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Summary
As we enter the twenty-first century, the polar biological sciences
stand well poised to address numerous important issues, many of which
were unrecognized as little as 10 years ago. From the effects of global
warming and elevated ultraviolet radiation on polar organisms to the
potential for life in subglacial Lake Vostok, the opportunities to advance
our understanding of polar ecosystems are unprecedented. At the same
time, the biological sciences are in the midst of a major change in techno-
logical capabilities. The era of "genome-enabled" biology is upon us, and
these new technologies will allow us to examine polar biological ques-
tions of unprecedented scope and to do so with extraordinary depth and
. .
preclslon.
All polar biological disciplines with applicability to polar regions,
including systematics, microbiology, ecology, evolutionary biology,
physiology, biochemistry, and molecular biology, will be transformed by
exploiting the new technologies available to biologists. These genome-
enabled methods will allow us to examine the genomic structure of
organisms and communities, monitor changes in the expression of genes,
and obtain detailed images of how the physiologies of organisms are
affected by natural or anthropogenic changes in the environment.
Complementing the broad array of technologies associated with genomics
are other new enabling technologies, such as platforms equipped to
monitor blames in real time and autonomous underwater vehicles that
will expand our spatial and temporal understanding of marine and ter-
restrial communities and their dynamics. The new approaches and tools
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2
FRONTIERS IN POLAR BIOLOGY IN THE GENOMIC ERA
are not ends in themselves but pathways into a new frontier of science
opportunities.
The Committee on Frontiers in Polar Biology (see Appendix A for
committee membership) examined the opportunities and challenges of
using the new technologies and methods of biology to conduct research
on key questions related to Arctic and Antarctic organisms. Specifically,
the study committee was given the following charge:
· Identify high-priority research questions that can benefit most from
the new tools of biology in polar regions and recommend ways to facili-
tate and accelerate the transfer and use of genomic technologies to answer
fundamental questions about Arctic and Antarctic organisms.
· Discuss the potential applications of genomic sciences and func-
tional genomics to molecular biology, microbiology, biochemistry, physi-
ology, evolutionary processes, and microbial ecology in polar regions and
identify the need for development of new technologies or methods spe-
cifically for polar regions.
· Seek ways to facilitate increased interaction between biological sci-
entists working in polar regions and other biological scientists.
· Assess impediments to the conduct of polar genomic research, such
as issues related to facilities, infrastructure, and maintenance of biological
sample collections and issues related to manpower and education needs.
The committee conducted its analysis in a series of meetings. To
gather input from the wider scientific community, the committee orga-
nized a special two-day Workshop on Frontiers in Polar Biology (see
Appendixes B and C for workshop agenda and list of participants).
Workshop participants included biologists with expertise in microbial,
protistan, soil, plant, invertebrate, fish, bird, and mammalian systems; in
paleobiology and astrobiology; in genomics and bioinformatics; and in
education and outreach. To exploit synergies of perspective, the work-
shop was also balanced among biologists who conduct research in the
Arctic, in the Antarctic, and in nonpolar environments. The breadth of
expertise helped the committee identify key science questions and assess
the opportunities and challenges associated with exploiting new genomic
(and complementary nongenomic) technologies in polar biological research.
WHY POLAR BIOLOGY?
Clearly, biology in polar regions shares its traditions with all of biol-
ogy it explores the same fundamental questions about organisms and
ecosystems, from essentially the same diversity of disciplinary perspec-
tives and using similar methods. Like the rest of biology, polar biology
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SUMMARY
3
has changed over time, because of both the increasing sophistication of
our knowledge base and the advances in technology and computing
power. But different regions of Earth have always offered their own
compelling scientific opportunities and scientists often specialize so that
they can explore these opportunities in depth.
For the polar regions, great distances, physical isolation, long periods
of darkness, and extreme climates have always posed special challenges-
the challenges associated with getting to and operating in these environ-
ments and of gaining a full perspective on a species when observations
were limited to the "good" months when it is light and warm enough to
conduct work. Thus, improvements in technology have always tied
closely with advances in our ability to conduct science in polar regions
and to expand the range of questions that could be addressed. Although
some of the key research questions identified in this report indeed apply
to other regions, there are reasons for the special polar emphasis. First, in
general, polar regions remain one of the least studied and least under-
stood ecosystems on the planet, and improving this understanding
becomes more and more critical as we come to see the relationship of
the polar regions with global processes. Second, and more specifi-
cally, genome research applied to polar biology would serve as a useful
"test bed" for temperate and tropical regions (e.g., there are tens of thou-
sands of tropical fishes but only about 250 in Antarctica so our ability to
develop a comprehensive view is enhanced). Finally, in the end we need
thorough understanding of all ecosystems so that we can conduct com-
parative studies across latitudinal clines, and these studies can then help
elucidate physiological and biochemical mechanisms for adaptation in a
way that no single perspective would allow.
Polar ecosystems provide study systems that can yield major insights
into a wide range of basic and applied issues in biological science. The
distinct geological, oceanographic, and climatic histories of the Arctic and
Antarctic have created two polar ecosystems that differ in some attributes
while sharing similarities in others. The Arctic, in essence, is an ice-
dominated ocean surrounded by large, continental landmasses with wide,
shallow continental shelves; the Antarctic, on the other hand, is a glaciated
continent featuring narrow, deep coastal margins and surrounded by an
ice-covered ocean. Both polar ecosystems are predominantly cold, isolated,
and subject to pronounced seasonal cycles of temperature and photo-
period. Organisms not only survive, but thrive, under these extreme
conditions, thus providing a unique perspective on the fundamental charac-
teristics of life processes and the mechanisms of evolutionary adaptation.
Many of the potential discoveries to be made in the study of adaptations
of polar organisms stand not only to make important contributions to
basic biological science but also to offer opportunities for advancing bio-
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4
FRONTIERS IN POLAR BIOLOGY IN THE GENOMIC ERA
technology and biomedicine for instance in the development of proto-
cols for cryopreservation of cells, tissues, and other biological materials.
Although remarkably well adapted to extreme physical conditions,
polar organisms are highly sensitive to anthropogenic perturbation, such
as the production of greenhouse gases and ozone-destroying chemicals.
Human activities are already affecting polar ecosystems dramatically, and
these effects are likely to increase in the future. If we are to predict the
impact of environmental change on global ecosystems, it is critical that
we evaluate closely and understand polar ecosystems, which in many
ways may serve as "canaries in the coal mine" in terms of providing
warnings about the effects of climate change worldwide.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS IN POLAR BIOLOGY
The committee identified four major focal areas of polar biological
research that could benefit significantly from the application of genome-
enabled technologies. This categorization reflects the important contribu-
tions that new technologies can make at all levels of biological organiza-
tion, ranging from fundamental molecular-scale phenomena at the level
of the genome to processes involving entire ecosystems and the human
communities that depend on them.
1. Evolution and biodiversity of polar organisms. A major shaping force
in the evolution of polar organisms and polar ecosystems was the devel-
opment of the extreme physical conditions of the two polar regions, nota-
bly their very low temperatures. Polar species thus provide exceptional
models for analyzing adaptive evolutionary change in extreme environ-
ments. Because the Arctic and Antarctic regions underwent glaciation
during different geological epochs (Pleistocene and Miocene, respec-
tively), comparison of adaptations in ecotypically equivalent boreal and
austral taxa will provide important insights into convergent and diver-
gent evolutionary adaptation. Permafrost, subglacial lakes, and other
frozen environments may preserve a repository of ancient organisms and
DNA that could be used (1) for analyses of biodiversity during different
geological time periods and (2) to elucidate the evolutionary relationships
between ancient and present-day organisms.
· What new types of genetic information have been gained to enable
polar organisms to function well under the stressful physical conditions
of the polar regions, especially extremes of cold? What "raw material"
was used to fabricate the new types of genes found in cold-adapted polar
organisms? Have Arctic and Antarctic species exploited similar or differ-
ent genetic "raw material" to fabricate adaptations?
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SUMMARY
5
· What types of genetic information have been lost during evolution
under extremely stable thermal conditions, such as those found in major
regions of the polar seas? Are some polar organisms especially suscep-
tible to global warming as a result of having lost genetic information
needed to allow adaptation to higher and more variable temperatures?
Do polar species contain the genetic information needed to cope with
anthropogenic stresses such as ozone depletion?
· How rapidly do the genomes of polar organisms evolve and what
are the mechanisms of genomic change?
· How do the processes of gene transcription and protein translation
compare in polar and nonpolar species? Do polar species manifest
reduced capacities to alter gene expression in the face of environmental
change?
· What is the evolutionary origin of the organisms present in the
polar ice caps, glaciers, and subglacial lakes? Are they metabolically
active; and if so, do they possess novel metabolic pathways?
· Are polar environments reservoirs of paleogenes that can facilitate
the evolution of present-day species through lateral gene transfer?
· What are the determinants of microbial diversity in the marine and
terrestrial ecosystems of the polar regions?
2. Polar physiology and biochemistry. The abilities of polar organisms to
carry out the physiological and biochemical processes required for
metabolism, growth, and reproduction under extreme climatic conditions
are based on widespread adaptive change. Proteins, membranes, and
other key biochemical components of polar species exhibit a broad suite
of adaptations that may at once "fit" their biochemistry to polar condi-
tions and at the same time limit their functional range to the extreme
environments of the poles. Among the important questions related to
physiological and biochemical systems are the following:
· How have many "cold-blooded" polar fishes and invertebrates
succeeded in reducing their metabolic rates? Can these mechanisms be
used in biotechnological and biomedical procedures?
· What evolutionary mechanisms are available to adapt/preserve
enzymatic activity at low temperatures?
· Can insights from study of these cold-adapted proteins guide bio-
technological development of commercially useful molecules; for example,
enzymes with novel activities that work efficiently at low and moderate
temperatures?
· What are the types of molecules that serve as "antifreeze" agents
and ice-nucleators? How do these molecules work? What biotechnologi-
cal and biomedical potential is represented by these molecules?
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6
FRONTIERS IN POLAR BIOLOGY IN THE GENOMIC ERA
· What types of physiological and biochemical adaptations enable
the cells and organs of some small Arctic mammals to survive at sub-zero
temperatures during hibernation? Can these same mechanisms be ex-
ploited in biomedical procedures including cryosurgery and cryostorage
of tissues and organs?
· What sensing and regulatory pathways have polar organisms
evolved to cope with abiotic stresses?
3. Polar microbial communities. A broad suite of questions can be
addressed to advance our understanding of the functioning of polar
microbial ecosystems. To these ends, appropriate genomic methodolo-
gies must be linked to a variety of new methods for field investigation,
including new drilling technologies and unmanned observatories. The
potential rewards of these new lines of study are vast and include contri-
butions to aquatic, terrestrial, and potentially, extraterrestrial biology. For
example, the cryptoendolithic organisms and those dwelling in the peren-
nially ice-covered lakes of the McMurdo Dry Valleys (which were once
thought to be abiotic) have long been recognized as potential analogues of
life (if any) on Mars. Similarly, the long-isolated microbial communities
of Lake Vostok might serve as a model for evaluating the potential for life
on Europa. Genome analysis of these organisms will provide us with an
understanding of their origins and of genetic traits that might be expected
in extraterrestrial life. Some key questions on polar ecosystem biology
that can be addressed by creative use of genomics and other new tech-
nologies are the following:
· What types of microorganisms are present in polar aquatic and
terrestrial ecosystems and what roles do these microorganisms play in
ecosystem processes?
· What is the relationship between the composition and bio-
geochemical function of polar microbial communities?
· What factors control the composition, interaction, and productivity
of the organisms in polar microbial aggregates?
· What is the lower temperature limit for evolving microbial life?
· Can we exploit an understanding of microbial life in Earth's polar
regions to design probes and experiments to detect potential life in extra-
terrestrial environments?
4. Assessment and remediation of human impact on polar ecosystems. The
impacts of human activities on polar ecosystems range from the direct
impacts of activities such as fishing to less direct effects due to atmo-
spheric modifications (greenhouse gases and ozone-destroying chemi-
cals). The use of genomic technologies and other new approaches will
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SUMMARY
yield important insights into all spatial and temporal scales of human
effects and may provide strategies for the remediation of human pertur-
bation of polar environments. Among the questions that could be ad-
dressed through application of these new technologies are the following:
· How will the thinning and shrinking of ice cover in Arctic marine
habitats affect ecosystem structure?
· How will global warming influence the distributions of marine
animal and plant species, for example, in the case of Arctic fishes that may
have to remain in cold waters to find adequate nutrition?
· How will the loss of key species in polar communities affect eco-
system functioning (e.g., net primary productivity, decomposition rates,
carbon and nitrogen cycles) and community composition at temporal and
spatial (local to landscape) scales?
· Will climate change increase the frequency and success of biologi-
cal invasions? What ecosystem-wide changes will be caused by these
. · ~
Invasions ~
· What is the potential of using genetic technologies as forensic tools?
The utility of DNA methods in "environmental forensics" has been
proven, for example, in the case of identifying species of whale meat sold
commercially. Can these technologies be used for improved manage-
ment of polar resources?
· What roles do soil microorganisms play in bioremediation in polar
regions for instance, in soils contaminated by petroleum spills? Can
new varieties of microorganisms be obtained from contaminated soils for
use in bioremediation processes?
To tap the full potential of genomics in addressing these and other
key science questions, focused effort will be needed. The establishment of
a Polar Genome Science Initiative would help address these research ques-
tions effectively. The Polar Genome Science Initiative would need to
include the following aims:
· generation of genetic and physical maps of genomes of selected
polar species;
· high-throughput sequencing of genomic DNA and expressed genes;
· gene identification and annotation;
· population analysis via single-nucleotide polymorphisms; and
· transcriptome, proteome, metabolome, and envirogenome analyses.
Because genome projects produce a high volume of sequence data
and annotated information, a comprehensive Polar Genome Science Initia-
tive must make provision for creation, curation, validation, and manage-
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8
FRONTIERS IN POLAR BIOLOGY IN THE GENOMIC ERA
ment of these databases and for bioinformatics tools necessary for insight-
ful genome analyses.
Selecting polar organisms for genome analysis needs careful thought
to ensure that resources are targeted effectively. Choices should be based
on evidence that:
interest.
· analysis of its genome will address broad and significant scientific
questions;
· it is a good model for evolution in an isolated polar environment;
· it provides opportunities for comparisons to organisms of compa-
rable ecotype from polar habitats and along polar-to-temperate latitudinal
clines; and/or
· its cellular processes possess characteristics of biotechnological
Monitoring physiological and biochemical processes of polar organ-
isms and monitoring polar ecosystems are keys to linking data generated
from a Polar Genome Science Initiative to understanding and predicting
organismal and ecosystem responses to environmental changes. Examples
of novel approaches and advanced technologies for measuring biological
processes include:
· multiple-element and compound-specific stable isotope analyses
for studying photosynthetic and biogeochemical processes, respectively;
· stable isotope probing, an advanced culture-independent tech-
nique for isolation of DNA from microorganisms at a species level;
· instrument packages and "tags" for measuring geoposition, water
depth, heart rate, and blood chemistry of animals that are subsequently
released back in the field; and
· "biosensors" to detect particular DNA molecules or antigens for
characterizing the compositions of aquatic microbial communities or for
tracking plankton blooms.
COMPLEMENTS TO GENOMIC SCIENCE:
ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES, FACILITIES, AND
INFRASTRUCTURE
The success of future polar genomic research depends not only on the
new technologies available and the expertise of individual researchers
but also on the equipment, infrastructure, and facilities that will enable
researchers to sample, analyze, and experiment with organisms in polar
ecosystems. The committee identified key technologies, infrastructure,
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SUMMARY
9
and facilities that have to be developed or improved to facilitate the
advancement of polar genomic research.
Sampling. Subglacial lakes that have been isolated from direct gas
exchange with the atmosphere for perhaps 20 million years offer an in-
credible research opportunity. Clean technology must be developed to
avoid contaminating the lakes with contemporary microbiota. Sampling
procedure can also be improved by the development of new fast-access
drilling methods and of ice-traverse technology to enable efficient field
operations. For marine research, improved technologies for collection
and shipment of sensitive specimens must be developed. Notably, the
ability to reliably preserve and ship sensitive samples to be used in
molecular biological and chemical analyses to home laboratories is essen-
tial to many research programs.
Facilities. To facilitate genomic research in the Arctic, improved facili-
ties for collection, analysis, and shipment of materials are needed. The
Toolik and Barrow facilities of Alaska are operating at, or near, full
capacity, so some expansion of these U.S.-based laboratories is desirable.
In the eastern Arctic, U.S. biological research has traditionally been sup-
ported through an international agreement with Denmark due to the lack
of U.S.-based facilities in Greenland. Establishment of a U.S. Arctic labora-
tory at Thule or negotiation of an agreement to allow U.S. polar biologists
access to Svalbard would provide new opportunities to study northern
polar ecosystems.
Due to the difficulties in conducting work during the dark, extremely
harsh, polar winter, a substantial fraction of research activity in polar
regions is restricted to the warmer parts of the year when the sun is above
the horizon. Thus, large gaps in our understanding of organism and
ecosystem function exist because processes affecting life in the polar envi-
ronment occur year-round. Year-round access to terrestrial and marine
facilities will not only yield new scientific insights into natural systems
but also allow greater flexibility for a broad range of scientists to partici-
pate directly in field research. The opportunities provided by winter
access could also encourage new participants to enter polar research.
Given the scientific impetus for year-round sample collection and
analysis, a base-funded and staffed repository for frozen samples of polar
organisms is needed. A sample repository would ensure the proper
archiving and curation of samples, ensure the provenance of samples
submitted for deposition, and provide accessibility to samples from polar
organisms to the broader community of biologists.
Integration of research activities. Integration and synthesis of knowl-
edge on the genomes, physiologies, and biochemistries of polar organisms,
and the biogeochemical and physical characteristics of polar ecosystems,
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FRONTIERS IN POLAR BIOLOGY IN THE GENOMIC ERA
is an important challenge that must be addressed if polar biology is to
realize its full potential. Integration requires creating possibilities for
teams of scientists that work within a particular habitat to gather and
share information and techniques. Likewise, researchers doing similar
research in Arctic and Antarctic ecosystems must be encouraged to share
information and insights. Programs such as the Arctic System Science
Program serve to help unite the Arctic scientific community both within
the United States and internationally. Conferences and workshops can be
used to facilitate communication among scientists willing to cross biologi-
cal disciplines and scales and to develop systemic understanding of the
organism, habitat, or region under study. This kind of integration of
knowledge will accelerate the infusion of genomics and other techniques
into polar biology. Field courses and postdoctoral fellowships should be
designed to encourage nonpolar scientists with relevant expertise to
pursue studies in the Arctic and Antarctic and to collaborate with polar
scientists.
Increasing the flow of information to nonspecialists. In addition to
increasing interactions between polar biologists and the broader commu-
nity of biological scientists, continued efforts should be made to enhance
the flow of information about polar biology to a wider audience because
polar ecosystems play an important role in global-scale phenomena. Thus,
what happens to organisms in polar ecosystems may have implications
for biological processes in other terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Some
potential strategies and venues for increasing awareness of polar biology
and disseminating new discoveries to a wider audience include the
following:
· Coverage of polar topics in textbooks and curricula should be
expanded.
· Modern educational technology, such as real-time distance learning,
should be used to bring students into close contact with polar biology.
· Additional strategies should be developed for bringing teachers
and students into the field.
· Web sites should be developed that provide attractive, informa-
tive, and up-to-date information to new audiences.
· Polar scientists should be encouraged to be proactive communi
cators of discoveries to the media.
Educational and outreach activities in the Arctic should also include
the indigenous communities that are part of the ecosystem. The effort
should be two-way, with scientists respecting and learning from the expe-
riences of local residents. Encouraging local communities to contribute to
research activities seems a wise approach for communicating what science
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SUMMARY
11
is being conducted and why and for identifying research questions
and facilitating the research itself.
FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
A New Unifying Approach to Polar Biological Research
Finding 1: Genome science is an addition to, not a replacement
for, other approaches to the study of polar biology. The applica-
tion of new genomic technologies has the potential to be a unify-
ing paradigm for polar biological sciences. Key opportunities
include the following:
· Polar organisms and communities offer unique opportunities to
study evolution using genome sciences.
· The use of genomic methods will give insights into the effects of
global change on polar biota and biogeochemistry.
· Genome .~cience.s have vast potential for elucidating function in
microbial communities.
· Polar genome sciences could make broad contributions to bio-
medicine and biotechnology (for example, cryopreservation, cryosurgery,
and cold-functioning enzymes).
· A polar genome research initiative will provide important new
information on the evolution, physiology, and biochemistry of polar or-
ganisms. Such information not only enhances our understanding of how
polar ecosystems function but also helps our search for life in icy worlds.
Recommendation 1-1: The National Science Foundation (NSF)
should develop a major new initiative in polar genome sciences
that emphasizes collaborative multidisciplinary research and co-
ordinates research efforts. The Polar Genome Science Initiative
could facilitate genome analyses of polar organisms and support
the relevant research on their physiology, biochemistry, ecosys-
tem function, and biotechnological applications.
Recommendation 1-2: A new polar genome initiative should
capitalize on data from existing Long-Term Ecological Research
and Microbial Observatory sites to take advantage of the long-
term datasets and the geographical distribution of these sites.
Additional approaches may be taken so that research can be con-
ducted at sites with comparable conditions at both poles. For
example, there is currently no marine site in the Arctic.
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FRONTIERS IN POLAR BIOLOGY IN THE GENOMIC ERA
Coordination is Essential
Finding 2: To facilitate the advancement of polar genome sci-
ences, coordination of research efforts will be required to ensure
efficient transfer of technologies, provide guidance to researchers
on choosing organisms for genome analyses, and help in the
development of new scientific initiatives. Coordination of research
efforts should begin with syntheses of the available information,
thereby avoiding duplication of research efforts. It should facili-
tate increased communication among the polar scientists and also
with nonpolar scientists who have expertise in genomics and
other technological advances applicable to polar studies.
Recommendation 2: NSF should form a scientific standing com-
mittee to establish priorities and coordinate large-scale efforts for
genome-enabled polar science (for example, genome sequencing,
transcriptome analysis, and coordinated bioinformatics databases).
Virtual Genome Science Centers
Finding 3: Genomic technologies, both those currently available
and those anticipated in the future, are applicable to some of the
key questions in polar biology. However, the technical demands
of genome science often transcend the resources of any individual
researcher.
Recommendation 3: NSF should support some mechanism to
facilitate gene sequencing and related genomic activities beyond
the budget of any individual principal investigator, such as vir-
tual genome science centers. The purpose of the virtual centers
would be to provide infrastructure for individual researchers and
to facilitate technology transfer among researchers. New infra-
structure is not needed, rather some type of coordinating body
(e.g., University National Oceanographic Laboratory System,
Ocean Drilling Program).
Enabling Technologies
Finding 4: Enabling technologies are critical to the successful
application of genomic technologies to polar studies.
Recommendation 4: Ancillary technologies such as observato-
ries, ice drilling, remote sensing, mooring and autonomous
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SUMMARY
sensors, and isotope approaches should be developed to support
application of genomic technologies to polar studies.
Increasing Awareness and Education
Finding 5: Polar systems play important roles in global-scale phe-
nomena and there is a need for enhanced flow of information
about polar biology to a wide audience of scientists, policymakers,
and the general public.
Recommendation 5: NSF should continue its efforts to make
information about polar regions available to teachers, schools,
and the public. Short- and long-term plans should be developed
for increasing public awareness of polar biology. In the near
future, postdoctoral fellowships in polar biology could be set up
to encourage young scientists to enter the field. Long-term plans
should include continued efforts to incorporate polar biology in
college and K-12 curricula.
Impediments to Integrated Polar Science
Finding 6: Impediments to conducting multidisciplinary inte-
grated polar science exist, including administrative, fiscal, and
infrastructure issues:
13
· Coordination among directorates within NSF and coordination
among agencies are both essential for advancing polar biology.
· International collaborations are vital for all polar research. Cur-
rent procedures make the involvement of international scientists in U.S.
polar biological projects difficult.
· Attempts to conduct comparative research at both poles can be
difficult. Although NSF's Office of Polar Programs support research at
both poles, grant applications for Arctic and Antarctic research have to be
made to two separate NSF research programs. Research proposals often
undergo two reviews and scientists must prepare separate budgets for
each proposal.
· Infrastructure for Arctic and Antarctic biology needs improvement.
The conduct of molecular research in the polar regions requires specific
infrastructure, and there is no high-technology equipment for such work
in the Arctic. Development of ice-drilling and clean-sampling technolo-
gies in the Antarctic will facilitate research in deep ice and subglacial
lakes.
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FRONTIERS IN POLAR BIOLOGY IN THE GENOMIC ERA
Recommendation 6-1: To reach the goal of getting excellent
science done as efficiently as possible, NSF should remove im-
pediments to cross-directorate funding. Because integrated polar
science often requires interagency cooperation, NSF should lead
by example and form partnerships with the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration and others as relevant. Memoranda of
understanding among directorates within NSF and among fund-
ing agencies are one mechanism to facilitate transfer of informa-
tion and coordination of research.
Recommendation 6-2: Establishment of international research
partnerships or memoranda of understanding will facilitate and
enhance these collaborative efforts. Issues such as stipends,
travel, visas, education, ship time, aircraft use, and other logisti-
cal issues should be addressed in these memoranda to ensure
successful operation of international collaborative polar research.
Recommendation 6-3: More information is needed to develop
solutions to problems related to conducting bipolar research. NSF
should conduct a brief survey of researchers and research groups
who would potentially work in both poles to identify impedi-
ments and then take steps to address them.
Recommendation 6-4: To facilitate integrated, multidisciplinary
biological research at both poles, NSF will have to improve bio-
logical laboratories and research vessels, and develop ice-drilling
resources in the polar regions. Opportunities to allow year-round
access to, and operation of, field sites should be pursued.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
polar organisms
