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7
Dietary, Functional, and
Total Fiber
SUMMARY
Dietary Fiber consists of nondigestible carbohydrates and lignin that
are intrinsic and intact in plants. Functional Fiber consists of isolated,
nondigestible carbohydrates that have beneficial physiological effects
in humans. Total Fiber is the sum of Dietary Fiber and Functional
Fiber. Fibers have different properties that result in different
physiological effects. For example, viscous fibers may delay the
gastric emptying of ingested foods into the small intestine, result-
ing in a sensation of fullness, which may contribute to weight con-
trol. Delayed gastric emptying may also reduce postprandial blood
glucose concentrations and potentially have a beneficial effect on
insulin sensitivity. Viscous fibers can interfere with the absorption
of dietary fat and cholesterol, as well as with the enterohepatic
recirculation of cholesterol and bile acids, which may result in
reduced blood cholesterol concentrations. Consumption of Dietary
and certain Functional Fibers, particularly those that are poorly
fermented, is known to improve fecal bulk and laxation and
ameliorate constipation. The relationship of fiber intake to colon
cancer is the subject of ongoing investigation and is currently
unresolved. An Adequate Intake (AI) for Total Fiber in foods is set
at 38 and 25 g/d for young men and women, respectively, based
on the intake level observed to protect against coronary heart dis-
ease. Median intakes of Dietary Fiber ranged from 16.5 to 17.9 g/d
for men and 12.1 to 13.8 g/d for women (Appendix Table E-4).
There was insufficient evidence to set a Tolerable Upper Intake
Level (UL) for Dietary Fiber or Functional Fiber.
339
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340 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Overview
Definitions of Fiber
A variety of definitions of fiber exist worldwide (IOM, 2001). Some are
based solely on one or more analytical methods for isolating fiber, while
others are physiologically based. For instance, in the United States fiber is
defined by a number of analytical methods that are accepted by the Asso-
ciation of Official Analytical Chemists International (AOAC); these methods
isolate nondigestible animal and plant carbohydrates. In Canada, how-
ever, a formal definition has been in place that recognizes nondigestible
food of plant origin—but not of animal origin—as fiber. As nutrition
labeling becomes uniform throughout the world, it is recognized that a
single definition of fiber may be needed. Furthermore, new products are
being developed or isolated that behave like fiber, yet do not meet the
traditional definitions of fiber, either analytically or physiologically.
Without an accurate definition of fiber, compounds can be designed
or isolated and concentrated using available methods without necessarily
providing beneficial health effects, which most people consider to be an
important attribute of fiber. Other compounds can be developed that are
nondigestible and provide beneficial health effects, yet do not meet the
current U.S. definition based on analytical methods. For these reasons, the
Food and Nutrition Board, under the oversight of the Standing Committee
on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes, assembled a
Panel on the Definition of Dietary Fiber to develop a proposed definition
of fiber (IOM, 2001). Based on the panel’s deliberations, consideration of
public comments, and subsequent modifications, the following definitions
have been developed:
Dietary Fiber consists of nondigestible carbohydrates and lignin that are
intrinsic and intact in plants.
Functional Fiber consists of isolated, nondigestible carbohydrates that
have beneficial physiological effects in humans.
Total Fiber is the sum of Dietary Fiber and Functional Fiber.
This two-pronged approach to define edible, nondigestible carbohydrates
recognizes the diversity of carbohydrates in the human food supply that
are not digested: plant cell wall and storage carbohydrates that predomi-
nate in foods, carbohydrates contributed by animal foods, and isolated
and low molecular weight carbohydrates that occur naturally or have been
synthesized or otherwise manufactured. These definitions recognize a con-
tinuum of carbohydrates and allow for flexibility to incorporate new fiber
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D IETARY, FUNCTIONAL, AND TOTAL FIBER
sources developed in the future (after demonstration of beneficial physi-
ological effects in humans). While it is not anticipated that the new defini-
tions will significantly impact recommended levels of intake, information
on both Dietary Fiber and Functional Fiber will more clearly delineate the
source of fiber and the potential health benefits. Although sugars and
sugar alcohols could potentially be categorized as Functional Fibers, for la-
beling purposes they are not considered to be Functional Fibers because
they fall under “sugars” and “sugar alcohols” on the food label.
Distinguishing Features of Dietary Fiber Compared with
Functional Fiber
Dietary Fiber consists of nondigestible food plant carbohydrates and
lignin in which the plant matrix is largely intact. Specific examples are
provided in Table 7-1. Nondigestible means that the material is not
digested and absorbed in the human small intestine. Nondigestible plant
carbohydrates in foods are usually a mixture of polysaccharides that are
integral components of the plant cell wall or intercellular structure. This
definition recognizes that the three-dimensional plant matrix is respon-
sible for some of the physicochemical properties attributed to Dietary Fiber.
Fractions of plant foods are considered Dietary Fiber if the plant cells and
their three-dimensional interrelationships remain largely intact. Thus,
mechanical treatment would still result in intact fiber. Another distinguish-
ing feature of Dietary Fiber sources is that they contain other macronutrients
(e.g., digestible carbohydrate and protein) normally found in foods. For
example, cereal brans, which are obtained by grinding, are anatomical
layers of the grain consisting of intact cells and substantial amounts of
starch and protein; they would be categorized as Dietary Fiber sources.
TABLE 7-1 Characteristics of Dietary Fiber
Characteristic Dietary Fiber
Nondigestible animal carbohydrate No
Carbohydrates not recovered by alcohol precipitationa Yes
Nondigestible mono- and disaccharides and polyols No
Lignin Yes
Resistant starch Some
Intact, naturally occurring food source only Yes
Resistant to human enzymes Yes
Specifies physiological effect No
a Includes inulin, oligosaccharides (3–10 degrees of polymerization), fructans, poly-
dextrose, methylcellulose, resistant maltodextrins, and other related compounds.
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342 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES
Resistant starch that is naturally occurring and inherent in a food or
created during normal processing of a food, as is the case for flaked corn
cereal, would be categorized as Dietary Fiber. Examples of oligosaccharides
that fall under the category of Dietary Fiber are those that are normally
constituents of a Dietary Fiber source, such as raffinose, stachyose, and
verbacose in legumes, and the low molecular weight fructans in foods,
such as Jerusalem artichoke and onions.
Functional Fiber consists of isolated or extracted nondigestible carbo-
hydrates that have beneficial physiological effects in humans. Functional Fibers
may be isolated or extracted using chemical, enzymatic, or aqueous steps.
Synthetically manufactured or naturally occurring isolated oligosaccharides
and manufactured resistant starch are included in this definition. Also
included are those naturally occurring polysaccharides or oligosaccharides
usually extracted from their plant source that have been modified (e.g., to
a shorter polymer length or to a different molecular arrangement).
Although they have been inadequately studied, animal-derived carbohy-
drates such as connective tissue are generally regarded as nondigestible.
The fact that animal-derived carbohydrates are not of plant origin forms
the basis for including animal-derived, nondigestible carbohydrates in the
Functional Fiber category. Isolated, manufactured, or synthetic oligosaccharides
of three or more degrees of polymerization are considered to be Functional
Fiber. Nondigestible monosaccharides, disaccharides, and sugar alcohols
are not considered to be Functional Fibers because they fall under “sugars” or
“sugar alcohols” on the food label. Also, rapidly changing lumenal fluid bal-
ance resulting from large amounts of nondigestible mono- and disaccharides
or low molecular weight oligosaccharides, such as that which occurs when
sugar alcohols are consumed, is not considered a mechanism of laxation
for Functional Fibers.
Rationale for Definitions
Nondigestible carbohydrates are frequently isolated to concentrate a
desirable attribute of the mixture from which it was extracted. Distinguish-
ing a category of Functional Fiber allows for the desirable characteristics of
such components to be highlighted. In the relatively near future, plant
and animal synthetic enzymes may be produced as recombinant proteins,
which in turn may be used in the manufacture of fiber-like materials. The
definition will allow for the inclusion of these materials and will provide a
viable avenue to synthesize specific oligosaccharides and polysaccharides
that are part of plant and animal tissues.
In summary, one definition has been proposed for Dietary Fiber because
many other substances in high fiber foods, including a variety of vitamins
and minerals, often have made it difficult to demonstrate a significant
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D IETARY, FUNCTIONAL, AND TOTAL FIBER
health benefit specifically attributable to the fiber in foods. Thus, it is
difficult to separate out the effect of fiber per se from the high fiber food.
Attempts have been made to do this, particularly in epidemiological studies,
by controlling for other substances in those foods, but these attempts were
not always successful. The advantage, then, of adding isolated non-
digestible carbohydrates as a fiber source to a food is that one may be able
to draw conclusions about Functional Fiber itself with regard to its physi-
ological role rather than that of the vehicle in which it is found. The
proposed definitions do not preclude research directed towards the health
benefits of Dietary Fiber in foods, but it is not necessary to demonstrate a
physiological effect in order for a food fiber to be listed as Dietary Fiber.
An important aspect of the recommended definitions is that a sub-
stance is required to demonstrate a beneficial physiological effect to be
classified as Functional Fiber. Research has shown that extraction or isola-
tion of a polysaccharide, usually through chemical, enzymatic, or aqueous
means, can either enhance its health benefit (usually because it is a more
concentrated source) or diminish the beneficial effect. These recommen-
dations should be helpful in evaluating diet and disease relationship studies
as it will be possible to classify fiber-like components as Functional Fibers
due to their documented health benefits. Although databases are not cur-
rently constructed to delineate potential beneficial effects of specific fibers,
there is no reason that this could not be accomplished in the future.
Examples of Dietary and Functional Fibers
As described in the report, Dietary Reference Intakes: Proposed Definition of
Dietary Fiber (IOM, 2001), Dietary Fiber includes plant nonstarch poly-
saccharides (e.g., cellulose, pectin, gums, hemicellulose, β-glucans, and
fibers contained in oat and wheat bran), plant carbohydrates that are not
recovered by alcohol precipitation (e.g., inulin, oligosaccharides, and
fructans), lignin, and some resistant starch. Potential Functional Fibers for
food labeling include isolated, nondigestible plant (e.g., resistant starch,
pectin, and gums), animal (e.g., chitin and chitosan), or commercially
produced (e.g., resistant starch, polydextrose, inulin, and indigestible
dextrins) carbohydrates.
How the Definitions Affect the Interpretation of This Report
The reason that a definition of fiber is so important is that what is or is
not considered to be dietary fiber in, for example, a major epidemiological
study on fiber and heart disease or fiber and colon cancer, could deter-
mine the results and interpretation of that study. In turn, that would affect
recommendations regarding fiber intake. Clearly, the definitions described
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344 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES
above were developed after the studies cited in this report, which form the
basis for fiber intake recommendations. However, that should not detract
from the relevance of the recommendations, as the database used to mea-
sure fiber for these studies will be noted.
For example, most epidemiological studies use the U.S. Department
of Agriculture (USDA) database for fiber, along with other databases and
data added by the investigators for missing values (Hallfrisch et al., 1988;
Heilbrun et al., 1989; Miller et al., 1983; Platz et al., 1997). Such a database
represents Dietary Fiber, since Functional Fibers that serve as food ingredients
contribute a minor amount to the Total Fiber content of foods. In 1987, the
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) adopted AOAC method 985.29
for regulatory purposes to identify fiber as a mixture of nonstarch poly-
saccharides, lignin, and some resistant starch (FDA, 1987). Related
methods that isolated the same components as AOAC method 985.29 were
developed independently and accepted by AOAC and FDA in subsequent
years. These methods exclude all oligosaccharides (3 to 9 degrees of poly-
merization) from the definition and include all polysaccharides, lignin,
and some of the resistant starch that is resistant to the enzymes (protease,
amylase, and amyloglucosidase) used in the AOAC methods. It is these
methods that are used to measure the fiber content of foods that is entered
into the USDA database.
Other epidemiological studies have assessed intake of specific high
fiber foods, such as legumes, breakfast cereals, fruits, and vegetables (Hill,
1997; Thun et al., 1992). Intervention studies often use specific fiber
supplements such as pectin, psyllium, and guar gum, which would, by the
above definition, be considered Functional Fibers if their role in human
health is documented. For the above reasons, the type of fiber (Dietary,
Functional, or Total Fiber) used in the studies discussed later in this chapter
is identified.
Description of the Common Dietary and Functional Fibers
Below is a description of the Dietary Fibers that are most abundant in
foods and the Functional Fibers that are commonly added to foods or pro-
vided as supplements. To be classified as a Functional Fiber for food labeling
purposes, a certain level of information on the beneficial physiological
effects in humans will be needed. For some of the known beneficial effects
of Dietary and potential Functional Fibers, see “Physiological Effects of Iso-
lated and Synthetic Fibers” and “Evidence Considered for Estimating the
Requirement for Dietary Fiber and Functional Fiber.”
Cellulose. Cellulose, a polysaccharide consisting of linear β-(1,4)−linked
glucopyranoside units, is the main structural component of plant cell walls.
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D IETARY, FUNCTIONAL, AND TOTAL FIBER
Humans lack digestive enzymes to cleave β-(1,4) linkages and thus cannot
absorb glucose from cellulose. Powdered cellulose is a purified, mechani-
cally disintegrated cellulose obtained as a pulp from wood or cotton and is
added to food as an anticaking, thickening, and texturizing agent. Dietary
cellulose can be classified as Dietary Fiber or Functional Fiber, depending on
whether it is naturally occurring in food (Dietary Fiber) or added to foods
(Functional Fiber).
Chitin and Chitosan. Chitin is an amino-polysaccharide containing
β-(1,4) linkages as is present in cellulose. Chitosan is the deacetylated
product of chitin. Both chitin and chitosan are found in the exoskeletons
of arthropods (e.g., crabs and lobsters) and in the cell walls of most fungi.
Neither chitin nor chitosan is digested by mammalian digestive enzymes.
Chitin and chitosan are primarily consumed as a supplement and poten-
tially can be classified as Functional Fibers if sufficient data on physiological
benefits in humans are documented.
β-Glucans. β-glucans are homopolysaccharides of branched glucose
resides. These β-linked D-glucopyranose polymers are constituents of fungi,
algae, and higher plants (e.g., barley and oats). Naturally occurring β-glucans
can be classified as Dietary Fibers, whereas added or isolated β-glucans are
potential Functional Fibers.
Gums. Gums consist of a diverse group of polysaccharides usually iso-
lated from seeds and have a viscous feature. Guar gum is produced by the
milling of the endosperm of the guar seed. The major polysaccharide in
guar gum is galactomannan. Galactomannans are highly viscous and are
therefore used as food ingredients for their thickening, gelling, and stabi-
lizing properties. Gums in the diet can be classified as Dietary or Functional
Fibers.
Hemicelluloses. Hemicelluloses are a group of polysaccharides found
in plant cell walls that surround cellulose. These polymers can be linear or
branched and consist of glucose, arabinose, mannose, xylose, and galact-
uronic acid. Dietary hemicelluoses are classified as Dietary Fibers.
Inulin, Oligofructose, and Fructooligosaccharides. Inulin and oligofructose
are naturally occurring in a variety of plants. Most of the commercially
available inulin and oligofructose is either synthesized from sucrose or
extracted and purified from chicory roots. Oligofructose is also formed by
partial hydrolysis of inulin. Inulin is a polydisperse β-(2,1)-linked fructan
with a glucose molecule at the end of each fructose chain. The chain
length is usually 2 to 60 units, with an average degree of polymerization of
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346 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES
ten. The β-(2,1) linkage is resistant to enzymatic digestion. Synthetic
oligofructose contains β-(2,1) fructose chains with and without terminal
glucose units. The chain ranges from two to eight monosaccharide residues.
Synthetic fructooligosaccharides have the same chemical and structural
composition as oligofructose, except that the degree of polymerization
ranges from two to four. Because many current definitions of dietary fiber
are based on methods involving ethanol precipitation, oligosaccharides
and fructans that are endogenous in foods, but soluble in ethanol, are not
analyzed as dietary fiber. Thus, the USDA database does not currently
include these fiber sources. With respect to the definitions outlined in this
chapter, the naturally occurring fructans that are found in plants, such as
chicory, onions, and Jerusalem artichoke, would be classified as Dietary
Fibers; the synthesized or extracted fructans could be classified as Func-
tional Fibers when there are sufficient data to show positive physiological
effects in humans.
Lignin. Lignin is a highly branched polymer comprised of phenyl-
propanoid units and is found within “woody” plant cell walls, covalently
bound to fibrous polysaccharides (Dietary Fibers). Although not a carbo-
hydrate, because of its association with Dietary Fiber, and because it affects
the physiological effects of Dietary Fiber, lignin is classified as a Dietary Fiber
if it is relatively intact in the plant. Lignin isolated and added to foods
could be classified as Functional Fiber given sufficient data on positive physi-
ological effects in humans.
Pectins. Pectins, which are found in the cell wall and intracellular
tissues of many fruits and berries, consist of galacturonic acid units with
rhamnose interspersed in a linear chain. Pectins frequently have side
chains of neutral sugars, and the galactose units may be esterified with a
methyl group, a feature that allows for its viscosity. While fruits and veg-
etables contain 5 to 10 percent naturally occurring pectin, pectins are
industrially extracted from citrus peels and apple pomace. Isolated, high
methoxylated pectins are mainly added to jams due to their gelling prop-
erties with high amounts of sugar. Low methoxylated pectins are added to
low-calorie gelled products, such as sugar-free jams and yogurts. Thus,
pectins in the diet are classified as Dietary and/or Functional Fiber.
Polydextrose. Polydextrose is a polysaccharide that is synthesized by
random polymerization of glucose and sorbitol. Polydextrose serves as a
bulking agent in foods and sometimes as a sugar substitute. Polydextrose is
not digested or absorbed in the small intestine and is partially fermented
in the large intestine, with the remaining excreted in the feces. Polydextrose
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D IETARY, FUNCTIONAL, AND TOTAL FIBER
can potentially be classified as a Functional Fiber when sufficient data on
physiological benefits in humans are documented.
Psyllium. Psyllium refers to the husk of psyllium seeds and is a very
viscous mucilage in aqueous solution. The psyllium seed, also known as
plantago or flea seed, is small, dark, reddish-brown, odorless, and nearly
tasteless. P. ovata, known as blond or Indian plantago seed, is the species
from which husk is usually derived. P. ramosa is known as Spanish or French
psyllium seed. Psyllium, also known as ispaghula husk, may be classified as
a Functional Fiber.
Resistant Dextrins. Indigestible components of starch hydrolysates, as a
result of heat and enzymatic treatment, yield indigestible dextrins that are
also called resistant maltodextrins. Unlike gums, which have a high viscosity
that can lead to problems in food processing and unpleasant organoleptic
properties, resistant maltodextrins are easily added to foods and have a
good mouth feel. Resistant maltodextrins are produced by heat/acid treat-
ment of cornstarch, followed by enzymatic (amylase) treatment. The average
molecular weight of resistant maltodextrins is 2,000 daltons and consists of
polymers of glucose containing α-(1-4) and α-(1-6) glucosidic bonds, as
well as 1-2 and 1-3 linkages. Resistant dextrins can potentially be classified
as Functional Fibers when sufficient data on physiological benefits in humans
are documented.
Resistant Starch. Resistant starch is naturally occurring, but can also be
produced by the modification of starch during the processing of foods.
Starch that is included in a plant cell wall and thus physically inaccessible
to α-amylase is called RS1. Native starch that can be made accessible to the
enzyme by gelatinization is called RS2. Resistant starch that is formed
during processing is called RS3 or RS4 and is considered to be fiber that is
isolated rather than intact and naturally occurring. RS3 (retrograded
starch) is formed from the cooking and cooling or extrusion of starchy
foods (e.g., potato chips and cereals). RS4 (chemically modified starch)
includes starch esters, starch ethers, and cross-bonded starches that have
been produced by the chemical modification of starch. RS3 and RS4 are
not digested by mammalian intestinal enzymes and are partly fermented
in the colon (Cummings et al., 1996; Englyst et al., 1992). Resistant starch
is estimated to be approximately 10 percent (2 to 20 percent) of the
amount of starch consumed in the Western diet (Stephen et al., 1983).
Thus, RS1 and RS2 are classified as Dietary Fibers, and RS3 and RS4 may be
classified as Functional Fibers.
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Physiology of Absorption, Metabolism, and Excretion
By definition, Dietary Fiber and Functional Fiber are not digested by mam-
malian enzymes. Therefore, they pass into the large intestine relatively
intact. Along the gastrointestinal tract, properties of fiber result in differ-
ent physiological effects.
Effect on Gastric Emptying and Satiety
Consumption of viscous fibers delays gastric emptying (Low, 1990;
Roberfroid, 1993) and expands the effective unstirred layer, thus slowing
the process of absorption once in the small intestine (Blackburn et al.,
1984). This in turn can cause an extended feeling of fullness (Bergmann
et al., 1992). A slower emptying rate means delayed digestion and absorp-
tion of nutrients (Jenkins et al., 1978; Ritz et al., 1991; Roberfroid, 1993;
Truswell, 1992), resulting in decreased absorption of energy (Heaton,
1973). For example, Stevens and coworkers (1987) showed an 11 percent
reduction in energy intake with psyllium gum intake. Postprandial glucose
concentration in the blood is thus lower after the consumption of viscous
fiber than after consumption of digestible carbohydrate alone (Benini et
al., 1995; Holt et al., 1992; Leathwood and Pollet, 1988). The extended
presence of nutrients in the upper small intestine may promote satiety
(Sepple and Read, 1989).
Fermentation
Fibers may be fermented by the colonic microflora to carbon dioxide,
methane, hydrogen, and short-chain fatty acids (primarily acetate, propi-
onate, and butyrate). Foods rich in hemicelluloses and pectins, such as
fruits and vegetables, contain Dietary Fiber that is more completely ferment-
able than foods rich in celluloses, such as cereals (Cummings, 1984;
Cummings and Englyst, 1987; McBurney and Thompson, 1990). There
appears to be no relationship between the level of Dietary Fiber intake and
fermentability up to very high levels (Livesey, 1990). Resistant starch is
highly fermentable (van Munster et al., 1994). Butyrate, a four-carbon,
short-chain fatty acid, is the preferred energy source for colon cells
(Roediger, 1982), and lack of butyrate production, absorption, or metabo-
lism is thought by some to contribute to ulcerative colitis (Roediger, 1980;
Roediger et al., 1993). Others have suggested that butyrate may be protec-
tive against colon cancer (see “Dietary Fiber and the Prevention of Colon
Cancer”). However, the relationship between butyrate and colon cancer is
controversial and the subject of ongoing investigation (Lupton, 1995).
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D IETARY, FUNCTIONAL, AND TOTAL FIBER
Contribution of Fiber to Energy
When a metabolizable carbohydrate is absorbed in the small intestine,
its energy value is 16.7 kJ/g (4 kcal/g); when fiber is anaerobically fer-
mented by colonic microflora in the large intestine, short-chain fatty acids
(e.g., butyrate, acetate, and propionate) are produced and absorbed as an
energy source. Once absorbed into the colon cells, butyrate can be used as
an energy source by colonocytes (Roediger, 1982); acetate and propionate
travel through the portal vein to the liver, where propionate is then utilized
by the liver. Acetate can be metabolized peripherally. A small proportion
of energy from fermented fiber is used for bacterial growth and mainte-
nance, and bacteria are excreted in feces, which also contain short-chain
fatty acids (Cummings and Branch, 1986). Differences in food composi-
tion, patterns of food consumption, the administered dose of fiber, the
metabolic status of the individual (e.g., obese, lean, malnourished), and
the digestive capability of the individual influence the digestible energy
consumed and the metabolizable energy available from various dietary
fibers. Because the process of fermentation is anaerobic, less energy is
recovered from fiber than the 4 kcal/g that is recovered from carbohy-
drate. While it is still unclear as to the energy yield of fibers in humans,
current data indicate that the yield is in the range of 1.5 to 2.5 kcal/g
(Livesey, 1990; Smith et al., 1998).
Physiological Effects of Isolated and Synthetic Fibers
This section summarizes the fibers for which there is a sufficient data-
base that documents their beneficial physiological human effects, which is
the rationale for categorizing them as Functional Fibers. It is important to
note that discussions on the potential benefits of what might eventually be
classified as Functional Fibers should not be construed as endorsements of
those fibers. While plant-based foods are a good source of Dietary Fiber,
isolated or synthetic fibers have been developed for their use as food
ingredients and because of their beneficial role in human health. In 1988
Health Canada published guidelines for what they considered to be “novel
fiber sources” and food products containing them that could be labeled as
a source of fiber in addition to those included in their 1985 definition
(Health Canada, 1988). The rationale for these guidelines was that there
were safety issues unique to novel sources of fiber, and if a product was
represented as containing fiber, it should have the beneficial physiological
effects associated with dietary fiber that the public expects. The guidelines
indicated that both safety and efficacy of the fiber source had to be estab-
lished in order for the product to be identified as a source of dietary fiber
in Canada, and this had to be done through experiments using humans.
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
fiber intake
