|
||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole.
Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter.
Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines.
OCR for page 7
Social Science in the Soviet Union:
Current Conditions and Trends
Panel participants were asked to address:
· current directions of change, including how one finds Soviets inter-
ested in contacts with U.S. scholars;
strengths, weaknesses, and needs within Soviet social and behav-
. .
ora. . science;
· the range of U.S.~oviet contacts in particular fields; and
· the implications of these conditions and trends for U.S. social
science and scholarship.
ETHNOGRAPHY AND ETHNIC RELATIONS
Paul Goble, U.S. Department of State
Goble discussed a series of changes in Soviet ethnography that he
regarded as highly significant, in particular the sense of epiphany that ac-
companied recent events in the Soviet Union. The appearance of new,
young authors in Soviet journals and the publication of a series of con-
ference reports in which younger Soviet scholars denounced the scholars
and scholarship of the past appear especially important. Goble gained the
strong impression that many Soviet scholars, especially the young, now re-
gard scholarly life before 1985 as a vast desert in which nothing worthwhile
was accomplished. He expressed considerable concern that the net result
would be to forget the good work that was done in the 1960s and 1970s
that can provide a solid basis for current work.
In the same vein, he cited what he viewed as an unfortunate tendency to
adopt Western ideas and methods wholesale. While this is very satisfying
7
OCR for page 8
8
50~7ET SOCL4L SCIENCE
and self-affirming for Western scholars, it could mean the loss of much
valuable work. The Gorbachev era should not be an excuse for self-
congratulation among American ethnographers.
Goble also noted his concern that Western social scientists tended
to use Soviet writings in ethnography only as a source of data and to
believe that there are no theories and ideas from which the West could
learn. He argued that, in fact, many Soviet theoretical writings are very
good. Given how much is being published and how dramatic some of
the individual findings are, Western scholars may forget how partial much
of the information is. Goble also commented that Westerners needed
to appreciate that glasnost has opened a door and that not all the work
now coming through that door is worthwhile. He cited as an example the
writings of Lev Gumulov, whose views on miscegenation would repulse
most Americans.
In discussing the strengths and weaknesses of Soviet ethnography,
Goble cited the intensely practical focus of its research. Although this
provides Western scholars with useful clues about policy interests and
directions, it seriously distorts the kinds of research that scholars can do.
He also worried that the "dead hand" of Marxism-Leninism would now
be replaced by the "iron hand" of the market, with different but equally
pernicious effects as self-financing forces institutes and scholars to favor
research ventures that are profitable.
Finally, Goble commented on the incredible proliferation of sources
of information; an American scholar can no longer rely on a few journals
and papers and assume that that is all the information available. For many
issues, much of the information is available from sources outside Moscow,
which are becoming far more accessible. As of January 1, 1990, Western
scholars will be able to subscribe to all 275 regional newspapers at the
oblast level, as well as many new journals. He argued that it is urgent for
American institutions to gain some bibliographic control over this flood.
INION, the ASUSSR's Institute of Scientific Information in the Social
Sciences, produces as many as 20 bibliographies on ethnographic subjects
a month, of which the Library of Congress receives only a quarter; few
university libraries, with the exception of the University of Illinois, make
any attempt to track these bibliographies. The result, he feared, will be
that U.S. academics, overwhelmed with new data, will perform primarily as
reporters rather than scholars.
The recent events and the new resources are very exciting, and it will
be a challenge to take advantage of the opportunities.
OCR for page 9
SOVIET SOCIAL SCIENCE
9
ECONOMICS
Ed A. Hewett, The Brookings Institution
Hewett began with a benchmark, the state of the economics profes-
sion in the mid-1980s before the rise of Gorbachev. More than 4,000,000
people were listed in Soviet labor statistics as economists. By contrast, the
American Economics Association has 25,000 members. Of course, Soviet
"economists" include many individuals who would not be counted as such
in the West, such as industrial managers. The bunk of Western-style eco-
nomics is practiced in the ASUSSR research institutes and the institutes
of government ministries and the party. Before Gorbachev, academic eco-
nomics functioned primarily to elaborate and justify the status quo. Both
the theoretical foundations and the empirical traditions of the discipline
were very weak Outright criticism was not tolerated; at most, one could
suggest ways to perfect the system further. The two channels for protest
were to gather and publish real data about the conditions and performance
of the economy a powerful indictment and to do research in mathe-
matical economics, which provided an abstract, essentially secret language
political officials could not comprehend.
Today the situation is very different. Economics is an exciting discipline
these days, although many of the major reform ideas are still originating
in other parts of the intelligentsia. A number of fascinating policy debates
are under way, for example, over the definition of socialist property. Hewett
agreed with Goble's observation about the tendency of Soviet scholars
to reject all past thinking, commenting that he worried about the current
Soviet fascination with an image of the market as the answer to all economic
problems.
Hewett noted that it is not possible for American scholars to take
advantage of all the opportunities for contacts. Many new exchanges are
springing up, often between universities and institutes, and it is difficult to
keep track of the activities. This will lead to some inevitable inefficiencies
as new projects reinvent the wheel, but the broadening of contacts is
very positive. Hewett also noted as hopeful developments the number of
younger Soviet economists taking part in exchanges and the increase in the
participation of American economists who are not Soviet specialists.
Among the most encouraging signs is the new access to non-ASUSSR
institutes that had previously been off limits to foreign scholars. For exam-
ple, he cited a recent exchange agreement between the research institute of
Gosplan and the Russian Research Center at Harvard. For policy-oriented
contacts, Hewett regarded the new Commission on Economic Reform
headed by Academician Leonid Abalkin as especially important.
OCR for page 10
10
SOVIET SOCIAL SCIENCE
Hewett mentioned three important needs for Soviet economics. First,
there is a tremendous need for training for graduate students and young
professionals in both theory and methods. He suggested that both aca-
demic economics and MBA programs could be valuable. Although Hewett
does not believe that U.S. and European theory have ready answers to
teach young Soviet economists, he does feel that learning how Western
economists frame policy issues would be of great value. Second, on a prac-
tical level, Hewett cited the need for sheer raw computing power, which
personal computers were helping to provide, and the more fundamental
need for good statistics. He argued that Soviet economic statistics require a
wholesale reform and cited the exchange between the U.S. Census Bureau
and Gosplan on national income statistics as a good sign.
Finally, Hewett cited the need for policy advice, although he again
commented that the Soviets may be too willing to listen uncritically to
Western recommendations. Among the areas in which the Soviets need
policy advice are monetary policy, antitrust policy, and the fostering of
small businesses. In offering advice, he argued that U.S. social scientists
needed to be honest brokers and to remain humble about the limits of
their knowledge. The Soviets are trying to establish a socialist market
economy, and, although Western economists believe they know a great deal
about managing markets, they have little to offer about how to create one.
There are many exciting opportunities for contacts and much interest in
Western ideas, but U.S. social scientists have no magic to offer their Soviet
counterparts.
SOCIOLOGY
Michael Swafford, Paragon Research International
Swafford cited Academician Tatiana Zaslavskaya's description of Soviet
sociology as "sociology without sociologists" as an apt summary of the state
of the discipline until very recently. Of the 8,000 members of the Soviet
Sociological Association, for example, fewer than 100 actually have degrees
in sociology, and until last year there were no faculties of sociology at any
Soviet university. In the last year, however, vast changes have begun as the
Soviet government has given high priority to the development of sociology
. .. . .
as a genuine olSClp. One.
Among the major changes mentioned by Swafford is a new emphasis
on training. In all, 16 faculties of sociology have now been established in
the Soviet Union, although this is a far more difficult effort than many
Americans realize. A typical Soviet undergraduate will spend 2,000 hours
in class in his or her major, approximately four times the U.S. average. The
OCR for page 11
SOVIET SOCIAL SCIENCE
11
Soviets are well aware of the problems they face and are offering supple-
mental courses of study for potential faculty. They are trying to translate
textbooks from French and English (although the American Sociological
Association has been understandably reluctant to pronounce any U.S. text-
books the "best"~. Unfortunately, the Soviets are also retaining for the
moment their centralized approach to textbook selection. In addition, as
already mentioned, Soviet graduate students are being sent to the United
States to study, and the Soviets are eager to have American lecturers in all
areas of sociology.
The surge of interest in public opinion research is another positive
sign, and Swafford cited in particular the range of institutions becoming
involved, from the ASUSSR to private entrepreneurs. The Institute of
Sociology has recently published a catalogue of 40 available data sets that,
although not available for export, may be used for collaborative projects.
New regulations may also permit each republic to decide whether to export
survey data. Swafford regarded Zaslavskaya's new All-Union Center for
Public Opinion Research on Social and Economic Problems as the most
important single development; however, he pointed out the enormous
challenges any attempt to develop truly national polls must face, such as
the fact that 100 languages are spoken in the Soviet Union, for which
Russian is not an appropriate lingua franca, and cultural problems, such as
the difficulty of interviewing Moslem women. He also expressed concern
that too often Western reports simply cite poll results without any comments
or caveats about their probable quality.
Despite the positive trends, Swafford noted formidable problems that
remain, such as the almost complete absence of pure sociology. The needs
and interests of the government rather than the interests of scholars still
drive the research agenda, and the sociological establishment is riven by
old rivalries. Moreover, most good sociologists have found themselves
drawn into the political process Zaslavskaya is a member of the Congress
of Peoples' Deputies and Mikk Titma is the ideological secretary of the
Estonian Communist Party- and so they are lost to teaching and research.
Swafford also expressed a more grave concern that expectations had become
too great, that sociology could not possibly provide answers to Soviet
problems; he feared a backlash when it "failed."
Swafford had a number of recommendations for what U.S. social
science could do, such as training graduate students. He argued that this,
along with support for current exchanges, will be the greatest help to
the Soviets in establishing standards for their discipline. Although U.S.
standards, which are based on competition, cannot be imposed on the
Soviets, training and exchanges will go a long way to fostering the academic
culture in which those standards develop. He also strongly advocated a
summer institute in which U.S. lecturers would be sent to the Soviet Union
OCR for page 12
12
. SOVIET SOCIAL SCIENCE
to conduct graduate and postgraduate seminars. Acknowledging that the
proposal was controversial, he also recommended supplying as many as
150 personal computers and conducting methodological training as part
of the summer institute. He did not claim that quantitative sociology
held particular answers but does strongly believe that this training was an
essential part of what the Soviets needed. Finally, at home, he advocated
more attention to training American sociologists as specialists in the Soviet
Union, noting that two major universities had been unable to fill faculty
vacancies. At present there are only a handful of such specialists. He
added that, as the quality of Soviet data and research improve, American
sociologists' own research will benefit, so that in the long run, helping the
Soviets develop their discipline will serve our own interests as well.
DISCUSSION
A number of points surfaced in the discussion:
· One participant commented that working with the Soviets lets us
shape the quality of their data and gives us data to analyze, which will
allow our graduate students to do genuine social science research with
Soviet data. We also should try to strengthen the ability to do good
research in the Soviet Union.
.
We need to increase the number, now very small, of American
social scientists who have, in addition to their substantive expertise, an
understanding of the Soviet Union.
Because of the move to self-financing, some of the best Soviet
social scientists are going into business to raise money.
On economics, one participant noted that the science is very weak
because the linear programming approach of the 1950s, which is neither
Marxist nor non-Ma~xist, failed to evolve into a field of scientific economics.
The reason is the lack of a scientific culture. Thus, the Soviet Union needs
more than long-term graduate training, in which the culture of economics
is learned. The Soviets should also be advised that even though they are in
a rush to solve their domestic problems, they need to invest in their people,
as the Japanese have done.
Panelists agreed that the short-term emphasis on doing research for
hard currency, which is the practice of some leading scientists (while also
using their institutes' facilities!) is a serious problem. As a result, leading
Soviet researchers find no time to train the next generation. Swa~ord added
that Soviet sociology, like economics, has no scientific culture. Goble noted
that changing culture is slow and can have unintended consequences: if
more Soviets are trained in the United States, they may use the experience
mainly to gain contacts for entrepreneurial research.
OCR for page 13
SOVIET Sol SCIENCE
13
· One participant noted that the role of Soviet academic institutes is
changing. In 1971, the Central Economic-Mathematical Institute reported
that it had no contacts with Gosplan; by 1978, it was working jointly with
Gosplan; and it now reports that it has developed an alternative plan for
the Soviet economy.
· One participant suggested that Americans need to think about
long-term Soviet needs and that a major goal should be to encourage a
movement away from monopolism in Soviet social science.
One participant suggested that we should move from general lec-
tures and symposia to joint research involving more junior people, including
graduate students. Another commented that lectures, such as those that
American sociologists recently delivered in Moscow, should be replaced by
month-long training institutes.
· One participant commented that the discipline of history is in such
upheaval in the Soviet Union that for now we cannot contact the leading
scholars.
One suggested increasing Soviet contact with American schools of
public policy.
It was suggested that the Americans identify promising young Soviet
scholars to be invited to come here. Wesley Fisher of IREX noted the
difficulty of selection. In the new program of graduate training in sociology,
only 31 of 100 initial applicants were given the right to apply, and many of
these were the children of important figures.
One participant noted problems with library exchanges, even though
they have been going on for over 80 years. The old books are rotting, much
is uncatalogued, and journal numbers are missing. There are inequalities:
the Soviets need American library science techniques, and we would like
access to their material and their great bibliographic apparatus.
· One participant noted some additional problems and opportunities.
One is housing: it is difficult to involve the good young researchers from
outside Moscow because of the housing problem in Moscow. Another is the
Soviet government agencies doing social science research that employ good
researchers but do not yet have exchanges with the United States. A third
is major institutional change: an article by ASUSSR President Marchuk in
the new ASUSSR newspaper indicates that the whole Academy structure
is in turmoil. The state statistical committee is also trying to make major
changes.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
social scientists
