SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FOR ARMY HOMELAND SECURITY
REPORT 1
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
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NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This study was supported by Contract/Grant No. DAAD19-02-C-0049, TO 2, between the National Academy of Sciences and the Department of the Army. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the organization that provided support for the project.
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Cover: The Pentagon burning after being struck by a commercial airliner, September 11, 2001. Courtesy of Reza Marvashti, The Free Lance-Star, Fredericksburg, Virginia.
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
Advisers to the Nation on Science, Engineering, and Medicine
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
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COMMITTEE ON ARMY SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FOR HOMELAND DEFENSE
JOHN W. LYONS,
NAE,
Chair,
U.S. Army Research Laboratory (retired), Mount Airy, Maryland
GEORGE BUGLIARELLO,
NAE, Polytechnic University, Brooklyn, New York
TIMOTHY COFFEY,
University of Maryland, College Park, with joint appointment at National Defense University, Washington, D.C.
STEPHEN W. DREW,
NAE, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
MITRA DUTTA,
University of Illinois, Chicago
FREDERICK L. FROSTIC,
Booz Allen Hamilton, McLean, Virginia
C. WILLIAM GEAR,
NAE, NEC Research Institute, Princeton, New Jersey
ARTHUR H. HEUER,
NAE, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
HOWARD S. LEVINE,
Weidlinger Associates, Inc., Los Altos, California
JOSEPH P. MACKIN,
E-OIR Measurements, Inc., Spotsylvania, Virginia
JACK N. MERRITT,
U.S. Army (retired) and Association of the U.S. Army(retired), Arlington, Virginia
THOMAS E. MITCHELL,
Gray Hawk Systems, Inc., Alexandria, Virginia
K. DAVID NOKES,
Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico
DENNIS J. REIMER,
U.S. Army (retired) and Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism, Oklahoma City
EUGENE SEVIN, NAE, Consultant,
Lyndhurst, Ohio
ANNETTE L. SOBEL,
Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico
MICHAEL F. SPIGELMIRE,
U.S. Army (retired),
Consultant,
Destin, Florida
Liaison, Board on Army Science and Technology
DONALD R. KEITH,
U.S. Army (retired) and Cypress International (retired), Alexandria, Virginia
National Research Council Staff
MARGARET N. NOVACK, Study Director
JAMES C. MYSKA, Research Associate
TOMEKA N. GILBERT, Senior Project Assistant
BOARD ON ARMY SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
JOHN E. MILLER, Chair,
Oracle Corporation, Reston, Virginia
GEORGE T. SINGLEY III, Vice Chair,
Hicks and Associates, Inc., McLean, Virginia
ROBERT L. CATTOI,
Rockwell International (retired), Dallas, Texas
RICHARD A. CONWAY,
NAE, Union Carbide Corporation (retired), Charleston, West Virginia
GILBERT F. DECKER,
Walt Disney Imagineering (retired), Glendale, California
ROBERT R. EVERETT,
NAE, MITRE Corporation (retired), New Seabury, Massachusetts
PATRICK F. FLYNN,
NAE, Cummins Engine Company, Inc. (retired), Columbus, Indiana
HENRY J. HATCH,
NAE, Army Chief of Engineers (retired), Oakton, Virginia
EDWARD J. HAUG,
University of Iowa, Iowa City
GERALD J. IAFRATE,
North Carolina State University, Raleigh
MIRIAM E. JOHN,
California Laboratory, Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore
DONALD R. KEITH,
U.S. Army (retired), Cypress International (retired), Alexandria, Virginia
CLARENCE W. KITCHENS,
IIT Research Institute, Alexandria, Virginia
SHIRLEY A. LIEBMAN,
CECON Group (retired), Holtwood, Pennsylvania
KATHRYN V. LOGAN,
Georgia Institute of Technology (professor emerita), Roswell
STEPHEN C. LUBARD,
S-L Technology, Woodland Hills, California
JOHN W. LYONS,
NAE, U.S. Army Research Laboratory (retired), Mount Airy, Maryland
JOHN H. MOXLEY,
IOM, Korn/Ferry International, Los Angeles, California
STEWART D. PERSONICK,
Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (until December 31, 2002)
MILLARD F. ROSE,
Radiance Technologies, Huntsville, Alabama
JOSEPH J. VERVIER,
ENSCO, Inc., Melbourne, Florida
Staff
BRUCE A. BRAUN, Director
MICHAEL A. CLARKE, Associate Director
WILLIAM E. CAMPBELL, Administrative Officer
CHRIS JONES, Financial Associate
DANIEL E.J. TALMAGE, JR., Research Associate
DEANNA P. SPARGER, Senior Project Assistant
Preface
This study is being conducted by the Committee on Army Science and Technology for Homeland Defense of the Board on Army Science and Technology, in the Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences of the National Academies. Sponsored by the Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army for Research and Technology, the committee will produce a series of reports encompassing possible science and technology in support of the Army’s role in homeland security (HLS). The statement of task for this first report is as follows:
The National Research Council will:
Review relevant literature and activities, such as the National Academies’ emerging Science and Technology Program plan and Research Strategy for Combating Terrorism and their work with the interagency Technical Support Working Group (TSWG), reports from the Gilmore Commission and Hart-Rudman Commission, the DoD Counter-Terrorism Technology Task Force (DCT3F) plan, DOD Information Assurance policies and existing military operation and contingency plans to develop an Army context for the enhanced campaign against terrorism.
Determine areas of emphasis for Army S&T in support of counterterrorism (CT) and anti-terrorism (AT). Operational areas the NRC should examine include indications and warning, denial and survivability, recovery and consequence management, and attribution and retaliation.
In the first year, produce a report within nine months from contract award containing findings and recommendations that provide insights for high-payoff technologies.
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, have forced the nation to consider how to prepare for the defense of the homeland. Terrorism is no longer an item on the evening news, taking place in some distant locale. Terrorism has become a domestic issue. As part of this recognition, the Army requested that the Board on Army Science and Technology (BAST) create a committee to meet over a 3-year period to consider how science and technology might better enable the Army to accomplish its mission in the homeland. It is anticipated that the committee will produce several reports during this period.
COMMITTEE PROCESS
This first report is a broad survey of relevant technologies, written in a relatively short period of time. Because of the scope of the review, the lack of a well-defined operational framework,1 and the time-sensitive nature of the Army’s interest, the committee has determined not to study specific products but rather to consider areas of technologies one level above individual products, processes, or services. In any case it should be noted that it is not the intent of this study to recommend budget actions; the technology assessments are intended to assist the Army in formulating its future technology plans.
The committee began its work by reviewing the literature listed below but found that very little has been said about the Army’s role in HLS and the technology needs in support thereof.
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The National Strategy for Homeland Security,
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The Federal Response Plan,
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The National Academies’ report Making the Nation Safer: The Role of Science and Technology in Countering Terrorism,
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The interagency Technical Support Working Group (TSWG) outputs,
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Reports from the Gilmore Commission and the Hart-Rudman Commission,
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The Department of Defense (DoD) Counter-Terrorism Technology Task Force (DCT3F) plan,
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DoD information assurance policies, and
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Existing military operation and contingency plans.
There are other reports, such as the annual report of the Department of Energy’s Chemical/Biological National Security Program (CBNP), that the committee did not review for lack of time but that might provide additional information to the reader.
In addition to the literature search, the committee requested a series of briefings from the Army to better understand the Army’s view of the homeland mission. It also heard from representatives of the National Guard Bureau to understand the role of the Army National Guard. A thorough legal briefing on the limitations of the Posse Comitatus Act facilitated this understanding. Lastly, the committee heard from scientists with expertise in a wide range of technologies in an effort to preview emerging types of equipment.
Even as this report was being prepared, doctrine and policy were being developed. The Department of Homeland Security and the Department of Defense’s Northern Command, which are to have the major responsibilities and authorities for homeland security at the national level, are still in the early stages of formation and organization. The actual role that will be played by the Army in homeland security must certainly depend in large measure on the operational assignments Army units will be given in the framework of, or in support of, these overarching organizations. This remains in a state of flux. While, as is indicated in the report, it is anticipated that much of the doctrine will be drawn from existing protocols, the lack of specific doctrine made the study of specific equipment requirements difficult. Therefore the committee assumes certain functional requirements, which are described in Chapter 1.
REPORT ORGANIZATION
The DOD’s Defense Counter-Terrorism Technology Task Force (DCT3F), in calling for and reviewing technical proposals in the wake of September 11, used the following taxonomy:
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Indications and warning,
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Denial and survivability,
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Recovery and consequence management, and
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Attribution and retaliation.
The study sponsor chose to make this taxonomy the basis for the committee’s tasking document,2 so the report is organized around these operational areas.
Prevention |
Protection |
Response |
Denial |
Infrastructure |
Attribution |
Indications and warnings |
Personnel |
Consequence management |
Deterrence |
Facilities |
Crisis management |
Preemptive strike |
Retaliation |
|
These four areas describe events in a time continuum beginning when intelligence indicates an event may take place and ending when blame can be attributed and appropriate retaliation executed. In Chapters 2 through 5 the committee has divided the four operational areas first into functional capabilities and then into technologies. Because the same technologies may be necessary in more than one of the operational areas, conclusions and recommendations concerning these technologies may appear in more than one chapter. Chapter 6 captures the overarching observations of the committee and Chapter 7 lists the findings, conclusions, and recommendations.
COMMITTEE COMPOSITION
The membership of this committee was intended to contain a broad representation of scientific and technological skill sets that have application to the Army’s role in homeland security. These skill sets range from information technologies such as communications, computer sciences, and sensor technologies to materials and civil engineering, with special emphasis on structural hardening and resistance to nuclear and conventional explosive forces. Biosecurity expertise was considered important, as was a thorough understanding of the Army’s capabilities. A security clearance was considered essential, as many of the topics that would be of interest to the committee are classified.
The committee worked very hard at its task and is grateful to all those who contributed to the report. Although the report limits itself to a fairly high-indenture level of exploration, the committee is satisfied that it will provide significant assistance to the Army as it moves on to future missions.
John W. Lyons, Chair
Committee on Army Science and Technology for Homeland Defense
Acknowledgment of Reviewers
This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the NRC’s Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their review of this report:
Thomas N. Burnette, Jr., LTG U.S. Army (retired),
Ashton B. Carter, Harvard University,
Anthony Dirienzo, Colsa Corporation,
Ronald O. Harrison, MG, Army National Guard (retired),
J. Jerome Holton, Defense Group Inc.,
Michael R. Ladisch, NAE, Purdue University,
Lewis E. Link, LTG, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (retired),
John E. Miller, Oracle Corporation,
M. Allan Northrop, Microfluidic Systems, Inc.,
George W. Parshall, NAS, E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company,
Harvey W. Schadler, NAE, GE Corporate Research and Development, and
Andrew Sessler, NAS, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Center.
Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recom-
mendations nor did they see the final draft of the report before its release. The review of this report was overseen by Alexander H. Flax, NAE. Appointed by the NRC’s Report Review Committee, he was responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of this report rests entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.
Tables, Figures, and Boxes
TABLES
ES-1 |
High-Payoff Technologies, |
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2-1 |
Technologies for Perimeter Defense and Warning, |
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2-2 |
Technologies for Chemical Agent Detection, |
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2-3 |
Technologies for Biological Agent Detection, |
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2-4 |
Technologies for the Detection of Neutrons and Gamma Rays in the Nuclear Weapons Context, |
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2-5 |
Technologies for Vapor-Phase Explosive Detectors, |
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2-6 |
Technologies for Bulk Explosive Detection, |
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2-7 |
Examples of Cross-Cutting Technologies, |
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3-1 |
Technologies for Physical Security, |
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3-2 |
Technologies for Blast Resistance of Building Structures for New and Retrofit Construction, |
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3-3 |
Technologies for Cybersecurity, |
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4-1 |
Technologies for Command and Control, |
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4-2 |
Technologies for Event Assessment, |
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4-3 |
Technologies for Force Protection, |
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4-4 |
Technologies for Medical Response, |
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4-5 |
Technologies for Remediation and Decontamination, |
5-1 |
Technologies for Attribution, |
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5-2 |
Technologies for Retaliation, |
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6-1 |
High-Payoff Technologies, |
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C-1 |
Criteria for Technology Readiness Levels, |
FIGURES
1-1 |
Army homeland security operational framework, |
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1-2 |
Army transformation, |
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2-1 |
Vapor pressure concentrations for a number of chemical agents, |
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2-2 |
Atmospheric exposure limits for a variety of chemical agents, |
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2-3 |
Comparative toxicity (amount needed to incapacitate) of biological agents, toxins, and chemical agents, |
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2-4 |
Vapor pressure associated with the better-known explosives, |
BOXES
Acronyms
2-D
two-dimensional
3-D
three-dimensional
A and R
attribution and retaliation
AMC
Army Materiel Command
ARNG
Army National Guard
ATD
Advanced Technology Demonstration
BCT
brigade combat team
C&C
computer and communications
C2
command and control
C4ISR
command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance
CBR
chemical, biological, and radiological
CBRN
chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear
CBRNE
chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, and high explosive
CM
consequence management
CM and R
consequence management and recovery
CST
civil support team
D and S
denial and survivability
D2PC
Dispersion and Diffusion Puff Calculator
DARPA
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
DASA (R&T)
Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army for Research and Technology
DHS
Department of Homeland Security
DoD
Department of Defense
DOE
Department of Energy
DTRA
Defense Threat Reduction Agency
EMT
emergency medical team
EPA
Environmental Protection Agency
ESF
emergency support function
FBI
Federal Bureau of Investigation
FCO
federal coordinating officer
FEMA
Federal Emergency Management Agency
FIOP
Family of Integrated Operational Pictures
FRERP
Federal Radiological Emergency Response Plan
GPS
Global Positioning System
HHS
Department of Health and Human Services
HLS
homeland security
HVAC
heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
I and W
indications and warning
ID
identification
IEW
intelligence and early warning
IR
infrared
JIC
Joint Information Center
JOC
Joint Operations Center
LFA
lead federal agency
LVB
large vehicle bomb
LWIR
long-range infrared
NCP
National Oil and Hazardous Substance Pollution Control Plan
NORTHCOM
Northern Command
OPSEC
operational security
OSC
on-site coordinator
PCA
Posse Comitatus Act
PDD
Presidential Decision Directive
ppb
parts per billion
ppm
parts per million
ppt
parts per trillion
R and CM
recovery and consequence management
R&D
research and development
ROC
regional operation center
S&T
science and technology
SBCCOM
U.S. Army Soldier and Biological Chemical Command
SCADA
supervisory control and data acquisition
SNR
signal-to-noise ratio
TRL
technology readiness level
TSWG
Technical Support Working Group
UAV
unmanned air vehicle
UGS
unattended ground sensors
USACE
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
USAR
U.S. Army Reserve
UV
ultraviolet
VLSTRACK
vapor, liquid, and solid tracking
WMD
weapon(s) of mass destruction