant, he may be promoted to assistant professor
at some university. At this level he then enjoys considerable independence.
The final promotional step is to professor, a position in which he has much
freedom and prestige.
A typical research organization at a university is organized rather
differently from that of the American university department. Each research
unit, called a koza, consists of one professor, one assistant professor,
and one or two assistants, and it is funded directly by the Ministry of
Education. Several graduate students are connected with the koza as well as
one or more technicians and a secretary. There is usually a close-knit
family air about a koza with considerable deference being paid to the
professor. However, the traditional koza system is more strongly upheld by
older professors than by younger ones, and the competing advantages of
less formal arrangements are being felt in many Japanese laboratories. For
example, instances can be noted of cooperation between professors in several
adjacent koza, grouping and regrouping informally as the scientific occasion
may demand. Likewise, at the National Institutes less importance is attached
to the koza tradition and the atmosphere may be more like that prevalent in
the U.S.
Research style is rather different in Japan compared to the U.S. In
the U.S. most scientists discover new ideas partly by contemplation and
partly by informal discussions with colleagues. Ideas are then tried out by
exploratory experiments, the results of which lead to further rounds of
informal discussion, and so on. In Japan, such informal preliminary dis-
cussions are rarely held. It is customary for a research worker to spend a
very long time in private thought before advancing his ideas to the rest of
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his koza at a formal research seminar where he is naturally more likely to
strive for accuracy than to be speculative. Furthermore, intellectual
aggresiveness is not admired in Japan and criticisms in seminars tend to be
gentle.
Education in Materials Science and Engineering
Japanese education in MSE is generally organized along disciplinary
rather than interdisciplinary lines. While some Metallurgy Departments
have broadened their title to include Materials Science, this generally
means adding such topics as the physics of metals and does not necessarily
indicate a broadening of the scope into inorganic and electronic materials
or polymers and plastics. In the following, therefore, the educational
picture will be described according to its material components.
Metallurgy, Metallurgical Engineering, and Materials Science:
The demand for metallurgy and materials science graduates in Japan is
high and even increasing. For example, at Tohoku University the number of
offers made in 1970 to 168 graduates was 548.
An interesting sociological sidelight is that members of the faculty
act as intermediaries in arranging jobs for graduates with various companies;
the students and the companies are not allowed to make direct contact with
each other. In addition, there appears to be a gentlemen's agreement between
the head of the department and various companies aimed at avoiding wasteful
competition between companies for the graduates.
The graduate production in 1970 is listed for all universities in
Table 8. 8.
One of the tees t known schools in the materials field is at Tohoku
University, comprising the Departments of Metallurgy, Materials Science, and
Metal Processing. This school is indicative of the nature and quality of
Japanese education in this field.
The Department of Metallurgy was established in 1923. The Department of
Materials Science was founded in 1960. The Department of Metal Processing
was started in 1965 and became fully operational in 1968. At present, the
three departments are administered as a single unit with professors belonging
to different departments participating in teaching throughout the unit. All
students take the same course for the first three years' specializing in one
of the departments for their fourth year.
Also associated with Tohoku University is the Research Institute for
Iron, Steel and Other Metals and the Research Institute for Mineral Dressing
and Metallurgy. Professors associated with these Institutes also participate
in the graduate work of the University.
Following the four-year undergraduate course students may go on for a
Master's degree (minimum 2 years) or a Doctor's degree (minimum 3 years).
There are six professorial chairs in each of the three departments.
These are: Department of Metallurgy - Chemical Metallurgy and Chemical
Engineering Group - Ferrous Metallurgy; Nonferrous Metallurgy; Electro-
metallurgy; Corrosion and Protection of Metals and Alloys; Metallurgical
Engineering; Chemical Metallurgy. Department of Materials Science -
Physical Metallurgy and Materials Science Group - Structural Metals and
OCR for page 65
8-65
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Alloys; Special Purpose Materials; Physical Metallurgy; Strength of Metals
and Alloys; Chemistry of Metals; Metal Physics. Department of Metal
Processing - Metal Processing and Mechanical Metallurgy Group - Foundry
Engineering; Welding Engineering; Powder Metallurgy; Mechanical Metallurgy;
Plastic Working of Metals, Interface Science of Metals.
Solid-State Physics in Japan
Solid-state physics is part of the normal curriculum for undergraduates
in most, if not all, of the physics departments in Japan, and most of these
departments possess one or more koza in solid-state physics for graduate
work. Those universities which are particularly strong in solid-state
physics are Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, and Kyushu.
At Osaka University, solid-state physics is carried on in the Physics
Department proper, the Department of Engineering Science (Materials Science),
the Faculty of Engineering, and in the Institute for Scientific and Industri-
al Research.
The University of Tokyo became dominant in the field of solid-state
physics in Japan with the creation of the Institute for Solid State Physics
in 1957 upon the recommendation of the Science Council of Japan with the
concurrence of the Science and Technology Agency and the Ministry of
Education. The major purpose of the Institute is to carry on basic research
in solid-state physics, thereby promoting rapid development in the field, a
field "which has many applications for improving industrial technology."
The Institute is perhaps the finest and best-equipped laboratory of its kind
in Japan and has already earned world-wide renown. However, although an
express purpose is to offer opportunities, when appropriate, for joint
programs and to provide facilities for visiting scientists from other
institutions, a strong koza system operates.
France
Higher education in the materials field is generally carried out in the
"grandes ecoles." These are engineering schools into which candidates enter
after highly competitive examinations. Typically the emphasis in these
schools is towards a broad, theoretical training, leaving the question of
practical experience to subsequent employment.
There are 140 such schools, 30 of which are concerned with military,
broad engineering, or general scientific studies. The remaining 110 schools
specialize in various sectors of engineering - see Table 8.9.
U.S.S.R.
It appears that metallurgical education in the Soviet Union is concen-
trated in relatively few institutions, some of which are enormous by
Western standards (thousands of students). Contact with industry is often
OCR for page 68
8-68
Table 8.9 Fields of Specialization in Higher Education in Franc
e
Field of Specialization
Physics and Chemistry
Mechanical Engineering &
Metallurgy
Electrical Engineering
Computer Science
-
Aeronautical Engineering
Civil Engineering
Textile
Agriculture & Agricultural
Products Engineering
Others
Number of Schools
28
14
20
3
8
6
25
7
Students/Year
1,381
1~386
1~903
140
643
128
1~259
152
. .`
Representative terms from entire chapter:
materials studies
