National Academies Press: OpenBook
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Suggested Citation:"Report Contents." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10764.
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Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

T R A D I T I O N A L A N D E M E R G I N G S O U R C E S | 1 T H E WO R K F O R C E C H A L L E N G E S P E C I A L R E P O R T 2 7 5 RECRUITING, TRAINING, AND RETAINING QUALIFIED WORKERS FOR TRANSPORTATION AND TRANSIT AGENCIES TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE RECRUITING,TRAINING,AND RETAINING QUALIFIED WORKERS FOR TRANSPORTATION AND TRANSIT AGENCIES The United States benefits greatly from the work of federal, state, and local trans- portation agencies in providing and maintaining infrastructure and services.As the nation continues to reap the benefits—and to demand more facilities and services— transportation agencies face unprecedented challenges in recruiting and retaining the workforce necessary to function effectively. This report calls on surface transportation agencies, the private sector, educational institutions, unions, and employees to establish training as a priority for workforce development. The report also recommends the establishment of a coalition to expand federal and academic resources, create an institutional focus, and introduce human resources management as a strategic function within transportation organizations. ALSO OF INTEREST: Managing Transit’s Workforce in the New Millennium TCRP Report 77, ISBN 0-309-06752-9, 154 pages, 8.5 x 11, paperback (2002) Closing the Knowledge Gap for Transit Maintenance Employees: A Systems Approach TCRP Report 29, ISBN 0-309-06254-3, 62 pages, 8.5 x 11, paperback (1998) Taking Flight: Education and Training for Aviation Careers National Research Council, ISBN 0-309-05676-4, 192 pages, 6 x 9, paperback (1997) Management Training and Development Programs NCHRP Synthesis of Highway Practice 188, ISBN 0-309-05320-X, 62 pages, 8.5 x 11, paperback (1994) T H E W O R K F O R C E C H A L L E N G E S P E C IA L R E P O R T 2 7 5 ISBN 0-309-08563-2 55126_TRB_Cover1_4_r1 11/20/03 2:52 AM Page 1

TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD 2003 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE* Chair: Genevieve Giuliano, Director, Metrans Transportation Center, and Professor, School of Policy, Planning, and Development, University of Southern California, Los Angeles Vice Chair: Michael S. Townes, President and CEO, Hampton Roads Transit, Virginia Executive Director: Robert E. Skinner, Jr., Transportation Research Board Michael W. Behrens, Executive Director, Texas Department of Transportation, Austin Joseph H. Boardman, Commissioner, New York State Department of Transportation, Albany Sarah C. Campbell, President, TransManagement, Inc., Washington, D.C. E. Dean Carlson, President, Carlson Associates, Topeka, Kansas (Past Chair, 2002) Joanne F. Casey, President and CEO, Intermodal Association of North America, Greenbelt, Maryland James C. Codell III, Secretary, Kentucky Transportation Cabinet, Frankfort John L. Craig, Director, Nebraska Department of Roads, Lincoln Bernard S. Groseclose, Jr., President and CEO, South Carolina State Ports Authority, Charleston Susan Hanson, Landry University Professor of Geography, Graduate School of Geography, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts Lester A. Hoel, L.A. Lacy Distinguished Professor of Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville (Past Chair, 1986) Henry L. Hungerbeeler, Director, Missouri Department of Transportation, Jefferson City Adib K. Kanafani, Cahill Professor and Chairman, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley Ronald F. Kirby, Director of Transportation Planning, Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments, Washington, D.C. Herbert S. Levinson, Principal, Herbert S. Levinson Transportation Consultant, New Haven, Connecticut Michael D. Meyer, Professor, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta Jeff P. Morales, Director of Transportation, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento Kam Movassaghi, Secretary, Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development, Baton Rouge Carol A. Murray, Commissioner, New Hampshire Department of Transportation, Concord David Plavin, President, Airports Council International, Washington, D.C. John Rebensdorf, Vice President, Network and Service Planning, Union Pacific Railroad Company, Omaha, Nebraska Catherine L. Ross, Harry West Chair of Quality Growth and Regional Development, College of Architecture, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta John M. Samuels, Senior Vice President, Operations Planning and Support, Norfolk Southern Corporation, Norfolk, Virginia (Past Chair, 2001) Paul P. Skoutelas, CEO, Port Authority of Allegheny County, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Martin Wachs, Director, Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California, Berkeley (Past Chair, 2000) Michael W. Wickham, Chairman, Roadway Corporation, Akron, Ohio Marion C. Blakey, Administrator, Federal Aviation Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex officio) Samuel G. Bonasso, Acting Administrator, Research and Special Programs Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex officio) Rebecca M. Brewster, President and COO, American Transportation Research Institute, Smyrna, Georgia (ex officio) George Bugliarello, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, Washington, D.C. (ex officio) Thomas H. Collins (Adm., U.S. Coast Guard), Commandant, U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, D.C. (ex officio) Jennifer L. Dorn, Administrator, Federal Transit Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex officio) Robert B. Flowers (Lt. Gen., U.S. Army), Chief of Engineers and Commander, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C. (ex officio) Edward R. Hamberger, President and CEO, Association of American Railroads, Washington, D.C. (ex officio) John C. Horsley, Executive Director, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C. (ex officio) Roger L. King, Chief Technologist, Applications Division, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, D.C. (ex officio) Robert S. Kirk, Director, Office of Advanced Automotive Technologies, U.S. Department of Energy (ex officio) Rick Kowalewski, Acting Director, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex officio) William W. Millar, President, American Public Transportation Association, Washington, D.C. (ex officio) (Past Chair, 1992) Mary E. Peters, Administrator, Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex officio) Suzanne Rudzinski, Director, Transportation and Regional Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (ex officio) Jeffrey W. Runge, Administrator, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex officio) Allan Rutter, Administrator, Federal Railroad Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex officio) Annette M. Sandberg, Administrator, Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex officio) William G. Schubert, Administrator, Maritime Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex officio) *Membership as of October 2003. 55126_TRB_C2FM_r2.qxd 11/20/03 11:21 AM Page C2

S P E C I A L R E P O R T 2 7 5 T H E WO R K F O R C E C H A L L E N G E RECRUITING, TRAINING, AND RETAINING QUALIFIED WORKERS FOR TRANSPORTATION AND TRANSIT AGENCIES TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES Committee on Future Surface Transportation Agency Human Resource Needs: Strategies for Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Personnel Transportation Research Board Washington, D.C. 2003 www.TRB.org 55126_TRB_C2FM_r3.qxd 11/20/03 3:55 PM Page C1

Transportation Research Board Special Report 275 Subscriber Categories IA planning and administration VI public transit Transportation Research Board publications are available by ordering individual publica- tions directly from the TRB Business Office, through the Internet at www.TRB.org or national-academies.org/trb, or by annual subscription through organizational or individ- ual affiliation with TRB. Affiliates and library subscribers are eligible for substantial dis- counts. For further information, contact the Transportation Research Board Business Office, 500 Fifth Street, NW, Washington, DC 20001 (telephone 202-334-3213; fax 202-334-2519; or e-mail TRBsales@nas.edu). Copyright 2003 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the In- stitute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were cho- sen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance. This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to the procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the Na- tional Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The study was sponsored by the Federal Highway Administration and the Research and Special Programs Administration of the U.S. Department of Transportation and by the National Cooperative Highway Research Program, Transportation Research Board. Cover photo credits: Left, courtesy of Transit Authority of River City, Louisville, Kentucky; left center, courtesy of Virginia Department of Transportation, Tom Saunders, photographer; right center and right, courtesy of University of Dayton, Dayton, Ohio, Larry Burgess, photographer. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The workforce challenge : recruiting, training, and retaining qualified workers for trans- portation and transit agencies / Committee on Future Surface Transportation Agency Human Resource Needs: Strategies for Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Personnel, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies. p. cm.—(Special report / Transportation Research Board ; 275) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-309-08563-2 1. Transport workers—United States. 2. Transport workers—Recruiting—United States. 3. Transport workers—Training of—United States. I. Committee on Future Sur- face Transportation Agency Human Resource Needs. II. National Research Council (U.S.). Transportation Research Board. III. Special report (National Research Council (U.S.). Transportation Research Board) ; 275. HD8039.T7W67 2003 354.76´26´0973—dc22 2003055568 55126_TRB_001_18 11/14/03 4:41 AM Page ii

The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distin- guished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of sci- ence and technology and to their use for the general welfare. On the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal gov- ernment on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences. The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. William A. Wulf is president of the National Academy of Engineering. The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the Na- tional Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, on its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the Institute of Medicine. The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of further- ing knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general poli- cies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is ad- ministered jointly by both the Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. William A. Wulf are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council. The Transportation Research Board is a division of the National Research Council, which serves the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering. The Board’s mis- sion is to promote innovation and progress in transportation through research. In an objective and interdisciplinary setting, the Board facilitates the sharing of information on transportation practice and policy by researchers and practitioners; stimulates research and offers research management ser- vices that promote technical excellence; provides expert advice on transportation policy and pro- grams; and disseminates research results broadly and encourages their implementation. The Board’s varied activities annually engage more than 4,000 engineers, scientists, and other transportation re- searchers and practitioners from the public and private sectors and academia, all of whom contribute their expertise in the public interest. The program is supported by state transportation departments, federal agencies including the component administrations of the U.S. Department of Transporta- tion, and other organizations and individuals interested in the development of transportation. www.TRB.org www.national-academies.org 55126_TRB_001_18 11/14/03 4:41 AM Page iii

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Committee on Future Surface Transportation Agency Human Resource Needs: Strategies for Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Personnel David L. Winstead, Chair, Holland & Knight, LLP Anthony L. Alarid, New Mexico State Highway and Transportation Department (retired) David S. Ferguson, Florida Department of Transportation Margaret L. Forde, Northeast Houston Community College Cameron Gordon, American Council on Intergovernmental Relations Damian J. Kulash, Eno Foundation for Transportation (retired) Paul J. Larrousse, Rutgers University John M. Mason, Jr., Pennsylvania State University Myra Howze Shiplett, National Academy of Public Administration Thomas R. Smith, Wilbur Smith Associates Darwin G. Stuart, Chicago Transit Authority (retired) Paul E. Torgersen (NAE), Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Liaison Representatives Joseph Toole, Federal Highway Administration Timothy Klein, Research and Special Programs Administration K. Thirumalai, Research and Special Programs Administration Transportation Research Board Staff Walter Diewald, Senior Program Officer 55126_TRB_001_18 11/14/03 4:41 AM Page v

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v i i P R E FAC E This nation benefits greatly from the work of its transportationagencies and the physical infrastructure and transportationservices they make possible. As the nation continues to reap these benefits, and as it demands more facilities and service, these agencies—federal, state, and local—face unprecedented challenges in recruiting and retaining the workforce they need to function ef- fectively. There are many reasons for these challenges: high levels of agency retirements as the baby boom generation leaves the work- force; program growth to meet the needs of travelers and shippers; new transportation and workplace methods, materials, and tech- nologies; and an expanding array of technical, environmental, and other issues for agencies to address. The private-sector component of the transportation industry, which supports these agencies and performs many of the same activities, is made up of thousands of pri- vate contractors and consultants that build facilities and supply ma- terials, equipment, and services. These companies employ a similar workforce and face many of the same challenges as do the agencies. The committee reviewed voluminous written material and con- ducted extended briefings to obtain more information about specific details on current and future transportation workforce issues. A pre- vious study on future transportation professional needs provided con- siderable guidance to the committee about key issues (TRB 1985). A more recent survey of state transportation agency staffing plans was useful in describing the current state of human resource activities in state departments of transportation (SDOTs) (New Mexico State Highway and Transportation Department 1999). Two key events, the 1999 Minnesota Transportation Workforce Summit and the 2002 National Transportation Workforce Summit in Washington, D.C., focused increasing attention on transportation workforce issues and the need for a national approach to address them. Reports from 55126_TRB_001_18 11/14/03 4:41 AM Page vii

v i i i | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE both summits were helpful to the committee in understanding the state and national perspectives (Henderson Associates 2000; FHWA 2002). The committee also benefited from the support of the staff of its key sponsoring agencies, the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), the Research and Special Programs Administration (RSPA), and the SDOTs, through the National Cooperative High- way Research Program. Studies of U.S. demographic, education, and employment trends point to many factors affecting the nation’s workforce and under- score the difficulties of predicting how these factors affect any one economic sector or single organization (Hudson Institute 1987; Hudson Institute 1997). Many of these factors—for example, changing birth and immigration rates, college enrollment trends, and a competitive labor market—have implications for all employ- ers, including transportation agencies. Any examination of the transportation workforce needs to recognize this broader context and its implications. This study addressed how transportation agencies can adjust to their workforce challenges and to labor market realities through their human resource activities, namely recruiting, training, retaining, and succession management. Many SDOTs, in response to changing agency missions, program growth, demand for more facilities and ser- vices, and other factors, are still deciding how they will accomplish their mission and with what combination of in-house staff and con- tractors. While transit agencies are strongly focused on the need to recruit transit operators and equipment maintenance staff, who make up about 75 percent of the transit workforce, they are struggling to address other workforce needs as well. Transportation agencies are taking steps to identify their core competency needs, individual staff competency needs, and competency gaps within the agencies. They are also beginning to investigate nontraditional sources for qualified employees as well as ways to develop individual competencies by training the existing workforce. The transportation workforce needs employees from a wide range of educational and technical backgrounds. There are an increasing number of alternative sources for these employees, and they offer new opportunities for the agencies to meet their workforce needs. It is ev- 55126_TRB_001_18 11/14/03 4:41 AM Page viii

Preface | ix ident that in recruiting, training, and retaining employees in trans- portation agencies, one size does not fit all. Success depends on iden- tifying the strategic needs and applying a mix of measures to meet those needs. Keys to individual agency success are an agency strate- gic plan and a commitment to making human resource activities a strategic agency partner in addressing the agency mission. The com- mittee’s recommendations are aimed at a broad range of agency needs and include all types of agencies. While this study focused on workforce issues pertaining to sur- face transportation agencies, the committee’s recommendations recognize that others—the private sector, educational institutions, unions, and employees—must be involved in addressing those is- sues. The opportunity to partner is great, as is the potential for col- laboration and cooperation on many fronts. Sometimes it will not be easy because of rules and regulations that require distance be- tween public- and private-sector activities, but examples from many partnerships and collaborations in other sectors suggest that barri- ers can be overcome. The audience for this report is broad. At the federal level it includes Congress, the administration, and officials of the U.S. Department of Transportation and the modal administrations involved with surface transportation: primarily FHWA, the Federal Transit Administra- tion, the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, and RSPA. It also includes the nation’s governors, the chief executives of SDOTs and their human resource directors, and the executive staff and human resource directors of the nation’s transit agencies. Their counterparts in the private-sector transportation industry—consultants, contractors, and suppliers—are included in the report’s audience, as are educators and trainers from colleges, universities, and training institutes that sup- port the transportation industry. Finally, today’s transportation work- force and the associations and unions that represent them are a key audience for the report. The study was conducted under the overall supervision of Stephen R. Godwin, Director of Studies and Information Services for the Transportation Research Board (TRB). Walter J. Diewald served as project director and prepared this report under the direction of the 55126_TRB_001_18 11/14/03 4:41 AM Page ix

x | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE committee. Thomas Humphrey prepared background material for the committee on workforce capacity building. Cinde Weatherby Gilliland reviewed transportation workforce data sources. The com- mittee thanks Suzanne Schneider, Assistant Executive Director of TRB, who managed the report review process. The report was edited by Rona Briere and Norman Solomon and was prepared for publica- tion under the supervision of Nancy Ackerman, TRB’s Director of Publications. This report has been reviewed by individuals chosen for their di- verse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with proce- dures approved by the National Research Council’s Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in making the published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the re- port meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and re- sponsiveness. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. The committee thanks the following individuals for their participation in the review of this report: Mary Davis, McGlothin Davis, Inc., Den- ver, Colorado; Neil Grigg, Colorado State University, Fort Collins; Delon Hampton, Delon Hampton & Associates, Chartered, Wash- ington, D.C.; Lt. Gen. Henry J. Hatch, Oakton, Virginia; Lowell Jackson, Northport, Michigan; Don Kettl, University of Wisconsin, Madison; Robert I. Lerman, The Urban Institute, Washington, D.C.; Donald Pritchard, Plover, Wisconsin; and Belle Wheelan, Virginia Department of Education, Richmond. Although the review- ers provided constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the findings and conclusions, nor did they see the final draft before its release. The review of this report was overseen by Robert Frosch, Harvard University, and Lester A. Hoel, University of Virginia, Char- lottesville. Appointed by the National Research Council, they were responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibil- ity for the final content of this report rests entirely with the author- ing committee and the institution. 55126_TRB_001_18 11/14/03 4:41 AM Page x

Preface | x i REFERENCES Abbreviations FHWA Federal Highway Administration TRB Transportation Research Board FHWA. 2002. National Transportation Workforce Summit: Summary of Proceedings. U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C., May. Henderson Associates. 2000. Minnesota Summit on Civil Engineering Workforce Development. Final Report 2000–23. Nov. Hudson Institute. 1987. Workforce 2000—Work and Workers for the 21st Century. Indianapolis, Ind. Hudson Institute. 1997. Workforce 2020—Work and Workers in the 21st Century. Indianapolis, Ind. New Mexico State Highway and Transportation Department. 1999. Staffing Plan Survey of State Transportation Agencies. Research Report NM99, ADM-01. Sept. TRB. 1985. Special Report 207: Transportation Professionals: Future Needs and Opportu- nities. National Research Council, Washington, D.C. 55126_TRB_001_18 11/14/03 4:41 AM Page xi

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x i i i A B B R E V I AT I O N S A N D AC RO N Y M S AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials APTA American Public Transportation Association APWA American Public Works Association ARTBA American Road and Transportation Builders Association ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers ATA American Trucking Associations CAAA Clean Air Act Amendments EPA Environmental Protection Agency FHWA Federal Highway Administration FMCSA Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration FRA Federal Railroad Administration FTA Federal Transit Administration FTE full-time equivalent GAO General Accounting Office ISTEA Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 ITE Institute of Transportation Engineers ITS intelligent transportation systems LTAP Local Technical Assistance Program MPO metropolitan planning organization NAE National Academy of Engineering NAPA National Asphalt Paving Association NAPA National Academy for Public Administration NAS National Academy of Sciences NCHRP National Cooperative Highway Research Program NHI National Highway Institute NHTSA National Highway Traffic Safety Administration NRC National Research Council NSTC National Science and Technology Council NSF National Science Foundation NTI National Transit Institute OMB Office of Management and Budget OST Office of the Secretary of Transportation OSTP Office of Science and Technology Policy RSPA Research and Special Programs Administration SDOT state department of transportation SP&R State Planning and Research Program TEA-21 Transportation Equity Act of the 21st Century (1998) TCRP Transit Cooperative Research Program TFHRC Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center (FHWA) TA transit agency TRB Transportation Research Board USDOT U.S. Department of Transportation 55126_TRB_001_18 11/14/03 4:41 AM Page xiii

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C O N T E N T S Executive Summary 1 1 Introduction 11 What Surface Transportation Agencies Do 13 Why This Is an Important Issue 15 Study Approach 16 Organization of the Report 20 Addendum: Presentations to the Committee 23 2 Transportation Agency Work and the Workforce 25 Work and Workforce Issues Facing State Transportation Agencies 28 Work and Workforce Issues Facing Transit Agencies 40 Characterizing Key Transportation Agency Job Categories 45 Summary 46 Annex 2-1: Extent of and Variations in Contracting Out at SDOTs 51 3 Traditional and Emerging Sources for Transportation and Transit Agency Personnel and Training 56 Universities and Colleges 58 Community Colleges 62 Targeted Education and Training Programs 64 55126_TRB_001_18 11/14/03 4:41 AM Page xv

Nontraditional Education Programs 73 Challenges for Distance Learning: Accreditation and Validation 78 Making Training a Priority 80 Leadership: A Federal Role and Responsibility 88 Summary 90 4 Addressing People and Skill Needs in Transportation Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Personnel 94 Importance of Strategic Human Resource Management 96 Core Competencies and Job Requirements 98 Recruiting Qualified People 101 Training the Workforce: Providing a Continuous Learning Environment 107 Workforce Retention 112 Succession Management 115 Partnering and Cooperative Efforts 121 Summary 126 5 Data and Analysis Needs 132 Key Data Needs 132 Areas for Additional Analysis 134 6 Findings and Recommendations 136 Findings 137 Recommendations 140 Appendices A Key Differences Between the Federal Highway Administration’s Program and Roles During the Interstate Era and the Early 21st Century 147 B Recent Professional Capacity–Building Efforts 151 55126_TRB_001_18 11/14/03 4:41 AM Page xvi

C University Transportation Research Centers 159 D Core Competency Statements for Selected State Departments of Transportation 164 E Contracting Out and Core Competencies 169 F Background on State-Funded Training Programs 173 G Attracting People to Transportation Careers 175 Study Committee Biographical Information 181 55126_TRB_001_18 11/14/03 4:41 AM Page xvii

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Executive Summary 1 In 2001, surface transportation made up 8 percent of U.S. grossdomestic product and about 18 percent of average U.S. householdexpenditures, second only to housing. The nation’s economy and the lifestyles of its citizens depend heavily on a safe and efficient transportation system. Yet, surface transportation agencies face un- precedented challenges in recruiting and retaining the workforce they need to deliver transportation infrastructure and service effec- tively. The responsible and efficient operation of the nation’s trans- portation system depends on a well-trained workforce. Successfully addressing transportation workforce issues requires a collective effort involving the agencies, the federal government, the private sector, and a wide range of academic institutions, as well as the transportation workforce. WORKFORCE ISSUES EXAMINED IN THIS STUDY State departments of transportation and transit agencies deliver trans- portation infrastructure and service with the support of a host of private-sector contractors and consultants. The Committee on Future Surface Transportation Agency Human Resource Needs was convened by the Transportation Research Board to determine how these agen- cies can reorient their human resource efforts over the next two decades in order to respond to future changes in roles and responsibilities within their organizations. The intent of this study was not to precisely mea- sure shortfalls between labor force supply and demand. Rather, the committee examined what is needed for transportation agencies to strategically alter key human resource activities—recruiting, training, retaining, and succession management—and makes recommendations designed to enable these agencies to continue to meet emerging 55126_TRB_019_28 11/14/03 4:43 AM Page 1

2 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE workforce challenges and adjust to labor market realities. Also ad- dressed is the important leadership role of the federal government in this effort. Transportation workforce issues are complex. There are more than 50 state departments of transportation, nearly 6,000 transit agencies, and many other public agencies with transportation responsibilities. Each has its own set of responsibilities, organizational structure, history, and culture. Each must adapt to internal and external social, political, and institutional working environments, often in different ways. Agencies vary widely, and although each has its own unique ca- pabilities and resources to address workforce needs, all have limited resources. Few have addressed their future workforce needs in a com- prehensive fashion, which further complicates efforts to predict how many people in specific job categories for each type of agency will be needed in 5 or 10 years. The committee did not attempt to estimate specific agency needs—what kinds of workers are needed for what kinds of jobs—in any detail because the basis for any such estimate is insufficient. Most agencies do not have mechanisms in place for iden- tifying the skill sets they need. Each agency must decide what skills it needs and set out to obtain them. It is evident that in recruiting, training, and retaining employees in transportation agencies, one size does not fit all. Agencies must adopt and adapt practices that are best suited to their individual circum- stances from a wide range of possible alternatives. This is a complex endeavor because in addition to competing with each other, trans- portation agencies compete with the private sector for qualified staff. With these constraints in mind, the committee focused on how agen- cies can meet their workforce needs, now and in the future, regard- less of specific or cumulative need. To their credit, all the agencies—in both the public and the private sector—have a long history of work- ing together successfully to address common problems in a system- atic and coordinated fashion. The Interstate highway system is an example of such successful collaboration. In the course of this study, it became clear to the committee that many factors require immediate action and that the situation may, in fact, be far worse than anticipated. Among the factors are high levels 55126_TRB_019_28 11/14/03 4:43 AM Page 2

Execut ive Summary | 3 of anticipated retirements; insufficient numbers of midlevel man- agers available to fill forthcoming vacancies; the need for new work- force skills required to keep pace with new methods and advanced technologies, including systems analysis, computer-aided design and engineering, new materials, robotics, and intelligent transportation technologies; and increasing demands on surface transportation agencies. The needs are critical. The committee makes recommendations that can be implemented to avoid the severe consequences of inaction that are quickly approaching or already affecting the nation’s trans- portation and transit agencies. Consider the following: • Expanded agency missions require new skills. Today’s state de- partments of transportation were established as highway agencies in the last century to build road networks. Now some of them are re- sponsible for airports, railroads, public transportation, ports and wa- terways, intermodal operations, and other ancillary functions (such as motor vehicle registration and enforcement) as well as highways. Their changing mission and broader responsibilities require a work- force capable of addressing many issues other than engineering. Transit agencies offer many types of service and must address nu- merous community, economic, and customer issues. All agencies face planning, environmental, and technology issues and are in- creasing their use of telecommunications, data management, and other information technologies. Thus, agencies require a workforce with a wider range of technical disciplines than ever before. • Program growth coincides with level or decreasing staffing. Although programs are expanding, budget restrictions frequently call for maintaining or reducing current staff, resulting in more contracting out and a need for additional contract management and administration skills. • Senior agency staff are likely to retire in unprecedented num- bers. More than 50 percent of the state transportation agency workforce will be eligible to retire in the next 10 years. While this trend is not unique to transportation agencies, it is more than dou- ble the rate for the nation’s entire workforce. 55126_TRB_019_28 11/14/03 4:43 AM Page 3

4 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE • Increasing difficulties in recruiting and retaining profession- als and technicians are common. Today’s highly competitive job market shows a growing disparity between pay scales in the public and private sectors. Transit agencies, whose bus and train operators make up about 75 percent of the transit workforce, are struggling to attract workers to this rule-bound, seniority-based environment. Transit agencies’ inability to offer work schedule flexibility, which is highly regarded by today’s job applicants and common in other industries competing to attract these same employees, adds a unique constraint on recruiting. In addition, transit agencies typically offer less pay and fewer opportunities for advancement than do state de- partments of transportation. Therefore, they frequently find it more difficult to recruit many of the same types of professionals— engineers, planners, and environmental and financial specialists— than do the departments of transportation. • Workforce training expenditures are insufficient. Benchmark studies of training investment in the private sector and federal agencies indicate that successful organizations spend, on the aver- age, 2 percent of salaries on training, at least four times more than transportation agencies. • Meeting an organization’s strategic plan requires positioning human resource activities at the strategic level. Agencies whose human resource function focuses solely on filling positions to meet immediate needs cannot achieve their strategic goals of recruiting successfully in today’s job market. Although any one of these issues would be of concern individually, in combination they suggest an impending crisis, which—with fore- sight and intervention—may be averted. They also reveal the key role the federal government has in meeting the challenges of the transportation workforce. Because it has the responsibility for strate- gic national interests, the federal government—Congress, the admin- istration, and the U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT) and its modal administrations—has a large stake in the effectiveness of the nation’s transportation workforce. The federal government relies on the national transportation workforce to deliver the programs and 55126_TRB_019_28 11/14/03 4:43 AM Page 4

Execut ive Summary | 5 projects the nation needs to accomplish its economic, mobility, safety, environmental, and defense mobilization goals for transportation. As the primary steward of the nation’s transportation system, the federal government is in the best position—in terms of resources, scope of interest, and influence—to take a leadership role in addressing trans- portation workforce issues. Absent federal leadership, attempts to re- solve these human resource issues will lack strategic direction and national scope, despite the best efforts and accomplishments of indi- vidual transportation agencies and their national associations. RECOMMENDATIONS The committee’s recommendations are aimed at a broad range of agency needs and apply to surface transportation agencies but recog- nize that others—the federal government, the private sector, educa- tional institutions, unions, and employees—must be involved in addressing the key issues. The opportunity to partner is great, as is the potential for collaboration and cooperation on many fronts. Part- nering may be difficult at times because of rules and regulations that require distance between public- and private-sector activities, but ex- amples from many successful partnerships and collaborations in other industries suggest that barriers can be overcome. A summary of the committee’s recommendations and its views on the potential conse- quences of inaction follow. Training must be a key priority for all involved. Surface trans- portation agencies at all levels—federal, state, and local—in partner- ship with the federal government, the private sector, educational institutions, unions, and employees, should establish training as a key priority. Training must be viewed as an investment providing needed knowledge, skills, and abilities. It can be a key component of alterna- tive pathways to transportation agency careers by providing those from undergraduate programs (including community college programs) in business, planning, environmental science, public policy, and other areas with access to the transportation workforce. Commitment to 55126_TRB_019_28 11/14/03 4:43 AM Page 5

6 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE training is measured by the amount of training and the effectiveness of the training. The agencies must invest more in training than they are now. An investment goal of 2 percent of salaries for training—as sug- gested from benchmarking surveys of many successful organizations— is appropriate for transportation agencies. This is equivalent to about 40 hours of training annually for each employee. While this bench- mark goal is important, the training must be effective as measured in terms of improved performance, lower costs, and other metrics. Consequences of inaction: Lack of adequate training can lead to in- effective agency operations, inefficient use of limited resources, and higher future costs to meet future needs. More federal surface transportation program funds should be eligible for use by state and local transportation agencies for education and training activities. The committee believes that while spending at all levels for training and education of the transporta- tion workforce should be increased, federal spending can serve as an important catalyst. Federal reliance on the nation’s transportation workforce supports the need for federal leadership in addressing transportation workforce training. Current federal funding for trans- portation workforce training has several components. The largest sin- gle source of federal training funding to agencies is a discretionary program that permits states to use up to 0.5 percent of a portion of the funds from the Surface Transportation Program—about $38 million— for education and training. Similarly, transit agencies can use a portion of their federal operating and capital investment funds—about $32 million—for training. The committee supports the administration reauthorization proposal that calls for making more existing program funds eligible for education and training. By adding several existing programs to those programs whose funds are eligible for education and training expenditures, the administration’s proposal, if enacted, would yield a 200 percent increase in available discretionary funds. Each agency could then decide how much of these funds it wishes to invest in education and training across a number of eligible programs. Many federal transportation programs—which amount to about $36 billion annually—encourage the use of new methods and ad- 55126_TRB_019_28 11/14/03 4:43 AM Page 6

Execut ive Summary | 7 vanced technologies, including planning and environmental models, systems analysis, intelligent transportation systems technologies, community involvement, and alternative fuel transit vehicles. How- ever, these programs do not support training for agency staff respon- sible for implementing, operating, and maintaining these new methods and technologies. This lack of support acts as a barrier to wider im- plementation of transportation system innovations that can improve safety and performance and reduce costs. It also hampers the federal stewardship role aimed at ensuring that state and local governments use national resources efficiently. The committee also supports reauthorization proposals to increase funding for existing federal programs that directly support education and training, including the University Transportation Centers (UTC) program, the Federal Highway Administration’s National Highway Institute, the Federal Transit Administration’s National Transit Institute, and the Local Technical Assistance Program (LTAP). In conjunction with increasing the federal program funds available for agency education and training, Congress should also in- troduce incentives that trigger more federal funding if states and agencies invest their own funds in education and training for the transportation workforce. Incentives should be added to the UTC program to encourage the UTCs to partner with community colleges to provide specific education and training in areas for which the com- munity colleges are best suited. Increased training investment must be accompanied by systematic evaluation of training outcomes. Consequences of inaction: Failure to increase federal spending for training will limit the ability of all agencies to provide education and training needed to decrease project delivery times, improve service, reduce system operational problems and failures and their consequences, and use new technologies. USDOT, in partnership with transportation agencies, the pri- vate sector, educational institutions, unions, and employees, should undertake an initiative that focuses on innovation in human resource practices and addresses recruitment, training, retention, and succession management for transportation agency 55126_TRB_019_28 11/14/03 4:43 AM Page 7

8 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE personnel. This initiative can provide leadership; a focal point for federal, state, and local agency efforts; and a basis for creating part- nerships among all key parties. The federal government, because of its national transportation responsibilities and the resources within the human resource organizations in USDOT and its modal agencies, is in an excellent position to lead this initiative as a follow-up to the USDOT-sponsored 2002 National Transportation Workforce Sum- mit. USDOT can interact directly with other federal agencies that are moving forward on workforce development initiatives and acquire useful information and data from them. The transportation work- force initiative can build on current efforts, including the Trans- portation Workforce Development website being developed by the Federal Highway Administration in partnership with the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials to doc- ument exemplary workforce practices at state departments of trans- portation. Another example of current work that would be useful to incorporate is that of the American Public Transportation Associa- tion’s Workforce Development Task Force. Broadening these ef- forts to include experiences from all types of transportation agencies and private-sector organizations would provide much-needed in- formation and support. All stakeholders in the nation’s workforce— agencies, academia, trainers, unions, employees, and the private sector—should participate in setting priorities and direction for the initiative. These partners should work together to compile infor- mation to examine the national implications of transportation work- force issues. Consequences of inaction: Without federal leadership in an initia- tive aimed at innovation in human resource practices, a signifi- cant opportunity to improve transportation workforce practice and share information and data will be lost. Transportation agencies should partner with universities, community colleges, training institutes, and the LTAP centers to meet agency training and workforce development needs. These institutions are well organized to provide education and train- ing and have the technical expertise to deliver the curricula, courses, 55126_TRB_019_28 11/14/03 4:43 AM Page 8

Execut ive Summary | 9 and training materials required to meet agency skill needs. Many have already done so. More needs to be learned about the appropriate role of each, individually and in combination, in delivering efficient and effective education and training to the workforce. Consequences of inaction: Failure to partner with established edu- cation and training providers prevents agencies from taking full advantage of key workforce development opportunities. Transportation agency leaders must make human resource management a strategic function in their agencies. The most suc- cessful private- and public-sector organizations have raised human re- source management to the strategic level in their organizations because they recognize that human capital is a key to successful per- formance. Several transportation agencies have already carried out organizational changes to make the human resource function a strate- gic and equal partner with other key agency functions. Without this organizational change, agencies will continue to fill positions in a piecemeal fashion instead of identifying future workforce needs and addressing gaps in their ability to meet those needs through a strate- gic human resource program. Consequences of inaction: Failure to change agency human re- source focus from solely filling vacant positions to strategically addressing workforce needs will result in agencies falling short of accomplishing their missions, especially in light of today’s competitive job market. All these recommendations aim at improving the performance of transportation agencies and, ultimately, the nation’s transportation system. They reflect the goals and benchmarks of successful public- and private-sector organizations. They also reflect the primary goal— improving human capital—of President Bush’s 2002 Management Agenda. 55126_TRB_019_28 11/14/03 4:43 AM Page 9

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1 1 1 Introduction The Committee on Future Surface Transportation AgencyHuman Resource Needs: Strategies for Recruiting, Training,and Retaining Personnel was formed to study the future human resource needs of transportation agencies and to identify potential strategies for recruiting, training, and retaining these personnel. The charge to the committee is presented in Box 1-1. The predominant surface transportation agencies—in terms of the number of transportation professionals and operating and support per- sonnel employed—are state departments of transportation or highways (SDOTs) and regional and local transit agencies (TAs). Other public agencies play important roles in surface transportation—rail, water, and intermodal—and also employ transportation specialists. In addition, private engineering, planning, and consulting firms employ a large number of transportation professionals and compete with public agen- cies for many of the same people and skills in the labor market. Nonetheless, the committee focused primarily on several key employee categories within SDOTs and TAs in its information gathering and discussions. While most of the conclusions and recommendations presented in this report are directed at SDOTs and TAs and these key employee categories, they also apply to other public agencies and private firms, as well as other categories. There are also recommen- dations aimed at components of the federal government—Congress, the administration, and the U.S. Department of Transportation— responsible for the nation’s transportation system. The study was requested by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). Funding support was provided from FHWA, the Research 55126_TRB_029_42 11/14/03 4:44 AM Page 11

12 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE and Special Programs Administration, and the National Cooperative Highway Research Program.1 BOX 1-1 Charge to the Committee The committee charge was to describe how the changing roles and responsibilities of public transportation agencies might reorient their human resource needs over the next two decades. The intent is not to precisely measure shortfalls be- tween labor force supply and demand; rather the intent is to identify the kinds of expertise that will be needed in the fu- ture to meet transportation challenges, as well as the likely numbers and capabilities of people, and to compare them with the curricula being offered at universities, colleges, and training institutes and the adequacy of the number of stu- dents enrolled in these institutions. The committee will de- scribe strategies that public agencies at all levels can use to recruit and develop staffs they will need. It will also make rec- ommendations to the institutions training students on the mix of personnel needs such public agencies are likely to have and on approaches these institutions can take to develop needed skills of the future transportation workforce. The committee will also identify useful areas of research and tech- nical information exchange. In addition, the committee will comment on (a) the appropriate federal role in supporting university education programs to develop transportation pro- fessionals and scholars, with particular regard to the federal oversight, management, and guidance of the University Transportation Centers program and (b) federal provision for training and retraining of transportation professionals. 1 The National Cooperative Highway Research Program is a pooled fund-research program managed and funded by the SDOTs and administered by the Transportation Research Board. 55126_TRB_029_42 11/14/03 4:44 AM Page 12

Introduct ion | 13 WHAT SURFACE TRANSPORTATION AGENCIES DO SDOTs are state agencies responsible for owning, planning, designing, constructing, operating, maintaining, and repairing major components of each state’s transportation system. The modal responsibilities of some SDOTs include highways, airports, ports and waterways, transit, and some railroads. They carry out their responsibilities in partnership with private-sector engineering and construction firms, suppliers of equipment and materials, and other public agencies. Each of the 50 states, plus Washington, D.C., and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, has its own transportation agency. While SDOTs are being asked to address an increasing range of economic, cultural, and social impacts of transportation systems, their primary responsibility remains the segments of the federal Interstate highway and primary highway systems within their borders, as well as their own networks of state highways and other transportation infra- structure. The states own more than 20 percent of the nation’s high- ways, but average ownership varies, ranging from 8.5 percent in North Dakota to 91.5 percent in West Virginia. In 1997 the states provided about $54 billion for highway-related purposes from vehi- cle and driver licensing fees and fuel taxes. SDOTs work closely with more than 35,000 jurisdictions—counties, towns, and municipalities— that have some transportation responsibilities.2 States often provide direct assistance to local governments by performing construction and maintenance on some locally owned roads and by distributing state and federal revenues to local governments as grants for highway purposes. Budgets for federal surface transportation programs are deter- mined by Congress and state legislatures; SDOT operating budgets are set by state legislatures. The former budgets have grown consid- erably in recent years (but could be reduced in the future). Between 2 According to the American Public Works Association (APWA), the public works practition- ers employed by these jurisdictions address many topics in their work, including computers and computer applications, solid waste, water resources, municipal engineering, transporta- tion, equipment services, buildings and grounds, and snow removal. (Source: APWA website, www.apwa.net.) 55126_TRB_029_42 11/14/03 4:44 AM Page 13

14 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE FY 1995 and FY 2001, the apportionment of federal funds adminis- tered by FHWA increased nearly 60 percent, from $18.1 billion to $28.9 billion (FHWA various years) (see Figure 1-1). TAs include nearly 6,000 state, regional, and local agencies that provide transit service with one or several modes—bus, rail, and demand-responsive systems. Aggregate transit industry statistics mask individual agency characteristics. TAs vary considerably in many respects, including size, service area, responsibility, and juris- dictional complexity. In 1998 only 12 of 478 (2.5 percent) had more than 1,000 vehicles, and just one—New York City—had more than 8,000. More than 53 percent operated fewer than 50 vehicles, and more than 90 percent operated fewer than 250 vehicles. More than 55 percent of all conventional transit passenger miles in the nation are accounted for by the three largest systems—New York City, Chicago, and San Francisco–Oakland—with New York alone accounting for more than 40 percent. Although public ownership dominates today, the history of transit provision in the United States reflects a mix of privately and publicly provided service. The evolution from private to public ownership, 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Federal State Local Total FIGURE 1-1 Highway expenditures by government level ($ billions). 55126_TRB_029_42 11/14/03 4:44 AM Page 14

Introduct ion | 15 while not swift, was dramatic. In 1940, only 20 transit systems in the country were publicly owned, and they accounted for just 2 percent of ridership (Black 1991). By 1960, although the vast majority of all systems were still privately owned, public properties accounted for nearly half of all transit ridership, mainly because the country’s very largest systems were publicly owned (Jones 1985). By 1980, more than 500 systems were publicly owned, accounting for 95 percent of rider- ship nationally (Black 1991). Two key pieces of legislation—the Urban Mass Transportation Act of 1964 (later redesignated the Federal Transit Act) and the 1974 National Mass Transit Assistance Act—established the role of the federal government in the provision of urban transit. Federal aid— loans and grants for transit capital acquisition, construction, and plan- ning beginning in 1964 and operating grants beginning in 1974 —was generally welcomed by states, localities, and distressed private com- panies alike ( Jones 1985).3 Public funding was also favored by transit labor unions; approximately 75 percent of the current transit work- force is unionized. The transit workforce comprises approximately 225,000 employ- ees. Of this total, about 58 percent are vehicle operators, 20 percent are assigned to vehicle maintenance, and 12 percent are assigned to nonvehicle maintenance.4 The balance of the transit workforce is as- signed to general administration.5 WHY THIS IS AN IMPORTANT ISSUE The significance of surface transportation agencies, their workforce, and the transportation system is illustrated by the following key statistics. 3 Federal aid for transit requires local matching funds. 4 By contrast, there are about 2.7 million truck drivers in the United States. 5 According to the National Transit Database. For smaller systems, the percentage of vehicle operators increases. For systems serving areas with a population of 200,000 or less, vehicle operators make up about 72 percent of the workforce. 55126_TRB_029_42 11/14/03 4:44 AM Page 15

16 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE • Surface transportation makes up about 8 percent of the nation’s gross domestic product and about 18 percent of average household expenditures, second only to housing. • The surface transportation system has an asset value of about $1,300 billion, more than 87 percent of the nation’s total trans- portation assets. • Capital expenditures on transportation infrastructure total more than $130 billion per year; transit system operating costs are about $22.6 billion per year. • Private-sector expenditures for passenger and freight transportation are significant. Private-sector spending for highway transportation alone was $688 billion in 1998, 83 percent of all expenditures for pas- senger transportation. In 1996 Americans spent more than $225 bil- lion on new automobiles and trucks. More than $402 billion was spent in 1997 for truck freight transportation in the United States, about 79 percent of the nation’s freight transportation expenditures. • Public-sector transportation agencies employ more than 620,000 people. Total transportation employment in the United States is more than 14.7 million, about 11 percent of the civilian workforce. STUDY APPROACH The committee began its study by reviewing several previous studies about the education of transportation engineering professionals (TRB 1985a; TRB 1985b; TRB 1998; Sussman 1995), civil engineer- ing careers (Henderson Associates 2000; Meyer and Jacobs 2000; Mason et al. 1992), transit workforce issues (TRB 2001; Moffat et al. 2001; McGlothin Davis 2002), and the changing nature of state trans- portation organizations (AASHTO 1998; FHWA 2000; NAPA 1995; TRB 2000; Zuelsdorf 2000).6 In addition to reviewing recent research 6 The references noted represent only the key reports reviewed. Additional references are noted as appropriate in subsequent chapters. 55126_TRB_029_42 11/14/03 4:44 AM Page 16

Introduct ion | 17 conducted in the National Cooperative Highway Research Program and the Transit Cooperative Research Program, it held discussions with researchers involved in ongoing projects related to this study.7 The committee benefited from presentations and discussions at the 2002 National Workforce Summit, which took place in May 2002 and involved more than 75 transportation leaders and professionals (FHWA 2002). Two industry associations that represent key North American transportation and transit agencies, the American Associ- ation of State Highway and Transportation Officials and the Amer- ican Public Transportation Association, provided the committee with valuable information about their workforce studies and work- force development activities.8 At two of its meetings, the committee heard presentations from and had discussions with a range of trans- portation leaders, educators, private consultants, and labor manage- ment experts.9 Two recent reports of the National Academy of Engineering, one on public awareness of engineering and the other on improving tech- nological literacy, provided information on the challenge of ensuring an adequate supply of high school graduates interested in pursuing ca- reers in transportation (NAE 2002; Pearson and Young 2002). Both reports provide examples of grassroots activity aimed at improving science and mathematics education in grades K-12, where interest in and preparation for transportation careers—as well as many others— begin. One study, which is actually a precursor to this one, recognized changes under way in public-sector transportation agencies—large 7 Projects under way include TCRP Project F-11: Positioning the Public Transportation Op- erating Agency as an Employer of Choice; TCRP Synthesis Project SF-10: Corporate Cul- ture as the Driver of Practices, Techniques, and Strategies for Hiring, Developing, Evaluating, and Retaining Transit Leadership; NCHRP Project 22-24(18): Outsourcing of State Department of Transportation Delivery of Capital Programs; and NCHRP Synthesis Project 33-08: Current Practice for Recruiting and Retaining Individuals in State Trans- portation Agencies. 8 While the study was supported primarily by agencies of the U.S. Department of Transporta- tion, these organizations represent transportation agencies throughout North America, and the issues and solutions are not constrained by national boundaries. 9 The presenters are listed in the addendum to Chapter 1. 55126_TRB_029_42 11/14/03 4:44 AM Page 17

18 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE numbers of impending retirements, the introduction of new tech- nologies, increasing amounts of contracting out of agency work, and a growing need for more training—that continue today (TRB 1985a). It also noted the importance of a highly qualified private- sector transportation workforce in support of the public-sector agen- cies. Taking a cue from that study, the committee recognized early the large variations in transportation agencies, including different missions, size, and organization. There are many federal, state, and local agencies with transportation responsibilities, and they have similar workforce components. In addition, the private-sector trans- portation industry—construction firms, contractors, suppliers, and consultants—compete with the public sector in many job categories. To narrow its focus the committee concentrated primarily on the workforces of SDOTs and TAs because it believes that these agen- cies are representative of most public agencies with transportation responsibilities. Even though the committee focused on SDOTs and TAs, other agencies and private-sector organizations with trans- portation responsibilities can benefit from this report if they choose to adopt the suggestions for specific action. They are also the prin- cipal agencies delivering key elements of the national transportation program. Transportation agencies are struggling with their human resource efforts at a basic level, and most lack the fundamental tools needed to determine their future agency workforce needs. Organizational work- force development must have a strategic foundation, be data-driven, and follow a systematic model aimed at achieving organizational goals (NAPA 2000). However, most SDOTs have yet to tie their staffing plans to a strategic plan, identify their core competency needs, or un- dertake a systematic analysis of the gaps between their workforce needs and staff competencies (New Mexico State Highway and Transportation Department 1999). In addition, despite recent and ongoing studies, there is a paucity of data available on agency skill needs, job categories, employee ed- ucational background, and employee job skills (New Mexico State Highway and Transportation Department 1999; Warne 2003; 55126_TRB_029_42 11/14/03 4:44 AM Page 18

Introduct ion | 19 McGlothin Davis 2002). The committee commissioned a study to examine the availability and usefulness of national data sources for examining transportation workforce issues (Gilliland 2002). The data were found to be too aggregated to provide accurate predic- tions for individual job categories in SDOTs and TAs. After con- siderable deliberation, the committee decided that the lack of essential data and information prevented it from making several key estimates, including the kinds of expertise transportation agencies need in the future, the likely numbers and capabilities of the future transportation workforce, and the future mix of personnel needs in transportation agencies. Clearly each agency must decide what com- petencies it needs on the basis of how it plans to accomplish its mis- sion. Without established agency workforce development programs in place and agency-level data, it is premature to estimate aggregate skill needs and assess them, especially in light of the wide variations among agencies. The committee was also asked to examine whether civil engineer- ing programs are changing to accommodate changes in transporta- tion agency missions. SDOTs in particular have traditionally relied on state engineering schools to supply them with entry-level civil en- gineers. The task was to include assessment of the adequacy of the numbers of students enrolled in universities, colleges, and training in- stitutes with regard to future agency needs. Curriculum change is a complex process involving many considerations. Several are key con- siderations for this study. First, engineering programs strive to update course materials to re- flect both new technical knowledge and new workforce skill needs, such as technical writing, team building, and working with the pub- lic. Second, undergraduate engineering programs are under pressure to reduce their credit hour requirements for graduation and put more emphasis on basics even while they attempt to accommodate new knowledge and meet accreditation requirements. Finally, even though transportation agencies, especially SDOTs, will continue to need a core group of civil engineers to perform or manage the performance of key planning, design, construction, maintenance, and related tasks, 55126_TRB_029_42 11/14/03 4:44 AM Page 19

20 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE they increasingly need expertise in many other areas, such as envi- ronmental science, business administration, economics, information technology, and law. In light of the variations in transportation agencies, the changes under way in them, their broadening skill needs, and the intricacies of curriculum change in more than 200 civil engineering programs, the committee decided not to address curriculum change or the ade- quacy of current enrollments. Nevertheless, the committee examined several alternative pathways to careers in transportation agencies that have yet to be fully exploited by the agencies. It also reviewed oppor- tunities for agency partnering with the academic community within and outside their jurisdictions to help educate and train the trans- portation workforce. Thus, after considerable discussion and deliberation and subse- quent conversations with the study’s sponsors, the committee de- cided to concentrate on what agencies should do to enable their human resources to meet agency strategic workforce needs. The committee concentrated on the process of accommodating change within transportation agencies instead of trying to solve their indi- vidual workforce needs or predict how the internal and external en- vironments of the agencies will change. The committee prepared recommendations that focus on agency recruiting, training, reten- tion, and succession planning and reflect what it believes govern- ment, transportation agencies, educators and trainers, and agency personnel can and should do. ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT In Chapter 2, information on the characteristics of SDOTs, TAs, and their workforces is presented, the primary issues that affect them are reviewed, and changing agency workforce needs are described. The traditional sources of key transportation and transit agency personnel and the education and training system that supports them are re- viewed in Chapter 3. The importance of strategic human resource management is described in Chapter 4, and suggestions for address- 55126_TRB_029_42 11/14/03 4:44 AM Page 20

Introduct ion | 21 ing people and skill needs through agency recruiting, training, reten- tion, and succession planning are provided. Information on specific transportation workforce data and analysis needs is provided in Chap- ter 5. The committee’s findings and recommendations are given in Chapter 6. REFERENCES Abbreviations AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials FHWA Federal Highway Administration NAE National Academy of Engineering NAPA National Academy of Public Administration TRB Transportation Research Board AASHTO. 1998. The Changing State DOT. Washington, D.C. Black, A. 1991. Privatization of Urban Transit: A Different Perspective. In Trans- portation Research Record 1297, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., pp. 69–75. FHWA. 2000. Positioning FHWA for the Future. Report of Task Force on Workforce Planning and Professional Development. U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C., Dec. FHWA. 2002. National Transportation Workforce Summit: Summary of Proceedings. U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C., May. FHWA (various years). Highway Statistics. U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C. Gilliland, C. W. 2002. Transportation Workforce: Existing Indicators and Needed Data. Prepared for Committee on Future Surface Transportation Agency Human Resource Needs, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C. Henderson Associates. 2000. Minnesota Summit on Civil Engineering Workforce Development. Final Report 2000-23. Nov. Jones, D. W. 1985. Urban Transit Policy: An Economic and Political History. Prentice- Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Mason, J. M., Jr., J. R. Tarris, E. Zaki, and M. S. Bronzini. 1992. NCHRP Report 347: Civil Engineering Careers: Awareness, Retention, and Curriculum. TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C. 55126_TRB_029_42 11/14/03 4:44 AM Page 21

22 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE McGlothin Davis, Inc. 2002. TCRP Report 77: Managing Transit’s Workforce in the New Millennium. TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C. Meyer, M., and L. J. Jacobs. 2000. A Civil Engineering Curriculum for the Future: The Georgia Tech Case. Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice, American Society of Civil Engineers, April, pp. 74–78. Moffat, G. K., A. H. Ashton, and D. R. Blackburn. 2001. TCRP Synthesis 40: A Chal- lenged Employment System: Hiring, Training, Performance Evaluation, and Retention of Bus Operators. TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C. NAE. 2002. Raising Public Awareness of Engineering. National Research Council, Washington, D.C. NAPA. 1995. NCHRP Report 371: State Departments of Transportation: Strategies for Change. TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C. NAPA. 2000. Building Successful Organizations: A Guide to Strategic Workforce Plan- ning. Washington, D.C. New Mexico State Highway and Transportation Department. 1999. Staffing Plan Survey of State Transportation Agencies. Research Report NM99, ADM-01. Sept. Pearson, G., and A. T. Young (eds.). 2002. Technically Speaking: Why All Americans Need to Know More About Technology. National Academy of Engineering, Wash- ington, D.C. Sussman, J. M. 1995. Educating the New Transportation Professional. ITS Quar- terly, Summer. TRB. 1985a. Special Report 207: Transportation Professionals: Future Needs and Oppor- tunities. National Research Council, Washington, D.C. TRB. 1985b. Special Report 210: Transportation Education and Training: Meeting the Challenge: Proceedings of the Conference on Surface Transportation Education and Training. National Research Council, Washington, D.C. TRB. 1998. Conference Proceedings 17: Intermodal Transportation Education and Train- ing. National Research Council, Washington, D.C. TRB. 2000. Transportation Research Circular 501: Strategic Management Research Needs for State Departments of Transportation. National Research Council, Washington, D.C. TRB. 2001. TCRP Research Results Digest 45: Identification of the Critical Workforce De- velopment Issues in the Transit Industry. National Research Council, Washington, D.C., Dec. Warne, T. 2003. NCHRP Synthesis of Highway Practice: Current Practice for Recruiting and Retaining Individuals in State Transportation Agencies. TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C. (in progress). Zuelsdorf, R. 2000. Presentation at the Western Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials meeting. June 13. 55126_TRB_029_42 11/14/03 4:44 AM Page 22

Introduct ion | 23 Addendum: PRESENTATIONS TO THE COMMITTEE DECEMBER 17–18, 2001 Future Changes Affecting Transportation Agencies John Mahaffie, Coates & Jarratt Agency Changes Affecting the Workforce Stephen Lockwood, Parsons Brinckerhoff, Inc. State DOT Experience John Horsley, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Minnesota Summit on Civil Engineering Workforce Development Cheri Marti, Minnesota Department of Transportation Transit Agency Workforce Development Issues Pam Boswell, American Public Transportation Association Brian Vogel, Quatt Associates Private-Sector Workforce Development Terry Neimeyer, KCI Technologies, Inc. Workforce Development Experience in the Construction Industry James Krug, FMI Recruiters Universities and Curriculum Change Gerald E. Galloway, Secretary, U.S. Section, International Joint Commission and Member, American Society of Civil Engineers Task Force on Academic Prerequisites for Professional Practice APRIL 11–12, 2002 State DOT Experience with Meeting Human Resources Needs David Gehr, Vice President, Parsons Brinckerhoff, Inc., and former Commissioner, Virginia Department of Transportation Changing Education and Training Needs for Intelligent Transportation Systems John Collura, Professor of Civil Engineering, Virginia Tech and Chairman of the ITS-America Education and Training Committee 55126_TRB_029_42 11/14/03 4:44 AM Page 23

24 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE Labor/Union Considerations Robert Tobias, Professor, Department of Public Policy, American Univer- sity and former President of the National Treasury Employees Union Transportation Construction Industry Issues Brad Sant, Vice President of Safety and Education, American Road and Transportation Builders Association 55126_TRB_029_42 11/14/03 4:44 AM Page 24

2 5 2 Transportation Agency Work and the Workforce Chapter Highlights • Among key factors affecting the nation’s future workforce, including the transportation workforce, are the rapid pace of technological change, globalization, aging of the popu- lation, and continuing ethnic diversification of the nation’s population. • About 50 percent of the state transportation agency work- force will be eligible to retire within the next 10 years; the percentage of all workers similarly eligible is much smaller. • Several factors, including broader agency missions, agency restructuring, and the implementation of intelligent trans- portation system technologies, result in the need for new skill sets for many employees in state departments of trans- portation and transit agencies. • Even though agency program budgets are growing and the range of activities agencies undertake requires additional knowledge and skills, some governors and state legislatures continue to seek to reduce the size of state agencies, in- cluding state departments of transportation. (continued on next page) 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 25

26 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE • Transit agency workforce needs are focused on equipment operators, agency maintenance staff, and information tech- nology specialists. • A significant portion—about 75 percent—of the transit workforce is unionized, which affects how workers are re- cruited, trained, and retained. • Transit agencies cannot offer the majority of their employ- ees—bus and train operators—a flexible work schedule, which is highly regarded by most of today’s job applicants. Transportation agencies at all levels of government and the private-sector organizations that support them operate in a cli-mate of change—stemming from technical, demographic, institutional, political, cultural, economic, and environmental fac- tors—that affects the personal and professional lives of everyone, in- cluding the transportation workforce. Comprehensive studies of current and future workforce issues identify many such factors. Box 2-1 presents the four key factors of change from one such study— Workforce 2020—together with several primary components of each (Hudson Institute 1997).1 Surface transportation agencies face these and other issues in de- livering programs, facilities, and services to their customers.2 No sin- gle trend or characteristic describes how the transportation agency workplace or workforce is changing. While state departments of transportation (SDOTs) and transit agencies (TAs) share many 1 An earlier study by the Hudson Institute, Workforce 2000, predicted strong economic growth, a reduction in manufacturing jobs, major job creation in the service industry, an aging but in- creasingly diverse workforce, and higher skill level requirements for new jobs in service in- dustries. Interestingly, Workforce 2000 failed to predict the breadth of the digital revolution, the disparities among geographic locations and their implications, and the growth of diver- sity in the workforce (Hudson Institute 1987). 2 The transportation sector continues to undergo significant technology changes related to computer-aided design and engineering, new materials, new methods of analysis, robotics, the Global Positioning System, intelligent transportation systems, and so forth. 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 26

Transportat ion Agency Work and the Workforce | 27 BOX 2-1 Factors of Change from Workforce 2020 1. Technological change • The Internet and Web-based communications • Wireless communication systems • Information technologies • Advanced control systems • The elimination of some jobs and the creation of others • Costs and productivity benefits of technology 2. Globalization • Migration of some jobs to foreign locations • Competition for highly skilled workers • Greatly reduced transportation and communication costs • The growing volatility of some market segments 3. Aging of the population and other demographic trends • The aging population and workforce • The loss of experienced workers due to retirement • Changes in workforce composition; increasing partici- pation of underrepresented groups • Population growth, suburban and exurban growth, and related travel impacts (continued on next page) 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 27

28 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE 4. Ethnic diversification in the workforce • Changes in the proportions of African Americans, His- panics, and Asians • Reduction in the proportion of Caucasian workers Source: Hudson Institute 1997. trends and characteristics, there are important differences in the is- sues faced by each. In the first section of this chapter the issues affecting SDOTs are presented, and how these issues affect the work- force and are changing the way those agencies are organized and op- erated is examined. The key issues affecting the TA workforce are reviewed in the second section. This is followed by a description of the model used by the committee to characterize transportation agency job categories. The chapter is summarized in the final section. WORK AND WORKFORCE ISSUES FACING STATE TRANSPORTATION AGENCIES Today’s SDOTs are the direct descendants of state highway agencies that were organized in the early 20th century to plan, design, build, and maintain state and federal highway networks. Many of these agencies have evolved into multimodal departments with divisions responsible for statewide aviation, highways, public transportation, waterways, and intermodal programs. Some also have driver and motor vehicle regis- tration and at least one has the state highway patrol within its purview. As an organization, an SDOT is oriented toward civil engineering because its work relates to public or civil infrastructure facilities and systems. A typical university civil engineering curriculum provides in- struction on the planning, design, construction, and maintenance of BOX 2-1 (continued) Factors of Change from Workforce 2020 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 28

Transportat ion Agency Work and the Workforce | 29 such facilities and systems. Graduate programs focus these skills more closely on transportation subjects. The Interstate highway system, the country’s last major national transportation program, set the stage for current SDOT organization and activity. The success of that system required a high degree of uni- formity and consistency across all the states. This need was met through an enormous set of procedures, standards, and specifications for highway infrastructure. As a result, until recently the SDOT en- vironment was characterized by a long period of stability and a high degree of standardization, supported by a successful national program oriented toward highway system development and preservation. State and federal policy and politics, then, together with dedicated funding and legislative oversight, define the SDOT operating environment. Information on the salient federal legislation and the roles of differ- ent levels of government in highway funding is provided in Box 2-2. Some of the key changes under way in state highway programs are de- scribed in Box 2-3. [Such changes at the federal level are illustrated in Appendix A by the Federal Highway Administration’s (FHWA’s) view of the key differences between FHWA programs and roles in the Interstate era and in the early 21st century.] Despite the changes af- fecting all SDOTs and FHWA, each SDOT possesses a distinctive culture and character, and each continues to adapt to its internal and external social, political, and institutional working environments, often in different ways. Within this context, key factors forcing change in the SDOTs are described in the following sections. Agency Downsizing and Reorganization The 1980s and 1990s saw a growing commitment by governors and state legislatures to reducing the size and influence of government. More recently, many states faced with revenue shortfalls have reduced state agency operating budgets and staff.3 Mandated spending limits, balanced-budget requirements, and other factors led to agency work- force reductions, hiring freezes, and early retirement incentive pro- grams that downsized many state agencies. To deliver their programs 3 For the most part, federal and state transportation program funds (appropriated to support program activities) cannot be used for staff salaries. 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 29

30 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE BOX 2-2 Federal Legislation and Government Roles in Highway Transportation By creating a new class of highways and a new highway funding mechanism, the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956 significantly affected the governmental roles in highway transportation. The act created the Highway Trust Fund, a unique infrastructure funding mechanism based on receipts from federal user taxes on motor fuels, tires and tubes, new buses, and trucks and trailers and a use tax on heavy trucks. States have always viewed the Highway Trust Fund as state money collected by the federal government for distribution back to the states. Distribution formulas set by Congress re- distribute trust fund contributions to address national high- way goals. Congress occasionally changes the distribution formulas and has considered proposals to eliminate federal highway taxes, leaving the states responsible for generating needed highway funds directly. Following debate on this issue for the 1998 highway re- authorization bill, Congress decided to continue the High- way Trust Fund and added the requirement that each state must receive at least 90.5 percent of its contribution. FHWA dispersed about $29 billion in 2000 to the states, primarily from the trust fund. In the same year, states provided $62 bil- lion for highway-related purposes through a range of means, including vehicle and driver licensing fees and fuel taxes. States also provide direct assistance to local governments by performing construction and maintenance on locally owned roads and by distributing state revenues to local gov- ernments as grants for highway purposes. Counties, munic- ipalities, towns, and townships spent about $30 billion on highways in 1999. 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 30

Transportat ion Agency Work and the Workforce | 31 BOX 2-3 How SDOTs Are Changing The largest element of the SDOT workforce is and will continue to be the highway component. That workforce is adjusting to a shift from an emphasis on building and main- taining highways to operating them as part of a transporta- tion system and to protecting and enhancing the highway investment, while adding capacity as needed. This shift, com- bined with the introduction of many new methods, materials, and technologies, requires broader expertise than that of the highway engineer of the 1970s and 1980s. Moreover, the mission of SDOTs has changed and expanded to include other modes—rail, water, air—as well as intermodal consid- erations and facilities, further affecting SDOT workforce needs. Two examples illustrate some of these changes. First, past state SDOT interest in freight traffic was focused on truck axle loadings, bridge ratings, and the volume and directions of truck movements. Today, many states are ad- dressing freight traffic in a much broader context that en- compasses intermodal transportation and the facilities and equipment needed to support it. Consideration is being given to state heavy truck tax structures, the state role in support- ing short line railroads, port subsidies, funding for a rail or a barge link rather than expanding a highway route, and shared funding of intermodal facilities. Consequently, SDOTs need staff capable of analyzing alternative funding mechanisms and assessing potential public–private partnerships to address projects in the public interest. Second, environmental issues also present challenges to the SDOT workforce. These issues and their regulatory re- quirements are increasingly complex and important to trans- (continued on next page) 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 31

32 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE portation programs; inadequate or inappropriate environ- mental studies can delay projects or even lead to federal funds being withheld. Many SDOTs work closely with state envi- ronmental agencies (even funding the cost to these agencies for the preparation of environmental impact assessments for SDOT projects) and are committed to public involvement. It is recognized, however, that these activities require skills and expertise not previously found in the SDOT workforce. with reduced staff, many SDOTs reorganized to eliminate several or- ganizational levels, automated or shifted some traditional central of- fice functions to lower levels of the organization, and decentralized other functions. Reorganization also often devolves decision making to lower levels; combined with decentralization, this trend results in more individual discretion concerning how work gets done and fosters more nontraditional employment arrangements. Thus reorganization requires a broader range of knowledge, skills, and abilities among in- dividual workers.4 Kettl (1996, 45) points out that “careful downsizing requires planning, strategic analysis of critical skills, and the creation of incentives to acquire and retain those skills. The key is shrinking government’s size while reconfiguring it to manage changing needs.” As an example, some of the changes associated with the reorganization at the Ohio Department of Transportation are described in Box 2-4. The trend toward devolving authority from the federal to the state level, and in many cases further within the states to local governments, combined with changing institutional forms, has affected inter- governmental relationships. At the same time, federal regulations and unfunded mandates strain federal–state relations. State and local agen- cies are beginning to be less dependent on federal assistance and to work 4 Civil service and union considerations also play important roles in reorganization decisions. BOX 2-3 (continued) How SDOTs Are Changing 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 32

Transportat ion Agency Work and the Workforce | 33 BOX 2-4 Reorganization Changes at the Ohio Department of Transportation During the last decade, the Ohio Department of Trans- portation (ODOT) significantly altered its organization to improve its core service delivery function. Before ODOT’s reorganization, growing pavement and bridge deficiencies, an increasing number of high-accident locations, and limited available construction funding due to a rise in operating costs double the rate of inflation were negatively affecting the per- formance of the state’s highway network. During the reorga- nization, ODOT reduced staff by more than 1,900, from 7,800 to 5,900, without any layoffs; streamlined its functions; and reinvested more than $600 million in Ohio’s highway network. ODOT reorganized by consolidating 42 work units into 19 streamlined sections. The agency’s 2001 capital program of $1.2 billion represents a 54 percent increase over that of the mid-1990s and was accomplished with a 24 percent smaller staff. Central to the reorganization was giving the department’s 12 district offices the flexibility to identify cost-saving opportunities while maintaining established pro- duction goals. In addition, each district office was able to keep its respective savings and reinvest this money in its capital program. As a result, several high-profile projects were constructed, including a $300 million project to rebuild Interstate 71 through downtown Cincinnati, a $122 million project to reconstruct Interstate 270 north of Columbus, and a $300 million cable-stayed bridge project in Toledo that is expected to become a signature landmark for that city. (continued on next page) 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 33

34 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE more closely with each other to address some issues—environmental, transportation, and others—that require solutions tailored to local or regional circumstances. In some cases, serious consideration is being given to new forms of regional government even as agencies strive to find ways of working together more closely to achieve regional goals. Wave of Retirements The aging of the nation’s population is reflected in the aging of the transportation agency workforce. According to the Current Popula- tion Survey, there were 18.4 million workers over age 55 in the labor force in 2000; the Bureau of Labor Statistics projects 31.9 million workers over age 55 by 2015 (GAO 2001). A 1999 survey of SDOTs indicated that more than 50 percent of their workforce is eligible to re- tire in the next 10 years—more than double the rate for all workers (New Mexico State Highway and Transportation Department 1999).5 In December 2000, FHWA reported that 47 percent of its 2,680 em- ployees were eligible for retirement in 2010 (13 percent at the time, 16 percent in 2005, and 18 percent in 2010). Moreover, potential re- Such a major reorganization requires continuing atten- tion to organizational adjustments, skill needs and gaps, employee reaction, relocations, and other factors. ODOT continues to make changes as it addresses a growing program with fewer staff. BOX 2-4 (continued) Reorganization Changes at the Ohio Department of Transportation 5 This is not an isolated phenomenon. From 2000 to 2008, the proportion of teachers older than 55 will increase from 13 to 19 percent and the proportion of nurses and related profes- sionals older than 55 will increase from 12 to 18 percent. California alone faces a projected shortfall of 300,000 teachers over the next decade (FPE 2001). 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 34

Transportat ion Agency Work and the Workforce | 35 tirements are more critical in some position specialties than others.6 For example, almost one-third of current SDOT executives were eli- gible to retire in 2000, and more than 90 percent can retire within 10 years (FHWA 2000a).7 This high potential rate of retirements stems in large part from the aging of the baby boom generation—those born from 1946 through 1964. The proportion of all workers aged 45 and older will increase from 33 percent of the labor force in 1998 to 40 percent in 2008, which will add nearly 17 million workers to this age group. Over the same period, those aged 25 to 44 will decline as a percent- age of the labor force—from 51 to 44 percent—resulting in 3 mil- lion fewer workers in this age bracket (Dohm 2000). For some transportation agencies, the institution of hiring freezes when downsizing took place means that today many agencies do not have enough midlevel managers to replace their retiring senior-level managers. In an example that reflects the situation in many Ameri- can Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials member organizations, retirements are leaving the Ontario Min- istry of Transportation with significant vacancies (see Table 2-1). Vacancy rates in these specialized skill areas are double those seen at the ministry just 10 years ago. Program Growth The Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century significantly in- creased federal-aid program funding and broadened the scope of pro- gram activities, which placed increased pressure on reduced SDOT staffs. As noted in Chapter 1, between FY 1995 and FY 2001, the ap- portionment of federal funds administered by FHWA increased nearly 60 percent, from $18.1 billion to $28.9 billion. 6 Information on state experiences would be helpful, especially in light of such trends as agency downsizings and early retirement offers. Unfortunately, the committee found a paucity of such information. 7 Some public and a few private employers are adopting measures to retain older workers and extend their careers. Some of these measures are discussed in more detail in Chapter 4. 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 35

36 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE Contracting Out Two factors have led to increasing amounts of contracting out in SDOTs—increased program spending and agency downsizing. States have always contracted out their highway construction work, and many are now contracting out large portions of other work as well. Estimates from two sources based on state submissions illustrate the nature and extent of work contracted out by SDOTs as well as the variations among states in this regard (see Annex 2-1 at end of this chapter). Anecdotal evidence indicates that the amount of work being contracted out will likely continue to increase, largely because of in- creased program growth and agency staffing limitations.8 An important consequence of increased contracting out is that agency staff must focus less on engineering work and more on contract administration and management of others who are doing the engi- neering work.9 Moreover, regardless of the amount of work contracted out, responsibility for verification and accountability for expenditure of public funds remain with the agencies. Contract administration and management of others may not be appealing to engineers whose un- dergraduate curriculum emphasized planning and design of facilities. TABLE 2-1 Projected Staff Vacancies in Key Engineering and Technician Categories by 2003, Ontario Ministry of Transportation Agency Work Projected Staff Category Vacancy (%) Planning and design (planners and engineers) 37 Structural (engineers) 56 Structural (technicians) 40 Geotechnical (engineers) 25 Surveys and plans (engineers) 38 Property (engineers) 27 Traffic (engineers) 27 8 More information on contracting out, especially information indicating what portion of the agency budget is contracted out for specific categories, would be useful to analysts. The com- mittee was unable to find such data. 9 Similarly, FHWA is facing change in its historic focus on staff engineering skills. The Gen- eral Accounting Office has identified the management and oversight of major projects as one of the top 10 challenges facing the agency (GAO 2002). 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 36

Transportat ion Agency Work and the Workforce | 37 Moreover, as transportation programs expand, the workloads of con- tractors, consultants, and materials suppliers increase in parallel with those of transportation agencies, requiring them to have additional qualified engineers, certified inspectors, and skilled and unskilled con- struction workers. Changing Skill Needs The traditional mission—and continuing responsibility—of SDOTs is the delivery of surface transportation infrastructure. The past focus of SDOTs on highway construction and maintenance led to agency staffs being heavily populated by civil engineers and technicians trained in the fundamentals of design, materials, construction, struc- tures, hydraulics, geotechnical studies, and transportation engineer- ing. This traditional mission began to change in the 1960s as SDOTs began responding to changing environmental and community needs, as well as federal mandates and regulations. Since then, agency mis- sions have further expanded to encompass metropolitan and regional planning requirements; environmental and safety concerns; inter- modal considerations; the implementation of intelligent transporta- tion system (ITS) technologies; and a wide range of issues related to the natural environment, including air and water quality, noise, and habitat and endangered species protection, as well as community impacts (cultural, historic, and social).10 Moreover, the issues of sus- tainability and environmental justice have emerged as areas for trans- portation agency attention despite a lack of consensus on what they entail (TRB 1997). And since September 2001, transportation secu- rity has become a pressing issue as well. As a result, today’s public and private transportation organizations employ a wide range of special- ists, including certified planners, architects, landscape architects, en- vironmental scientists, economists, geologists, hydrologists, computer programmers, statisticians, real estate agents, lawyers, appraisers, and acquisition agents (Polzin and Ward 2002). 10 This expansion of mission reflects broader considerations as expressed by Wulf and Fisher (2002, 36): “As the world becomes more complex, engineers must appreciate more than ever the human dimensions of technology, have a grasp of the panoply of global issues, be sensi- tive to cultural diversity, and know how to communicate effectively.” 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 37

38 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE Starting in the late 1980s and throughout the 1990s, SDOTs began emphasizing customer-oriented initiatives and paying more attention to quality management, performance measurement, process reengi- neering, and the delivery of customer service. Customer service and its accompanying real-time information requirements have become a key component of SDOT (as well as TA) activities. More focus on customer satisfaction helps overcome some inefficiency inherent in fragmented system ownership and has impelled many agencies to seek improved cooperation between states and metropolitan areas, and states and local communities. Coupled with customer service activi- ties is the need for SDOTs (and TAs) to interact more proactively and openly with the public and the media. All public agencies are under increasing legislative and public scrutiny, with the result that they must operate more openly, especially when large-scale projects and facilities are involved. While public in- volvement may have begun as a response to planning and regulatory requirements, it is becoming a key component of the customer- oriented focus of public agencies. Public involvement requires ef- fective communication and openness in planning, design, priority setting, and overall decision making. Agencies are also recognizing that customer-oriented public participation requires more than re- sponses to individual needs, and they are surveying their customers more regularly to measure levels of satisfaction and identify areas for improvement. Impact of Technology Technology changes the skills required in the workforce. During the 1980s and 1990s, computer and telecommunications technologies re- shaped many core SDOT functions, including financial and adminis- trative systems, project planning, design, and program management, as well as all measurement and analysis activities. With a computer on everyone’s desk, the way work is organized has changed, as well as how work gets done. ITS technologies—the convergence of com- munication, computing, sensing, and control technologies aimed at achieving operational improvements through freeway and incident management, traveler information, road weather information, and 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 38

Transportat ion Agency Work and the Workforce | 39 other user services—are the most recent examples of technology in- novation in transportation agencies.11 The use of ITS technologies to operate and manage transportation systems creates a whole new op- erating environment for transportation agencies and increases the de- mand for people who understand and operate these technologies. In addition, the transportation agency workforce must be able to use new computer and telecommunications technologies quickly if their benefits are to be realized (Tulgan 2001).12 Competition for Skilled Personnel As noted in Chapter 1, public agencies and private organizations com- pete for many of the same employees. Variations in compensation and job benefits significantly affect the choice of employer for many job seekers. Public agencies are often challenged in recruiting and re- taining workers for jobs requiring newer skills and for entry-level po- sitions (NRC 2001). While data on public–private salary differentials are scarce, several recent surveys indicate the differences. One survey revealed that the median salary of responding civil engineers was $59,900 per year in the public sector and $66,000 per year in the pri- vate sector (CE News 2002). Reese (2003) found in a survey of younger (below age 35) American Society of Civil Engineers members that the average annual salary for private-sector engineers is $1,000 higher than the average for all engineers, while the average annual salary for public engineers is $1,000 lower than the average for all. Young en- gineers with advanced degrees in both categories earned $2,000 more per year than the overall average. Anecdotal evidence provided to the committee in an open session held in December 2001 and by several committee members who are human resource managers indicates that when SDOT engineers 11 Early attempts at implementing ITS technologies in the 1990s were hindered by a lack of technical capacity at state and local levels. This situation led to the development and imple- mentation of an ITS capacity-building program by the ITS Joint Program Office of the U.S. Department of Transportation, which was responsible for the ITS implementation program. A description of the program is provided in Appendix B. 12 There is an emerging trend in the states to consolidate information technology services into a single unit serving all state agencies. This can result in reduced service and lower perfor- mance for some agencies, especially the SDOT, which often has a robust computer center. 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 39

40 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE move from the public to the private sector, the primary reasons are higher salaries and the potential for profit sharing. Interviews con- ducted with SDOT officials in 2000 as part of a recent FHWA study yielded similar results (FHWA 2000b). Evidence of engineers mov- ing from the private to the public sector is sketchy. Reasons given for such moves include more regular work hours, improved work–life balance, and greater opportunity for more responsibilities earlier in one’s career (FHWA 2000b). The committee could find no informa- tion on how many engineers move in either direction. While periods of low unemployment often highlight the difficulties associated with public–private salary differentials, periods of increas- ing unemployment or labor market instability have the opposite ef- fect.13 Workers become more interested in public-sector employment for the same reasons as those cited above for moving from the private to the public sector—more regular work hours, improved work–life balance, and opportunity for more responsibilities earlier in one’s ca- reer (Kaye and Jordan-Evans 1999). Progressive public-sector agencies are able to attract workers even while adopting efficiency improvements based on new methods and techniques developed for the private sector—reengineering, restruc- turing, and downsizing. Such agencies, in recognition that the labor market is becoming increasingly open and fast moving, are recogniz- ing that they need a retention strategy that focuses on particular em- ployees or groups of employees (Cappelli 2000). WORK AND WORKFORCE ISSUES FACING TRANSIT AGENCIES TAs provide local and regional public transit services and operate in an environment of high expectations from transit customers. The TA workforce has several unique characteristics:14 13 Anecdotal evidence indicates that as a result of the September 2001 terrorist attacks and the downturn in the telecommunications industry, many information technology workers are seeking jobs in public-sector agencies. 14 Based on personal communication with John Brock, Milestone Group, LLC, May 23, 2002. 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 40

Transportat ion Agency Work and the Workforce | 41 • It is in constant contact with the general public. • About 75 percent of its members—operators and maintenance staff—are responsible for high standards of efficiency and public (in addition to workplace) safety.15 • Transit operators and maintenance staff are usually unionized. • Operators must hold a Class B commercial driver’s license with a passenger endorsement and are subject to drug and alcohol testing. • Almost all TAs are local government agencies; a few are state agencies. • Opportunities for advancement are limited. • The industry has suffered from a poor or uncomplimentary image in the past, which hampers recruiting efforts. TAs provide a schedule-driven customer service. As a result, the majority of the transit workforce—transit equipment operators— function in a rule-bound, seniority-based environment with little flexibility. This situation has its drawbacks for recruiting younger em- ployees. In addition, the transit industry is experiencing the same stresses on its employment processes as those affecting employers in other sectors. A tight labor market, combined with changing work- force demographics and difficult transit working conditions, creates a definite challenge for TAs. This is especially so for the five key job categories that TAs identify as most difficult to recruit and retain— bus and train operators, equipment maintenance staff, planners, en- gineers, and information technology specialists (McGlothin Davis 2002). Nevertheless, the workforce issues that TAs face vary from lo- cale to locale, among different-sized agencies, and on the basis of the type of governance structure. The ways in which these and other characteristics affect the TA workforce are described below. 15 Many positions in SDOTs are safety sensitive as well. 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 41

42 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE Competition for Skilled Personnel TAs face many of the same obstacles in competing for skilled per- sonnel as do other public agencies. In a recent survey of the industry, 77 percent of responding agencies reported that a noncompetitive wage and benefit package was a key reason for their difficulty in re- cruiting employees in the benchmark positions mentioned above (McGlothin Davis 2002, 15). On the other hand, certain other posi- tive characteristics of TA employment—public service, job security, working with people, supporting a better environmental solution, and the opportunity to work independently—can be marketed for some positions (Moffat et al. 2001, 7). Work Environment of Equipment Operators and Maintenance Staff Transit employees responsible for performing safety-sensitive func- tions—such as bus and rail operators—must pass drug and alcohol tests and a physical examination as conditions of employment and are subject to random testing during employment (McGlothin Davis 2002).16 Entry-level operator positions require a high school degree or equivalent; mechanic positions often require training or certifica- tion. Operators and maintenance staff work their way up through the ranks, advancing internally, usually to a limited number of super- visory positions.17 New hires—especially bus and train operators—are faced with the traditionally challenging entry-level conditions of split shifts, variable work schedules, and stressful working conditions.18 Transit operating schedules are rigid, reflecting high travel demands during peak periods of the day. As a result, there is no opportunity for flexible work schedules for transit operators. Moreover, the first assignment for many bus operators is the extra-board, a standby assignment that can require the operator to be ready to drive as many as three times each day without a guarantee of being assigned any 16 This is also true for SDOT maintenance and equipment operators. 17 Because bus and truck maintenance are similar, there is some movement by maintenance staff between bus and truck fleets. 18 The isolation of bus operators is appealing to those who wish to work independently but can be stressful for those who need or desire more contact with coworkers. 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 42

Transportat ion Agency Work and the Workforce | 43 work. Such an assignment can be a deterrent for new hires and con- tributes to high turnover in the position, adversely affecting transit service and thwarting recruiting efforts. Impact of Technology Technology changes are affecting TAs in many of the same ways that they affect SDOTs, especially with regard to financial and administrative systems, project planning, and data management and analysis. TAs need information technology specialists to operate and maintain their computer systems and networks and the ITS- oriented systems now included in much bus and rail equipment. They need maintenance staff who understand modern bus subsystems that are increasingly dependent on electronics for control, monitoring, and communication. They are also faced with a proliferation of so- phisticated onboard electrical and electronic equipment that is chang- ing the way agencies provide bus service and the way passengers use that service. For example, wiring systems are multiplex instead of ana- log, engines and subsystems are electronically instead of mechanically controlled, and revenue collection systems are electromechanical rather than mechanical. While such improvements have greatly en- hanced the capabilities and benefits of the systems involved, they have also introduced a new level of complexity, requiring considerable knowledge and skill to operate and maintain effectively. Transit op- erators, for example, must be able to use new mechanical equipment designed to accommodate passengers with disabilities. Many TAs have acknowledged that keeping pace with advanced electronics- based technologies and realizing the full range of benefits of new sys- tems and equipment through traditional on-the-job training alone is not sufficient (McGlothin Davis 2002, 13). Many small transit agen- cies with a few paratransit vehicles find it particularly difficult to af- ford a qualified mechanic for their vehicles, which contain complex mechanical systems (Passenger Transport 2002). Engineering and Planning Needs TAs have traditionally employed civil engineers and planners to ad- dress core engineering and planning issues. The building of subway 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 43

44 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE and trolley systems in the 19th and 20th centuries—similar in many ways to the construction of railroads that already employed civil and mechanical engineers—drew many engineers to urban transit. Many continued to play key roles as the need for planning, design, and con- struction, as well as operation and maintenance of facilities, grew. The organization and management of today’s TAs has been heavily influ- enced by engineers and engineering practice, and TAs continue to re- cruit engineers for key positions. TAs also need planners to support their service and capital programs. Both engineer and planner posi- tions require a baccalaureate degree, and both have been identified as benchmark positions—those most difficult to recruit and retain for TAs (McGlothin Davis 2002). A Diverse and Aging Workforce TA workforce demographics reflect many public-sector employ- ment trends. According to data from 20 TAs, the average age of bus operators was 50.1 years, and that for mechanics was 46.1 years (McGlothin Davis 2002). Both are higher than the average of 39 years for all employees (Dohm 2000). Minorities are overrepre- sented in bus operations as compared with information technology and engineering positions, in which Caucasian males dominate. The gender mix for bus operators is about 77 percent male and 24 per- cent female. Image and Culture of Transit Agencies The image an organization projects and perceptions about its culture are important to its workforce and its recruiting and retention efforts. Transit is perceived as hardware- rather than people-oriented and iso- lated from the mainstream of American business (McGlothin Davis 2002). Because it is schedule-driven and must adhere strictly to safety, drug, and alcohol regulations, transit is viewed as quasi-military, in- flexible, and rule-bound or old-fashioned. Some agencies suffer from a history of poor union–management relations, even if the situation is 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 44

Transportat ion Agency Work and the Workforce | 45 improving.19 Research is currently under way to determine how exist- ing negative attitudes about TA culture and practices can be addressed to improve the agencies’ image as an employer of choice (Transit Co- operative Research Program Project F-11). Influence of Legislative Bodies and Agency Boards Transit agencies are usually governed by a board of directors or trustees comprising public citizens appointed by a governor, mayor, or other elected official. Sometimes approval of appointments is also required by a legislative body (the state legislature or the city coun- cil). Members typically represent specific political jurisdictions. Tran- sit boards range in size from 5 to 23 members and average 9 members (Simon & Simon 2002). The vast majority of transit boards avoid day- to-day operations and focus on policy issues. TA workforce planning is often constrained by a transit board de- cision to cap the number of full-time equivalents (FTEs). When a board mandates restricting FTEs to control costs, it often overlooks actual operating conditions and the potential consequences of FTE limits, such as increased scheduled and unscheduled overtime, oper- ator dependence on overtime, reduced morale and performance, and increased turnover (Moffat et al. 2001). CHARACTERIZING KEY TRANSPORTATION AGENCY JOB CATEGORIES Past studies of SDOT workforce needs have focused principally on either the civil engineering or the professional workforce—including, for example, civil and other engineers, planners, lawyers—those re- quiring a baccalaureate or professional degree. Studies of TA work- force needs have concentrated on several benchmark categories—bus 19 TAs are local organizations, and many of their employees come from the area served by the system. Thus, the agency’s history is part of the local community and often well known to its residents. 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 45

46 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE and train operators, equipment maintenance staff, engineers, plan- ners, and information technology specialists. To both focus and sim- plify its discussions, the committee adopted a model of transportation agency job categories based on education and training qualifications while recognizing that any such model can oversimplify the situation and obscure variations within and among categories.20 The committee’s model is based on four primary job categories—executive/managerial, professional /technical, operator/technician, and administrative/ clerical. The minimum requirement for professional staff is a baccalau- reate or professional degree or equivalent qualifications. The minimum requirement for technical staff is a post–secondary school credential (an associate’s degree, a certificate from a recognized training pro- gram, or some combination of training and experience) that qualifies them. The minimum requirement for administrative and clerical staff is a high school diploma or equivalent. More information on these categories as discussed by the committee is presented in Table 2-2. SUMMARY Many factors—including technology changes, demographic factors, increasing ethnic diversification of the population, funds availability, and so forth—will continue to have an impact on the transportation agency workforce and the agencies’ ability to recruit and retain qual- ified staff. Each agency must decide how it will undertake its mission and the workforce it needs to accomplish that mission. While many factors affect this decision, several are critical: anticipated program 20 The committee considered classifications such as white collar/blue collar and professional/ nonprofessional but found them limiting. It also considered classifications with more cate- gories, such as the ASCE Compensation Survey that includes eight engineer categories and three surveyor levels. An unpublished workforce benchmarking study prepared for Indiana Department of Transportation revealed that in 22 responding states, on average, 44 percent of SDOT employees are administrators, managers, or professionals, 32 percent are technical or craft certified, and 27 percent are clerical or unskilled. In addition to engineers, engineer- ing technicians, and information technology professionals, SDOTs have a cadre of “other professionals,” including accountants, attorneys, environmental scientists, planners, and right-of-way and human resource specialists (Warne 2003). 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 46

T A B L E 2 -2 S el ec te d C ha ra ct er is ti cs fo r P ri m ar y T ra ns po rt at io n A ge nc y Jo b C at eg o ri es M in im um Jo b T yp ic al Jo b T it le s Q ua lifi ca ti on s C ha ng e C on si de ra ti on s R ec ru it in g R an ge Ex ec ut iv e/ m an ag er ia l Pr of es si on al / te ch ni ca l O pe ra to r/ te ch ni ci an A dm in is tr at iv e/ cl er ic al G en er al m an ag er s, ex ec ut iv e of fic er s, ag en cy h ea ds , de pa rt m en t he ad s M an ag er s; e ng in ee rs ; pl an ne rs ; e nv ir on - m en ta l, fin an ci al , a nd le ga l s pe ci al is ts T ra ns it eq ui pm en t op er at or s, m ai n- te na nc e st af f, en gi ne er in g te ch ni - ci an s, in fo rm at io n te ch no lo gy sp ec ia lis ts Se cr et ar ie s, a dm in is - tr at iv e as si st an ts , cl er ks Ex pe ri en ce w ith ag en cy o pe ra tio ns pl us s om e m an ag e- m en t ex pe ri en ce o r eq ui va le nt Ba cc al au re at e or pr of es si on al d eg re e or e qu iv al en t qu al ifi ca tio ns So m e co m bi na tio n of p os ts ec on da ry tr ai ni ng a nd ex pe ri en ce Se co nd ar y sc ho ol ed uc at io n; p os si bl y so m e ad di tio na l tr ai ni ng . O pe n to c ha ng e; k no w le dg e of c ha ng in g co nd iti on s w ith in a nd o ut si de t he a ge nc y A n ex pa nd in g ra ng e of te ch ni ca l s ki lls — pl an ni ng , o pe ra tio n, e nv ir on m en ta l, et c. — ar e ne ed ed in a ll ag en ci es . T he c ha ng in g SD O T b us in es s m od el a nd c or e co m pe - te nc y re qu ir em en ts a re a ffe ct in g th e ra ng e of p ro fe ss io na l r eq ui re m en ts ; m or e co n- tr ac tin g ou t i nc re as es th e ne ed fo r co nt ra ct m an ag er s; in no va tiv e fin an ci al a rr an ge m en ts in cr ea se th e ne ed fo r fin an ci al e xp er ts N ew c om pu te r, in fo rm at io n, a nd t ra ns - po rt at io n te ch no lo gi es r es ul t in h ig he r qu al ifi ca tio ns C om pu te r- ba se d of fic e te ch no lo gi es a nd in - fo rm at io n te ch no lo gi es a re r ai si ng e nt ry - le ve l q ua lifi ca tio ns a nd r eq ui ri ng e m pl oy er s to p ro vi de r em ed ia l t ra in in g N at io na l, re gi on al , o r de pa rt m en ta l SD O T s an d T A s ge ne r- al ly r ec ru it w ith in t he st at e or r eg io n; s om e re - cr ui t ac ro ss t he c ou nt ry ; so m e ag en ci es c an no t pa y m ov in g ex pe ns es fo r ou t- of -s ta te c an di da te s O fte n w ith in a s ta te o r re gi on U su al ly lo ca l 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 47

48 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE growth, an expanding agency mission, constraints on program fund- ing, and pressure to maintain or reduce agency staff. In combination they require agencies to contract out more work. Many agencies are already selectively increasing their use of contractors and consultants for work traditionally undertaken by agency staff. As they contract out more work, agencies still need some in-house expertise to ensure quality control, a basic fiduciary responsibility of the agency, as well as more contract management and administration skills (Camm and Moore 1997). Nevertheless, overall program management and fiscal stewardship must remain in-house. Each transportation agency is independent, and few have at- tempted to predict their workforce needs in the next 5 or 10 years. However, in light of the changes taking place in the workforce, there are some identifiable trends. The impending wave of retirements of senior management staff is important to agencies that do not have suf- ficient numbers of midlevel replacements in the pipeline. Technol- ogy changes are taking place at a quickening pace, increasing the need for training in new methods, technology applications, and manage- ment techniques. Contracting out demands more of an agency’s tech- nical staff than just a caretaker role; it requires technical competence combined with contract management and administration skills. The experience gained from the few states moving quickly toward an operating model in which a high percentage of work is contracted out should prove valuable to other agencies if the lessons learned can be captured and disseminated. The issue of the future TA workforce is somewhat different at this time. While external changes will continue to affect TAs, how they will deliver service in the next 5 to 10 years is not likely to change, nor is the basic mix of personnel required. Thus the need for transit op- erators and equipment maintenance staff, engineers, planners, and in- formation technology personnel will continue. REFERENCES Abbreviations FPE Federation of Public Employees FHWA Federal Highway Administration 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 48

Transportat ion Agency Work and the Workforce | 49 GAO General Accounting Office NRC National Research Council TRB Transportation Research Council Camm, F. S., and N. Y. Moore. 1997. Strategic Sourcing: A Key to the Revolution in Business Affairs. Report DB-208-AF. Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, Calif. Cappelli, P. 2000. A Market-Driven Approach to Retaining Talent. Harvard Business Review, Jan.–Feb. CE News. 2002. Salary Survey 2002. May. www.cenews.com/edsalsurmain.html. Dohm, A. 2000. Gauging the Labor Force Effects of Retiring Baby-Boomers. Monthly Labor Review, July, pp. 17–25. FHWA. 2000a. Positioning FHWA for the Future. Report of Task Force on Work- force Planning and Professional Development. Washington, D.C., Dec. FHWA. 2000b. Federal Lands Highway, Phase II Benchmarking Study. Washington, D.C., Sept. FPE. 2001. The Quiet Crisis: Recruitment and Retention in the Public Sector. Recruitment and Retention Task Force. Washington, D.C., June. GAO. 2001. Older Workers: Demographic Trends Pose Challenges for Employers and Workers. GAO-02-85. Washington, D.C., Nov. GAO. 2002. A Model of Strategic Human Capital Management. GAO-02-373SP. Washington, D.C. Hudson Institute. 1987. Workforce 2000—Work and Workers for the 21st Century. Indianapolis, Ind. Hudson Institute. 1997. Workforce 2020—Work and Workers in the 21st Century. Indianapolis, Ind. Kaye, B., and S. Jordan-Evans. 1999. Love ‘Em or Lose ‘Em. Berrett-Koehler Pub- lishers, San Francisco, Calif. Kettl, D. 1996. Civil Service Reform: Building a Government That Works. The Brook- ings Institution, Washington, D.C. McGlothin Davis, Inc. 2002. TCRP Report 77: Managing Transit’s Workforce in the New Millennium. TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C. Moffat, G. K., A. H. Ashton, and D. R. Blackburn. 2001. TCRP Synthesis 40: A Chal- lenged Employment System: Hiring, Training, Performance Evaluation, and Retention of Bus Operators. TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C. New Mexico State Highway and Transportation Department. 1999. Staffing Plan Survey of State Transportation Agencies. Research Report NM99, ADM-01. Sept. NRC. 2001. Building a Workforce for the Information Economy. Washington, D.C. Passenger Transport. 2002. Illinois DOT Connects Small Transit Agencies to Re- gional Repair Centers. Dec. 27. 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 49

50 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE Polzin, S. E., and B. G. Ward. 2002. Designing an Interdisciplinary Educational Pro- gram to Support Transportation Workforce Development. In Transportation Re- search Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 1812, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., pp. 143–150. Reese, C. 2003. Employment History Survey of ASCE’s Younger Members. Leader- ship and Management in Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 33–53. Simon & Simon Research and Associates, Inc. 2002. TCRP Web Document 21: Public Transit System Policy Boards: Organization and Characteristics. TCRP Project H-24, Contractor Final Report. TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C. gulliver.trb.org/publications/tcrp/tcrp_webdoc_21.pdf. TRB. 1997. Special Report 251: Toward a Sustainable Future: Addressing the Long-Term Effects of Motor Vehicle Transportation on Climate and Ecology. National Research Council, Washington, D.C. Tulgan, B. 2001. Winning the Talent Wars. W.W. Norton & Company. Warne, T. 2003. NCHRP Synthesis of Highway Practice: Current Practice for Recruiting and Retaining Individuals in State Transportation Agencies. TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C. (in progress). Wulf, W. A., and G. M. C. Fisher. 2002. A Makeover for Engineering Education. Issues in Science and Technology, Spring, pp. 35–39. 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 50

Transportat ion Agency Work and the Workforce | 51 ANNEX 2-1 Extent of and Variations in Contracting Out at SDOTs Percent State Notes Contracted Alabama Alaska Arizona California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Design and environmental services (most design and construction inspection is contracted out as well) Construction contract administration Design Design Construction management Surveys Mapping Geotechnical Hydraulics Bridge design Environmental Design and environmental services (The State Supreme Court has limited contract- ing out to environmental activities and specialty work on bridge design and experimentation/re- search of seismic retrofit.) Design and environmental services (DOT has been contracting out significant amounts of project development activities in recent years, including environmental studies and documents as well as plans development. It is contracting out a growing amount of construc- tion contract administration. For the fiscal year ending July 30, 1999, 51 percent of design and construction oversight was contracted out.) Design Construction inspection (Surveys, geographic information system, and property activities are done in-house as man- dated by the state legislature. State core compe- tencies are identified as maintenance, contract administration, engineering, surveying, and con- struction inspection.) Design Construction management Project engineering Construction Design and environmental services (Workforce size is determined by the state legislature.) 80* 10 31 90 30 Almost all 100 67 Almost all 50 100 15* 40* 72 61 60 60 70 100 66* (continued on next page) 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 51

52 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE ANNEX 2-1 (continued) Extent of and Variations in Contracting Out at SDOTs Percent State Notes Contracted Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Design Design and environmental services Design Construction management Design and environmental services (Illinois DOT expected to triple its consultant budget in 1999 from $55 million per year to $160 million per year. Most of this is for envi- ronmental and design purposes. There will likely be an increase in construction engineering con- tracts this year as well.) Environment studies Design Construction oversight Maintenance ITS area Construction Construction inspection Right-of-way Highway design Bridge design Project planning (location and environment) Construction inspection Plans and design for the major highway and bridge jobs (from 1990 to 1997) Plans and design for the major highway and bridge jobs (from 1998 to 1999) Plans and design for the major highway and bridge jobs (for the 2000 to 2009 program) Environmental (approximate) Construction and reconstruction activities Preliminary engineering items, such as design, envi- ronmental studies, planning, underwater bridge inspection, photogrammetry Design Environmental Highway design Bridge design Construction engineering 25 >50* 67 10 65–80* 90 90 10 0 0 100 25 Little 62 41 18 25 71 58 70 10 100 80 30* 60* 30 20 13 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 52

Transportat ion Agency Work and the Workforce | 53 Percent State Notes Contracted Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New York New Mexico North Carolina Plats Field surveys Mapping Design (on a dollar basis) Design (on a project basis) Construction inspection Construction Design and environmental services Design and environmental services Design and environmental services Design and environmental services Highway design Bridge design Construction inspection Miscellaneous Design and environmental services Highway design Construction engineering Construction engineering Preliminary engineering Right-of-way plans and appraisals (State legislature fixes staff limits by approving all state agency budgets. Technicians are certi- fied through the Transportation Technician Training Program, a joint program of Nevada DOT and the Association of Contractors in the state.) Design projects (by number) Design projects (by dollar amount) Design on a project basis Construction Design and environmental services Signs and pavement markings Logo program Construction management on certain projects Services such as environmental, design, and traffic studies Design and environmental services 90 33 100 60 50 50 100 50* 55* 25–30* 30* 82 16 0 3 30–50* 35 0 55 78.6 Some 33 63 95 30 50* 100 100 100 40 50* (continued on next page) 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 53

54 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE ANNEX 2-1 (continued) Extent of and Variations in Contracting Out at SDOTs Percent State Notes Contracted North Dakota Oklahoma Oregon Puerto Rico Rhode Island South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington Construction engineering services for the state portion of the total construction program Design services Design and construction engineering for county program Design work Construction inspection Bridge inspections Preliminary engineering Construction engineering (State legislature has capped hiring.) Engineering services (The Puerto Rico Highway and Transportation Authority contracts out the majority of its preliminary engineering work including some construction management and design/build management contracts for large transportation projects.) Design and environmental services Design Construction Environmental Design projects Construction inspection (except for specialized work) Right-of-way appraisal work Environment studies Preliminary engineering, including design Construction engineering Design Preconstruction (Utah DOT does not contract out for construc- tion inspection. Most local governments use consultant construction inspection services.) Design and environmental services Design and environmental services Design and environmental services 20 50 100 70 10 75 45 (1998) 39 (1999) 9.6 (1998) 4.3 (1999) 90 95* 25 20 <5 50 100 60 60 51 2 45 80 60–70* 60–70* 20* 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 54

Transportat ion Agency Work and the Workforce | 55 Percent State Notes Contracted West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming SOURCES: Based on information from FHWA’s Federal Lands Highway core business unit and an inde- pendent survey by Zweig-White. Numbers with an asterisk are from a Zweig-White survey of SDOTs. Zweig-White data are for design and environmental services only. Preliminary engineering design services (WVDOH does contract out for engineering services in many areas including preliminary en- gineering for environmental document prepara- tion and contract plans, construction inspection, bridge inspections, materials inspection, and even some right-of-way services.) Design and construction engineering services Design engineering Planning Environmental 70* 50 15 20 80* 55126_TRB_043_73 11/14/03 4:46 AM Page 55

5 6 3 Traditional and Emerging Sources for Transportation and Transit Agency Personnel and Training Chapter Highlights • The focus of state departments of transportation (SDOTs) on civil infrastructure components makes them predomi- nantly civil engineering–oriented organizations. • The expanding mission of SDOTs requires them to have staff expertise in a wide variety of backgrounds, including such areas as planning, environmental science, and intelli- gent transportation systems. • Alternative pathways to employment in SDOTs and tran- sit agencies (TAs) are increasing in number for both pro- fessional and support positions, but little information about how these pathways can be exploited by the agencies is available. • Engineering enrollments and graduations have been de- clining in recent years, reducing the pool of civil engineers from which agencies recruit. 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 56

Tradit iona l and Emerging Sources for Personnel and Tra in ing | 57 • The service delivery focus of TAs requires a workforce comprising predominantly equipment operators and agency maintenance staff. • There is an extensive array of education and training op- portunities for transportation agency staff, as well as for people interested in transportation careers. However, these opportunities are highly fragmented and uncoordinated, as is information about them. Universities, community colleges, independent training insti-tutes, professional and trade associations, and public agenciesoffer a broad range of education and training opportunities that encompass degree, certificate, and continuing education pro- grams, and short courses providing the knowledge and skills needed by transportation agencies. Two federal agencies closely associated with transportation programs offer training opportunities: the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), through the National Highway Institute (NHI), and the Federal Transit Administration (FTA), through the National Transit Institute (NTI). A third federal agency, the Research and Special Programs Administration (RSPA) in the U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT), manages the University Transportation Centers (UTC) program, initiated under the Surface Transportation and Uniform Relocation Assistance Act of 1987 and continued in subsequent surface transportation reauthorizations. Education and training programs at universities, community col- leges, and technical schools are affected by institutional issues as they attempt to meet the needs of the education marketplace.1 These issues include academic policies, accreditation and licensing requirements, competition for students, economic considerations, and staffing. 1 The committee adopted the following distinction between education and training: education prepares an individual through a structured program of study for a lifelong contribution to society; training is delivery of a specific skill or understanding of an issue. 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 57

58 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE Traditional and emerging sources of education and training all ad- dress the needs of employers and employees for continuous learning in response to the growing demands of the marketplace and the workplace. In the following sections information is provided on sources of professional, technical, and industry education and train- ing for state departments of transportation (SDOTs) and transit agencies (TAs). UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES The primary credential for many key transportation agency positions is still a degree in civil engineering. Civil engineering graduates have long been the backbone of SDOT workforces, largely because civil en- gineering education prepares students to perform the bulk of work done by these agencies—planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of transportation facilities. As the range of activities within the purview of SDOTs has broadened (as discussed in Chapter 2), the agencies need more planning, environmental, financial, and legal spe- cialists. The primary credential for these positions is a bachelor’s de- gree in planning, environmental science, business, prelaw, or related topics. Regardless of the need for a variety of professions, civil engi- neering remains the dominant focus. In recent years, the number of civil engineers graduating from accredited engineering programs has been decreasing (see Figure 3-1).2 Despite this cyclic pattern, the sup- ply of civil engineering graduates appears sufficient to meet demand. Notwithstanding the importance of civil engineers to the operation of transportation agencies, engineering consulting and construction firms employ many more civil engineers. This is evidenced by the fact that in mid-2002, offers to civil engineering graduates were 40 percent 2 According to Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, there are about 215 ac- credited civil engineering programs in the United States. These 4-year college and university programs graduate approximately 8,400 civil engineers each year. There are also 118 other ac- credited engineering programs whose graduates can support transportation agency work. These include general engineering, construction engineering, geological engineering, materials engi- neering, transportation engineering, and urban systems engineering programs. 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 58

Tradit iona l and Emerging Sources for Personnel and Tra in ing | 59 from consulting firms, 50 percent from construction firms, and only 10 percent from government and nonprofit organizations.3 While the data are limited, they do reflect the employment potential. They also suggest that even if changes in civil engineering curricula would ben- efit SDOTs in light of their changing work requirements, the influ- ence of the agencies on curriculum decisions is small compared with that of other potential employers.4 Many SDOTs have strong ties and established relationships with state universities that help attract engineering students to agency 14,000 12,000 10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 0 1975-76 1980-81 1985-86 1990-91 1995-96 2000-01 Academic Year Civil Chemical Aerospace Environmental FIGURE 3-1 Bachelor’s degrees awarded in selected engineering disciplines. (Source: engtrends.com.) 3 Based on data from the National Association of Colleges and Employers. 4 According to the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), members from the private sec- tor have been highly influential in the passage of Policy 465 of the ASCE Board of Directors. Adopted in October 2001, the policy “supports the concept of the Master’s degree or Equiv- alent as a prerequisite for licensure and the practice of civil engineering at a professional level.” The policy is intended to better prepare civil engineering graduates to practice in the profes- sion; it could also affect the supply of civil engineering graduates. 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 59

60 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE work. Such ties have several origins, including state government sup- port of public universities, participation in cooperative engineering programs, agency funding of internships and fellowships, agency re- search funding that focuses the work of graduate students (and their professors) on SDOT topics, and agency employees who are state uni- versity graduates or supporters of student and departmental activities.5 The changes taking place in SDOTs and other transportation agencies—requiring other engineering and technical specialties to ad- dress intelligent transportation system (ITS) implementation, envi- ronmental regulations, and metropolitan transportation planning, as well as the growing demand for procurement and contract manage- ment specialists—have been recognized by the academic community. Sussman (1995, 4) notes the need to educate a “new transportation professional” with breadth in three fundamental areas—technology, systems, and institutions—and an in-depth specialization in a subset of transportation. He also addresses the associated need for a faculty capable of approaching transportation education in terms of “big in- frastructure investments, a network structure for delivery of services, an (relatively recent) application of real-time control, a global scale, and a changing institutional structure, particularly between public and private sectors” (Sussman 1999, 23). In response to the changing needs of urban transportation agen- cies the University of South Florida—one of USDOT’s university transportation centers—has instituted a Graduate Interdisciplinary Transportation Program. It brings together graduate students in eco- nomics, civil engineering, and public administration for a six-course certificate program; the coursework is also available to students work- ing toward master’s degrees. The program, which is described in more detail in Box 3-1, was developed with a view toward the chang- ing knowledge and skill requirements of the transportation workforce for both public- and private-sector employers. The UTC program, a key component of federal support for uni- versity transportation education and research, is described later. 5 The scholarship program sponsored by the Kentucky Department of Transportation is an ex- ample of how an SDOT connects to engineering programs in state universities. The program is described in Chapter 4. 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 60

Tradit iona l and Emerging Sources for Personnel and Tra in ing | 61 BOX 3-1 The Graduate Interdisciplinary Transportation Program at the University of South Florida The Graduate Interdisciplinary Transportation Program in the Department of Civil Engineering at the University of South Florida (USF) was inaugurated in 1995. Graduate stu- dents in economics, civil engineering, and public administra- tion enroll in a common set of core courses that emphasize urban transportation issues. Students in the program have opportunities to participate on research project teams with senior transportation faculty at the USF Center for Urban Transportation Research. The program is being offered as a six-course certificate program in addition to being available to students working toward a graduate degree. The certificate program was developed for early- and mid-career transporta- tion professionals in response to a need expressed by the pro- fession for increased training in interdisciplinary approaches to transportation issues. In addition to its interdisciplinary nature, the program draws from a much wider pool than the traditional set of engi- neering and planning students in transportation programs. The program’s full-time students are currently 20 percent women and 70 percent Black and Hispanic minorities, whereas the undergraduate civil engineering enrollment has 21 percent women and 10 percent Black and Hispanic minorities. The overall undergraduate population at USF is approximately 60 percent female and 24 percent Black and Hispanic mi- norities. Thus the program has attracted considerable mi- nority participation and over time is expected to increase female participation as well. 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 61

62 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE COMMUNITY COLLEGES As their name implies, community colleges—a unique American in- stitution with a 100-year history of service—are community-based in- stitutions of higher learning. There are more than 1,170 community colleges in the nation, with about 1,000 being public institutions.6 The majority share the characteristics of open access and equity, comprehensive program offerings aimed at job preparation, a community-based philosophy, a commitment to teaching, and a commitment to continuous learning. Unlike 4-year colleges and universities, where attainment of a bachelor’s degree is the implicit goal of students, community colleges serve students who share a goal of self-improvement but not necessarily a degree. Community colleges offer a variety of credit and noncredit courses aimed at occupations in high demand within the community.7 They are characterized by high levels of enrollment, low graduation rates, and large numbers of older (mature) students, suggesting that they are functioning as retraining rather than as primary training institutions. Minorities and immigrants are overrepresented in 2-year schools. First-generation postsecondary students and students from low socioeconomic backgrounds are more likely to enroll in community colleges than in 4-year schools (NCES 2000). For students who are already in related technical fields, switching careers, or adding tech- nical skills to their current nontechnical skills, community colleges are a convenient, economical, and popular option. Community colleges offer an opportunity to tap a worker pool of recent high school graduates, experienced workers seeking a midlife career change, and college graduates with nontechnical degrees seek- ing alternative employment in more technical fields. Evidence that community college programs have proven successful in providing workers for information technology jobs suggests that programs can 6 Community colleges include vocational, technical, and adult education institutions, some of which offer credit courses transferable to a university. 7 Students enrolled in community colleges do not necessarily have a high school diploma (Lerman et al. 2000). 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 62

Tradit iona l and Emerging Sources for Personnel and Tra in ing | 63 be developed for other job types and diffused across the country (Lerman et al. 2000). This capability is leveraged by a key community college advantage—flexibility in curriculum. Two-year colleges can react to industry demands quickly and are not burdened by the bu- reaucratic structure and accreditation issues of 4-year colleges and universities.8 On the other hand, as noted above, an accredited engi- neering or other degree is often a requirement for some transporta- tion agency positions. Finally, it should be noted that, given their financial constraints and union contracts, community colleges can find it difficult to attract and retain the qualified faculty they need.9 Community colleges are partnering with TAs to address some transportation agency needs for specialized skills. The Houston Community College System’s Northeast College has partnered with the Houston Metropolitan Transit Authority (METRO) for nearly 20 years to provide heavy motor vehicle maintenance/diesel mechanic training for METRO’s maintenance apprenticeship program. That program consists of 5 years of training based on a combination of community college classes and on-the-job training at METRO. Can- didates are selected by METRO, and community college instructors teach the classes. The program provides 100 percent job placement for those who complete the training. There are currently 75 students in the program. Community colleges are addressing the need for engineering grad- uates in other ways, including partnering with universities to provide alternative entry into baccalaureate engineering degree programs. For example, the University of Dayton (UD) has two dual-admission 8 Community colleges serve local needs and can be highly aggressive in seeking new enroll- ments, revenues, and activities. They often provide customized training for local employers. Such arrangements can have a high profile and political significance disproportionate to the institution’s size, but such training helps solidify partnerships with influential local businesses (Bailey 2002). On the other hand, the independence of community colleges can affect the pro- vision of coordinated market-responsive programs. For example, there are 106 community colleges in California in 70 separate districts, each with its own board of trustees. As a result, the state has little power to operate the colleges as a coordinated system. 9 According to the National Center for Educational Statistics’ National Study of Postsecondary Faculty, approximately 47 percent of community college faculty members are eligible for union membership and 32 percent are union members. 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 63

64 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE programs with Sinclair Community College (SCC) in Dayton. In such programs, students who complete an associate’s degree in one of the qualifying programs at SCC and meet the grade point average re- quirement can transfer to UD with junior status and receive a one- third annual tuition discount from UD while they pursue their baccalaureate degree. In the joint Adult Degree Advancement Pro- gram, students over 24 years of age also receive a tuition discount. Community colleges are well positioned to address emerging and continuing community needs for specialized training programs; they can react quickly to changing needs. However, their ability to initi- ate and sustain programs in areas of high demand depends on hiring and retaining qualified instructors, who are often in high demand elsewhere. TARGETED EDUCATION AND TRAINING PROGRAMS Key Federal Agency Programs National Highway Institute FHWA’s NHI provides training and education for surface trans- portation agencies through the development and delivery of training courses, administration of fellowships and internships, and several af- filiate programs. Current funding for NHI is $8 million annually. Spe- cific NHI program activity is summarized in Table 3-1. In addition, NHI currently supports an initiative of the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) aimed at identifying and publicizing innovative practices in SDOT workforce management practices. This effort is described in Chapter 4. National Transit Institute NTI, located at Rutgers University, was established under the Inter- modal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 to develop, pro- mote, and deliver education and training programs for the public transit industry in subject areas of critical importance in which train- ing does not exist or is limited. The institute’s initial four program 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 64

Tradit iona l and Emerging Sources for Personnel and Tra in ing | 65 areas were advanced technologies and innovative practices, compliance with federal regulations, management and professional development, and multimodal transportation planning. In 1998, the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21) provided additional fund- ing and added workplace safety as a program area. Current funding for NTI is $4 million annually. In addition to traditional course offer- ings, NTI provides monthly audio teleconferences, an annual transit trainer’s workshop, and presentations by invited speakers. Local Technical Assistance Program The Local Technical Assistance Program (LTAP) provides technical assistance funds to the states to assist them and local governments through 58 LTAP centers10 that provide training and technical assis- tance primarily to local transportation agencies, as well as to SDOTs, metropolitan planning organizations, private industry, and other trans- portation providers. Most of the centers are housed at state universities and technical colleges and are geared specifically toward disseminating research results and new technologies to rural highway agencies and municipalities with populations under 2 million. The location of the TABLE 3-1 Description of Key NHI Activities Activity Description Training courses Fellowships and scholarships Affiliates programs More than 550 courses involving more than 15,000 participants— nearly 70 percent from SDOTs—were delivered in FY 2002. Course materials can be made available to states for their own use and modification. NHI has begun to adopt distance-learning mecha- nisms (Web- and computer-based training). NHI coordinates across modes and institutions to make the best use of resources. About 100 student and faculty fellowships and grants are adminis- tered for the Dwight David Eisenhower Transportation Fellowship Program. Special fellowships and grants are available for historically African American and Hispanic-speaking institutions, and tribal colleges. The affiliates programs office supports the Local Technical Assistance Program, the international program, and a partnerships program. 10 There are LTAP centers in each state, seven serving Native American tribal governments, and one in Puerto Rico. 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 65

66 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE centers at universities also provides educational and training opportu- nities for students interested in highway-related careers, and training and technical assistance for highway professionals at the state and local levels. The LTAP centers are funded by FHWA, SDOTs, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, universities, local transportation agencies, and other state funds. In 2002, up to $140,000 in LTAP funds was available to each state on a 1:1 matching basis; in some cases the match was much greater. During that year, LTAP centers provided more than 5,000 training sessions to more than 135,000 participants. Current funding enables the LTAP program to reach about one-third of the local gov- ernment transportation workforce. UTC Program The centerpiece of federal support for university transportation pro- grams is the UTC program, which is administered by RSPA. TEA- 21 authorized up to $158.8 million for grants to as many as 33 UTCs throughout the United States from FY 1998 to FY 2003. Ten of these centers, designated as regional centers, were selected competitively in 1999. The other 23 UTCs are located at universities specified in TEA-21. Funding for the UTCs is matched on a 1:1 basis, often by an SDOT, but also by other sources. The UTC program supports graduate student education and re- search in transportation; such assistance provides a platform for the development of future transportation professionals, researchers, and educators. TEA-21 established education as one of the primary ob- jectives of a UTC, institutionalized the use of strategic planning in university grant management, and reinforced the program’s focus on multimodal transportation. (See Appendix C for more detail on the universities in the UTC program.) Congressional designations for the UTC program in FY 2001 amount to 93 percent of the potential grants. During FY 2002, 17 existing centers will enter a competition for funding for the final 2 years of authorization. State Agency Programs As noted in Chapter 2, SDOTs operate in a climate of change stem- ming from technical, demographic, institutional, political, cultural, 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 66

Tradit iona l and Emerging Sources for Personnel and Tra in ing | 67 economic, and environmental factors. These changes—especially ad- vances in technology; materials; construction methods; financing and scheduling projects; and ways of administering contracts to save time, control costs, and improve quality—require SDOTs to focus more resources on training the workforce. Congress has authorized each SDOT to spend up to 0.5 percent of a portion of its Surface Trans- portation Program funds on training, a total of about $38 million in FY 2002. SDOTs spent only about $9 million of the available funds in 2002.11 Data from surveys indicate that SDOTs annually provide about 10 hours of training on average for each employee. Never- theless, many states spend state money for training.12 Information from NHI and the National Transportation Training Directors, an organization of SDOT training directors, suggests that the full range of SDOT training activities is quite broad, but docu- mentation on those activities is limited. Many states are entering into joint training efforts with contractors, consultants, and, in some cases, county and city engineers to leverage limited training resources to- ward common goals. A recent survey by Trauner (2001) revealed that SDOTs are re- acting to reduced staffing levels by requiring that project engineering and inspection staffs have a wider variety of skills and be willing to work in broader geographic areas than was previously the norm. SDOTs use certification and licensing mechanisms to ensure that project engineers and inspectors have the needed knowledge and skills.13 Both are often tied to advancement in the organization as well. SDOTs use a variety of institutions to provide instruction for proj- ect engineers and inspectors. Table 3-2 shows that the primary provider of such instruction is department staff. Some SDOTs have also pooled resources to develop and implement a single uniform pro- gram for training and certification of technical personnel under the 11 How these funds are spent reflect individual agency priorities. 12 Based on data from the New Mexico State Highway and Transportation Department (1999) and an unpublished survey of SDOT training budgets conducted by the National Trans- portation Training Directors in 1998. 13 Trauner (2001) found that of 18 states responding to a survey, 8 required that a project engi- neer be a licensed professional engineer. Three others required a specialty certification. 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 67

68 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE Transportation Curriculum Coordinating Council, a partnership formed in September 2000 to coordinate, prioritize, and reduce du- plication of effort in the development and revision of core training materials for highway construction inspectors and technicians. The council comprises representatives of AASHTO, FHWA, NHI, SDOTs, industry associations, and five regional training and certifi- cation groups.14 The training and certification efforts of SDOTs extend to other areas. Examples include Georgia DOT’s project engineer’s academy, maintenance foreman’s academy, and worksite erosion control certi- fication program; Indiana DOT’s technician certification program; and Pennsylvania DOT’s Transportation University, which has been designated as a certified provider of continuing education credits by the International Association for Continuing Education and Training. A number of states—including Virginia, Texas, Minnesota, Cali- fornia, Pennsylvania, and New York—have established cooperative programs among state highway and transportation agencies, transit properties, and state universities and community colleges. For exam- ple, Virginia DOT has a community college–based training program for bus maintenance staff; the state transit office pays the maintainers while they attend courses. TABLE 3-2 Providers of State Training Provider Percentage Department staff 27 Contractor associations 6 Universities/colleges 21 Consultants 13 American Society of Civil Engineers 8 National Highway Institute 16 Other 3 14 The New England Transportation Technician Certification Program, Mid-Atlantic Regional Training and Certification Program, Southeast Task Force for Technician Training and Qualification, Multi-Regional Training and Certification, and Western Alliance for Quality Transportation Construction. For more information see www.nhi.fhwa.dot.gov/tccc/. 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 68

Tradit iona l and Emerging Sources for Personnel and Tra in ing | 69 Transit Agency Programs Transit equipment operators and maintenance staff, who make up the majority of transit agency employees, receive considerable training. After recruitment, operators require training in safety, operational is- sues, passenger relations, and the electronic communications and fare collection equipment widely used today. Transit agency maintenance staff usually need to be certified as an electrical, electronic, or me- chanical technician or in another specialty. Because equipment sup- pliers regularly enter and exit the market, each new equipment purchase can require training on new systems. Other transit employ- ees need training in their skill areas and for other reasons. Congress has authorized transit agencies to spend up to 0.5 percent of federal operating and capital funds for training, a total of about $33 million in FY 2002. FTA does not compile information on how much of these funds transit agencies actually spend, but anecdotal information from FTA, the American Public Transportation Administration (APTA), and committee members familiar with a number of transit agencies indicates that they do not use much, if any, of these funds for train- ing. Purchases of new transit equipment provide a mechanism for training of maintenance staff by manufacturers. Studies of the transit workforce indicate that some transit agencies have exemplary train- ing programs. Box 3-2 describes how the Metropolitan Transit Authority in New York City teamed with its unions and the New York City Board of Education to create an apprenticeship program to feed qualified technicians into the agency. Box 3-3 describes an agency’s efforts to train its maintenance staff on new bus technologies. Key Association Programs American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials AASHTO is the national association that represents state highway and transportation officials. It sponsors several management training programs. National Transportation Management Conferences, con- ducted in partnership with the Eno Transportation Foundation, pro- vide specialized training to midlevel SDOT managers in skills they 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 69

70 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE need to make the transition from technical to management responsi- bilities. These weeklong conferences introduce participants to the theories and practices associated with managing people and projects effectively. The Team Leadership Institute, conducted in partnership with Indiana University, is a 2-week management training program for senior managers. An annual weeklong Advanced Leadership In- stitute is organized for selected alumni of the Team Leadership In- stitute. AASHTO also conducts a 1-day CEO Workshop for new SDOT directors each year in conjunction with its spring meeting. AASHTO sponsors a science and mathematics education program [Transportation and Civil Engineering (TRAC)] to increase student awareness of transportation and civil engineering as possible career BOX 3-2 Cooperative Apprenticeship Program at Metropolitan Transit Authority–New York City Transit In 1998 the Metropolitan Transit Authority–New York City Transit (NYCT), in partnership with Local 100 of the Transport Workers of America and the New York City Board of Education, initiated a pilot training program to en- list New York City vocational and technical high school graduates as apprentices in a structured training environ- ment aimed at providing replacements for its electrical, structural, and mechanical technicians. A Joint Apprentice- ship Committee representing NYCT and the union selects apprentices from candidates with specific high school train- ing in these specialties. Apprentices are full-time employees with full benefits and union representation. Training peri- ods can range from 18 months to 3 years. In 2002 there were more than 100 apprentices in training. As of January 2003, NYCT had 105 apprentices, with 11 having matriculated into journeyman maintenance staff positions. 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 70

Tradit iona l and Emerging Sources for Personnel and Tra in ing | 71 BOX 3-3 Training to Accommodate New Transit Technologies In 1994 SunLine Transit, headquartered in Thousand Palms, California, became the first public transit agency in the na- tion to convert its entire fleet of buses to compressed natural gas (CNG). Today, the agency operates a fleet of 47 CNG buses, two Hythane (a blend of hydrogen and natural gas) buses, three liquefied natural gas Superbuses, three electric trolleys, 26 CNG paratransit vans, and other miscellaneous light-, medium-, and heavy-duty natural gas vehicles. When a curriculum was needed to train mechanics for alternative- fuel vehicles, SunLine partnered with the College of the Desert, the Southern California Gas Company, and its union. As a result, the system is regarded as a pioneer in the field of operating alternative-fuel vehicles, and SunLine is often ap- proached by other transit agencies and private vendors to demonstrate the benefits of CNG. In addition, SunLine’s supervisory and management training programs are consid- ered models for the industry. Source: McGlothin Davis 2002. choices. (See Box 3-4 for more information on TRAC.) See Appen- dix G for more information on programs aimed at supporting young people in K-12 science and mathematics education and attracting them to transportation careers. American Public Transportation Association APTA represents 14,000 North American transit systems, govern- ment and state associations, and transit businesses. Since 1997, Lead- ership APTA, a professional development program made up of three 2-day sessions, has provided transit leadership–oriented instruction 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 71

72 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE BOX 3-4 TRAC (Transportation and Civil Engineering) AASHTO’s TRAC is made available to high schools and ju- nior high schools through regional centers where SDOTs work in partnership with other government organizations, uni- versities, nonprofit organizations, and private industry. TRAC sends volunteer transportation professionals into high schools with a TRAC PAC consisting of a computer, electronic data collection and analysis instruments, software programs for cal- culating and graphing results, hands-on modeling materials, and more than three dozen activities based on real-world trans- portation problems. The program’s career message—that transportation and civil engineering are exciting fields in which there is a need for talented people, regardless of gender or eth- nic origin, to address future challenges—is incorporated in both TRAC and TRAC PAC. A website (www.trac.net) offers online access to the TRAC RECORD, the program’s quarterly newsletter, as well as a guide to the TRAC PAC; information for students on scholarships, colleges, and careers; guides for teachers using TRAC’s programs in classrooms; and links to more that 40 math- and science-related websites. Membership in TRAC includes 27 states and two countries, South Africa and Tanzania. Recently AASHTO/TRAC completed a partnership agree- ment with the Associated General Contractors of America (AGC) to pool the resources and outreach programs of the two organizations. TRAC will distribute AGC’s Construc- tion Futures program primary education packages (Build Up! for fifth grade students and On Site! for middle school students) to TRAC participants. In return AGC will assist TRAC in developing construction-based learning modules for its program. 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 72

Tradit iona l and Emerging Sources for Personnel and Tra in ing | 73 to 25 individuals working for transit systems and corporations and businesses related to the transit industry. The program introduces participants to the issues, skills, and demands of transit and APTA leadership. The American Public Transportation Foundation pro- vides support for qualified individuals to pursue advanced degrees in areas related to the needs of the transit industry. As a result of the work of APTA’s Workforce Development Task Force, APTA has begun to institutionalize human resource manage- ment as a strategic function in transit agencies. Four subcommittees have been formed within the committee: labor relations, employ- ment, organizational development, and employee development and training. Each subcommittee is developing a work plan that will include training needs and program suggestions with particular em- phasis on Web-based seminars and instructional programs. APTA’s workforce development activities are featured on its web- site (www.apta.com/cmmtt/humres/index.htm). Others Many other associations provide training opportunities for trans- portation agencies, contractors, and consultants. Selected examples in the area of project management and project inspection are shown in Table 3-3. NONTRADITIONAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS Education and training are increasingly available from a variety of sources other than those described above. Such education and training can involve nontraditional sources, nontraditional delivery mechanisms, or both. Over the last two decades, community-based organizations, for- profit companies, and in-house company programs have begun com- peting with 4-year colleges and universities and community colleges for programs and students (Bailey 2002). An example is the Cisco Networking Academies program, sponsored by Cisco Corporation, which provides training in high schools and community colleges on 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 73

74 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE how to design, build, and maintain computer networks (see Box 3-5). For-profit companies are offering short-term training, preparation for technical certification, and even baccalaureate degrees at several levels. For-profit educational institutions are competing directly with community colleges for adult students with strong occupational objectives, especially in information technology fields. The delivery of education and training is changing. Whereas edu- cation has traditionally meant bringing students to sources of knowl- TABLE 3-3 Selected Association Education and Training Opportunities Association Offerings American Concrete Institute American Society of Civil Engineers Associated General Contractors Association for Project Managers Construction Experts, Inc. Construction Industry Institute Construction Management Resources Construction Specifications Institute International Conference of Building Officials National Asphalt Paving Association National Center for Construction Education and Research PM Solutions Project Management Institute Seminars and custom in-house training; certification program for project inspectors. Continuing Education Division offers courses and training for industry professionals. Construction project manager course; project manager program; advanced management pro- gram; courses are available only to employees of general contractors. Customized courses based on company need; list at www.construction.st/indexelejou.htm. Certificate courses, online courses, and seminars; list at www.constructionclasses.com. Continuing Education Short Course aimed at proj- ect engineers; www.construction-institute.org. Project management training in contract adminis- tration, document control, cost control, and critical path method scheduling; list at www.cmr-co.com. Seminars and customized on-site training; list at www.csinet.org. Training courses for inspection; www.icbo.org. Training courses and seminars for project engi- neers and project inspectors. Craft-oriented courses; list at www.nccer.org. Training in project management; www.pmsolutions.com. www.pmi.org. 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 74

Tradit iona l and Emerging Sources for Personnel and Tra in ing | 75 BOX 3-5 Cisco Networking Academies As of July 2001, Cisco Networking Academies, located in all 50 states and 130 countries, were training more than 160,000 students in how to design, build, and maintain computer net- works. Students learn from a common curriculum available in nine languages and delivered over the Internet. The majority of the Cisco Networking Academies in the United States reside in public high schools and community colleges. Cisco undertook the program because it had iden- tified a growing demand for computer networks in edu- cational institutions, but it found that limited support staff and training opportunities were available in these institu- tions. The program was designed to train students to oper- ate school networks and provide a curriculum that could be part of the overall academic program. The program was based on four operating principles: 1. The curriculum would be delivered online; there would be no printed version. 2. Well-trained instructors would teach the curriculum. 3. The curriculum would be updated frequently to maintain currency with changing technology and to make improve- ments as students and instructors noted problems. 4. Assessment of student skills would be done online. The cornerstone of the program—recruiting and training qualified instructors—depends on a hierarchical organiza- tional structure of training centers, regional academies, and local academies. Funding for training the initial instructors (continued on next page) 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 75

76 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE edge and instruction, distance learning using computers and the Internet brings sources of knowledge to students.15 The combination of economic pressure, student needs, time and space limitations, and technological opportunity has encouraged schools and firms to ex- periment with Web-based distance education. Web technologies that are capable of delivering text, data, images, audio, and video in an integrated and coordinated manner help overcome many problems associated with earlier delivery methods for distance education. Degree-granting colleges and universities, community colleges, state and federal agencies, corporations, and even publishers are exploring options for participating in distance education. As intellectual capital and knowledge work replace physical capital and production work as the source of economic prosperity, attention is increasingly being was provided by the Cisco Learning Institute, a nonprofit cor- poration created by Cisco that operates as a public charity to develop e-learning opportunities for educational and charita- ble institutions and programs. The demand for instructors is a continuing issue because of the problem of retaining teach- ers whose skills provide them with higher-paying opportuni- ties in industry. The brief history of the Cisco Networking Academies demonstrates that the Internet is useful in developing and improving curriculum, distributing an up-to-date curricu- lum to underserved populations, assessing student skills, monitoring the quality of instruction, and providing in- structors with advice on technical and pedagogical issues. Source: Murnane et al. 2002. BOX 3-5 (continued) Cisco Networking Academies 15 While access is a key aspect of education and training, two other aspects—curriculum and val- idation (primarily through accreditation and registration or certification)—are described later. 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 76

Tradit iona l and Emerging Sources for Personnel and Tra in ing | 77 given to the opportunities offered by distance learning. Nevertheless, “the potential effect of computer-based distance education is perhaps the greatest unknown concerning the nature of the competitive land- scape in postsecondary education” (Bailey 2002, 61). Distance learning is only beginning to be developed and used. Computer-based distance learning is not a homogeneous and well- defined entity; it takes a variety of forms and serves various individual and organizational purposes.16 Some students may be uncomfortable with technology and simply avoid using it. Others may be interested in the technology but not have access to the bandwidth needed to re- ceive training properly as originally formatted. Thus if providers use Internet technology to its fullest potential, they may find their student base shrinking because of technical constraints as students have in- creasing difficulties with graphics and formats. The Internet requires infrastructure that is not affordable to every institution or organiza- tion. Internet education and training are also socially isolating and in- adequate for certain types of skills, such as soft interpersonal and high-level analytical skills (Bechky 1999). There are several examples of the use of distance learning technol- ogy in transportation. The Consortium for ITS Training and Educa- tion (CITE) is addressing the needs of transportation professionals through a partnership of more than 30 universities worldwide, two state members of the I-95 Corridor Coalition, USDOT’s ITS Joint Program Office, and FHWA. CITE offers certificate programs, and SDOTs in need of ITS capability can use its courses. It was recently awarded a 3-year development grant from the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Postsecondary Education. The Institute of Transportation Engineers has developed an Internet-based professional development program to address trans- portation and management areas of practice, such as transportation planning, traffic control, capacity analysis, and safety analysis. 16 University-based participants at a 1997 workshop on computer-based learning did not view it as a potential replacement for traditional learning. Corporate participants regarded it as a mechanism for teaching their employees new knowledge and skills as quickly and efficiently as possible so the organization can remain competitive in the world market. Learners and pol- icy makers recognized it as an ideal means of cost containment (Stacey 1999). 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 77

78 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE Successful completion of a course can lead to professional development hour units that meet requirements for professional license renewal in 25 states. CHALLENGES FOR DISTANCE LEARNING: ACCREDITATION AND VALIDATION Before distance learning can be a major factor in undergraduate en- gineering education, the issues of accreditation and validation (grad- uation, licensure, and certification) must be addressed.17 Both issues are important to public agencies and their public health and safety re- sponsibilities. Traditionally, SDOTs have hired graduate civil engineers to fill most of their entry-level professional positions and then used training programs, rotational job assignments, job experience, and other means to develop their own cadre of midlevel engineers, some of whom ad- vanced to become managers in the agency. However, as the range of SDOTs’ technical activity has expanded (see Chapter 2), the knowl- edge, skills, and abilities needed by agency staff have also expanded. In addition, the work environment and the way work is undertaken con- tinue to change, requiring communication, team-building, and other skills. Some of these changing needs are addressed over time through changes in the curricula of engineering degree programs. Curriculum changes are slow, involving internal assessment and debate and out- side advice; see the review by Meyer and Jacobs (2000) of the process and outcomes of a major curriculum change in the civil and environ- mental engineering department at Georgia Tech.18 Curriculum changes respond to the needs of the profession in general, not those 17 Many universities have established graduate programs—some in engineering disciplines— providing highly specialized education through distance learning. The primary issue for distance learning and undergraduate engineering programs is providing live, hands-on labo- ratory and design experience (Feisel and Peterson 2002). 18 The changes were precipitated partly by a universitywide change from a quarter-based to a semester-based academic year. 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 78

Tradit iona l and Emerging Sources for Personnel and Tra in ing | 79 of any specific specialty area. For example, Georgia Tech added a technical communications specialist to its staff to work with faculty and staff on enhancing communication skills within the existing course structure. On the other hand, Penn State recently dropped its transportation engineering undergraduate course requirement for civil engineers in reaction to reduced credit hour requirements for the undergraduate degree.19 An undergraduate engineering curriculum is subject to accredi- tation, which serves to assure employers that graduates are prepared to begin professional service, taxpayers that their funds are being well spent, and the public that graduates are aware of public health and safety considerations.20 Accreditation is based on several factors, including demonstration that the curriculum has certain required components, that students obtain specific knowledge and skills, and that the faculty are sufficient in number and qualifications. Degree programs for engineers, engineering technologists, and engineering technicians are accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engi- neering and Technology (ABET), whose members are the major national professional engineering societies.21 The ABET accredita- tion process uses independent visiting teams to evaluate individual programs. Accreditation is also important because state licensing boards and certification programs may require graduation from an ABET- accredited program as the first step in the registration or certification process for professional practice. Licensing assures the public that the registration holder has demonstrated acceptable knowledge and skills in basic engineering areas. In most SDOTs, many senior-level posi- tions require licensure, which is a key incentive for young engineers to obtain their professional engineering license. Many SDOTs en- courage, and sometimes support, this step through job assignments 19 In the June 2002 issue of Civil Engineering, one correspondent noted that in 1900, a civil en- gineering degree required 155 credit hours, whereas today the requirement is 125 credit hours. 20 In some instances, federally funded scholarships or grants are available only for accredited programs. 21 Based on material from www.abet.org. 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 79

80 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE and other assistance. In the private sector, many engineering firms re- quire licensure for advancement to senior-level positions. Certification is often a requirement for some technical specialties at SDOTs and TAs. It is a voluntary process through which individ- uals are recognized for knowledge and skills in a specialized field.22 Certification is firmly established in such professional fields as ac- counting, financial planning, association management, and medical specialties. Increasingly it is being established in specialties such as en- vironmental, irrigation, and corrosion engineering.23 (Table 3-4 in- dicates some of the SDOT technician certification requirements.) Transit operators also have certification requirements. Bus operators are required to have a commercial driver’s license, while train opera- tors are certified by union supervisors after specific classroom and field training. MAKING TRAINING A PRIORITY There are several reasons why transportation agencies must make training a priority. While the work of SDOTs is still civil engineering– oriented, many more disciplines and technical specialties are in- volved.24 Even in TAs, where equipment operators and maintenance staff make up at least 75 percent of the workforce, training is an im- perative for complex transit vehicles that incorporate advances such as alternative fuel propulsion systems, automated fare collection systems, telecommunications-based positioning systems, and computer-based vehicle diagnostic equipment. In addition, because transportation agencies are finding it necessary to hire employees with little or no prior 22 Some countries have highly detailed skill standards and apprenticeship programs that lead to certification in technical fields (FHWA 2003). 23 Certification is now available in professional traffic operations engineering according to in- formation from the Transportation Professional Certification Board, Inc., website at www.ite.org/certification/certification_about.html. 24 As noted in Chapter 2, these include planners, architects, environmental scientists, economists, geologists, hydrologists, computer programmers, statisticians, real estate agents, lawyers, ap- praisers, and acquisition agents. 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 80

Tradit iona l and Emerging Sources for Personnel and Tra in ing | 81 TABLE 3-4 Selected SDOT Certifications State Selected Certifications Arkansas Materials Testing Technician Connecticut Concrete Technician HMA Paving Inspector ACI Concrete Technician Georgia Worksite Erosion Control Indiana Materials Testing Technician Iowa Aggregate Technician PCC Field Testing PCC Plant Inspection Certification HMA Technician Kansas Aggregate Technician PCC Field Testing PCC Plant Inspection HMA Technician Nuclear Gauge Safety Technician Montana Aggregate Technician PCC Field Testing PCC Plant Inspection HMA Technician Nuclear Gauge Safety Technician Oklahoma Materials Sampling Technician Nebraska Field Technician Plant Inspection Strength Technician Soil Density Technician Nuclear Gauge Safety Technician South Carolina HMA Roadway Technician HMA Quality Control Technician Manager (earthworks, drainage, and base inspection) Vermont Concrete Technician HMA Paving Inspector Nuclear Gauge Safety Technician West Virginia Transportation Technician Wyoming Nuclear Gauge Safety Technician Quality Control/Quality Assurance Technician NOTE: ACI = American Concrete Institute; HMA = hot-mix asphalt; PCC = portland cement concrete. 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 81

82 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE exposure to the work of the agencies, training is needed to prepare them for such work. Figure 3-2 illustrates some potential alternative career pathways for SDOT and TA staff and the role training plays.25 Training is increasingly necessary if transportation agencies are going to benefit from or utilize many workplace changes, including new technologies, methods and materials, environmental and plan- ning regulations, and even upgrades to PC-based office software ap- plications; Box 3-6 provides illustrations. The implementation of ITS technologies provides another example. When Congress created the ITS implementation program, USDOT recognized the need for state and local transportation agency training before such implementation could begin. To address this need it established the ITS professional capacity–building program—and provided $3.5 million annually—to examine the needs, engage public- and private-sector partners and academia, and develop a program to provide the knowledge and skills for agencies to implement ITS technologies.26 As noted previously, FHWA has identified two additional critical training needs—for safety and planning specialists—but federal funding has yet to be made available. As noted above, SDOTs have about $38 million in federal funds available for training but use only about one quarter of that. (No com- parable federal funding is available to train TA employees.) For 23 SDOTs reporting the number of full-time employees, these fed- eral funds amount to about $233 per full-time employee (New Mex- ico State Highway and Transportation Department 1999). If these SDOT employees average $30,000 per year, this amounts to about 0.7 percent of their annual salary. Data from 18 states responding to a survey conducted by the National Transportation Training Direc- tors indicate that the states spent just under 1 percent of agency salaries (unpublished survey, 2001). 25 These alternatives also suggest that there are many opportunities—policies, programs, and practices—to influence individual decisions to pursue and remain in transportation careers, as noted by participants of the 2002 National Transportation Workforce Summit (FHWA 2002). 26 See Appendix B for more information about the ITS professional capacity–building program and its accomplishments. 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 82

K -1 2 ed uc at io n Po st se co nd ar y G ra du at e sc ho ol (p os si bl e) A ct iv e ca re er in t ra ns po rt at io n fie ld U ni ve rs ity d eg re e pr og ra m in en gi ne er in g, p la nn in g, e nv ir on m en ta l sc ie nc e, fi na nc e, p re la w , a nd s o fo rt h. M as te r’ s de gr ee , Ph .D ., or ot he r C an in vo lv e ot he r fo rm al e du ca tio n an d te ch ni ca l a nd m an ag em en t tr ai ni ng as w el l a s pr of es si on al c om m itt ee w or k, m en to ri ng , a nd s o fo rt h. A lt er na ti ve 1 t o T ra di ti o na l P at hw ay C om bi ne d co m m un ity c ol le ge /u ni ve rs ity de gr ee p ro gr am in e ng in ee ri ng , en gi ne er in g te ch no lo gy , o r ot he r te ch ni ca l r el at ed fi el d. C an in vo lv e ot he r fo rm al e du ca tio n an d te ch ni ca l a nd m an ag em en t tr ai ni ng a s w el l a s pr of es si on al c om m itt ee w or k, m en to ri ng , a nd s o fo rt h. A lt er na ti ve 2 t o T ra di ti o na l P at hw ay N on te ch ni ca l ( su ch a s lib er al a rt s or bu si ne ss ) de gr ee p lu s sp ec ia liz ed tr ai ni ng b y ag en cy . C an in vo lv e ot he r fo rm al e du ca tio n an d te ch ni ca l a nd m an ag em en t tr ai ni ng a s w el l a s pr of es si on al c om m itt ee w or k, m en to ri ng , a nd s o fo rt h. A lt er na ti ve 3 t o T ra di ti o na l P at hw ay T ec hn ic al o r no nt ec hn ic al d eg re e pr og ra m p ri or t o em pl oy m en t at tr an sp or ta tio n ag en cy . T ra ns po rt at io n ag en cy c ar ee r; s ki lls a re no lo ng er n ee de d. Se co nd c ar ee r w ith t ra ns po rt at io n ag en cy af te r sp ec ia liz ed t ra in in g su pp or te d by ag en cy . A lt er na ti ve 4 t o T ra di ti o na l P at hw ay T ec hn ic al o r no nt ec hn ic al d eg re e pr og ra m p ri or t o em pl oy m en t at tr an sp or ta tio n ag en cy o r el se w he re . In iti al c ar ee r( s) o f p ot en tia l c an di da te s w ho a re c ha ng in g ca re er s or h av e re tir ed b ut w is h to r em ai n in t he w or kf or ce . C ar ee r w ith t ra ns po rt at io n ag en cy a ft er s om e tr ai ni ng . F IG U R E 3 -2 T ra di ti o na l a nd a lt er na ti ve e du ca ti o n an d ca re er p at hw ay s fo r m an y S D O T a nd T A p ro fe ss io na l s ta ff . 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 83

84 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE BOX 3-6 Illustrative Examples of Transportation Agency Training Needs Stemming from Technological Innovation, Changing Regulatory Requirements, and Office Application Software Upgrades The lessons of the Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP), a 5-year, $150 million state pooled-fund research program, provide examples of how innovative technologies affect agency and contractor training needs. A key SHRP re- search product was a new system for designing and produc- ing asphalt pavement called Superpave®, which involves asphalt binder and mixture specifications much different from those used in the past, as well as new testing require- ments and equipment. As a result, before Superpave could be implemented and its benefits realized, many transportation workers, including pavement design engineers, asphalt plant operators, asphalt plant technicians, and agency inspectors, had to be trained. This led to the creation of five regional university-based Superpave centers, each with test equipment on loan from FHWA, to provide training for agencies as well as asphalt user–producer groups, materials suppliers, con- tractors, and consultants. SHRP research also yielded several new tests for assess- ing the condition of concrete bridge components. The tests include the steel corrosion rate test, the ground- penetrating radar inspection system, the bridge deck in- tegrity test, and a test for measuring the effectiveness of penetrating sealer. The value of these tests is that they can help increase the service lives of concrete pavement and structures. The challenge lies in properly carrying out the test procedures and being able to interpret the results. 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 84

Tradit iona l and Emerging Sources for Personnel and Tra in ing | 85 This challenge can only be met through effective techni- cian training. Transportation agencies also need training to maintain existing skills. For example, many agencies acquire right-of- way for construction as well as rehabilitation projects, and this requires specific skills for appraisal and negotiation ac- tivities. In the environmental area, changes in statutory reg- ulations create an ongoing need for new agency skills. Agency staff need statutory knowledge and negotiation skills in the processes leading to wetland permitting and historical preservation determinations. Safety provides several exam- ples where training is important to agencies. Work zone safety addresses safety considerations for both agency work- ers and system users and must address the need to maintain construction and system user traffic in many cases. Work zone safety encompasses traffic management and control; design, installation, and maintenance of traffic control de- vices; legal considerations; and worker control. Workplace safety, especially in road and equipment maintenance areas, also requires attention to manager and worker training. The importance of work zone and workplace safety coupled with the individuality of each work zone situation and the chang- ing nature of the work zone as the job is under way mean that a range of skills are needed to address the topic. These skills can be developed through training. Roadway design is highly dependent on computer pack- ages and the ability of engineers to provide accurate data and interpret the results. These programs require considerable attention to detail and are upgraded occasionally. Agency staff must be able to adopt and adapt the programs effec- tively, especially because of the safety considerations in- volved, to avoid crash-related tort liability problems. In (continued on next page) 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 85

86 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE many cases training is needed to convey the needed knowl- edge and skills. In transit vehicles, as in automobiles, onboard vehicle electronic systems have become virtually ubiquitous in major subsystems and accessories. Fare boxes, destination signs, engines, and transmissions were among the first bus systems with electronic controls. Doors, multiplexed wiring systems, antilock brakes, air conditioning, automatic vehi- cle location, and other equipment now have electronic con- trols. Today’s transit vehicles also feature the transmission of data generated by the components to remote locations for analysis and the support of ITS applications like traffic signal priority and remote traveler information. The imple- mentation and maintenance of such equipment require new skills for both maintenance and operator staff. Most elec- tronic systems use PCs and software programs to diagnose failures, which requires maintenance staff to have a basic understanding of electronics and how to operate PCs. In- ability to use computer technology to troubleshoot system problems can lead to inaccurate diagnoses, improper re- pairs, excessive labor costs, and unnecessary materials costs. Bus operators are increasingly being asked to help trou- bleshoot on-vehicle electronic systems when there are break- downs while in operation. A more common but nevertheless important example of training need is related to today’s computer-based office op- erations and the software applications that employees use on a daily basis. Software applications are upgraded continually; if the office operation is to keep pace with these changes, employees need training to use them properly. BOX 3-6 (continued) Illustrative Examples of Transportation Agency Training Needs Stemming from Technological Innovation, Changing Regulatory Requirements, and Office Application Software Upgrades 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 86

Tradit iona l and Emerging Sources for Personnel and Tra in ing | 87 Similarly, transit agencies can use a portion of their federal oper- ating and capital investment funds, about $32 million in FY 2002, for training. According to FTA, few of them use these funds for training, but there are no data indicating how many agencies do use it for this purpose or how much they use. With approximately 225,000 transit agency employees in the United States, these funds yield an average of $142 per employee in 2002. In comparison, a 2001 survey of 1,488 employers by the American Society of Training and Development found that these companies spent 2 percent of annual salaries on training. Leading companies spend even more: General Electric, 4.6 percent; U.S. Robotics, 4.2 percent; Motorola, 4 percent. FHWA, in recognition of its work- force training needs, has set a goal of 3 percent of annual salaries. Nevertheless, transportation agency training is not being ne- glected. There is an extensive array of targeted education and train- ing for transportation agency staff, as well as for people interested in transportation careers. However, such efforts are fragmented and de- centralized, reflecting the nature of the transportation system and the transportation agencies. Each agency has different training needs and limited resources, so no single agency addresses the full spectrum of industry needs. AASHTO’s Administrative Subcommittee on Per- sonnel and Human Resources, APTA’s National Transit Workforce Initiative, and the National Transportation Training Directors have all recognized the industry need for cooperative workforce develop- ment activities aimed at making more effective use of limited re- sources.27 While these and other efforts point to the need for training the transportation workforce, they also reveal the need to learn more about alternative ways of developing skills and delivering training. Nu- merous approaches, including traditional classroom training, Web- based instruction, distance learning, computer-based training, and Web-based professional networks—and their cost-effectiveness—need to be explored. 27 The work of AASHTO’s Administrative Subcommittee on Personnel and Human Resources is described at www.nhi.fhwa.dot.gov/transworkforce/. APTA’s workforce development ac- tivities are described at www.apta.com/services/hrtraining/. 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 87

88 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE LEADERSHIP: A FEDERAL ROLE AND RESPONSIBILITY Surface transportation is essential to economic activity and social in- teraction. It also reinforces public policies concerning economic, social, defense, environmental, and, more recently, national security matters. The federal government—through the combined actions of Congress, the administration, and USDOT—is responsible for strategic national transportation interests. However, the delivery of transportation infrastructure and public transportation service takes place through a complex intergovernmental arrangement, which is based on a long history of federalism whereby more than 35,000 state and local government agencies carry out a national transportation program with guidance and direction from the federal government.28 The demands on the transportation workers in public agencies and in the private-sector organizations that support these agencies require a broad range of education, skills, and capabilities that change as new methods, materials, and technologies are developed and adopted. While workforce development is not exclusively a federal problem, the federal government has recognized its reliance on the transporta- tion workforce of these government agencies and the private-sector companies that support them by assisting in several activities aimed at workforce development. For example, SDOTs and TAs can use a portion of federal surface transportation funds for employee training. The UTC program, which provides transportation-related education and research opportunities for graduate students, is funded in part with federal funds. The LTAP centers, also federally supported, pro- vide training and technical assistance primarily to local transportation agencies, as well as to SDOTs, metropolitan planning organizations, private industry, and other transportation providers. NHI and NTI provide education and training opportunities, especially where train- ing does not exist or is limited. USDOT has begun to partner with professional associations, especially AASHTO and APTA, to address workforce issues. 28 For example, there are six federal departments and three independent agencies involved in administering the laws that affect highway development alone. 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 88

Tradit iona l and Emerging Sources for Personnel and Tra in ing | 89 In 2002, USDOT organized the National Transportation Work- force Summit, which enabled public- and private-sector and academic representatives to engage in extensive dialogue on transportation workforce issues (see Box 3-7). The summit underscored that the federal government has yet to develop a consistent strategy or programmatic goals addressing the full spectrum of transportation workforce issues.29 Participants concluded that a large unmet need and opportunity remain for federal government leadership in trans- portation workforce development. The committee agrees with this assessment. Continuing federal government reliance on the workforce of the nation’s highly fragmented and decentralized transportation agencies makes workforce development an important issue for the federal gov- ernment. No single agency or organization has sufficient interest in or resources available to take on the full range of national transporta- tion workforce development issues, especially in light of the highly mobile nature of the workforce. Moreover, a federal agency can inter- act directly with other federal agencies in activities that address and support workforce development and leverage these activities for the benefit of the transportation workforce.30 Taking a leadership role would help the federal government ensure that the programs it already supports lead to the outcomes it seeks. Stated simply, only the federal government has the breadth of inter- est and connections, combined with sufficient resources, to gather in- formation about workforce development issues and programs, engage in and support partnerships with state and local transportation agen- cies and the private sector, and disseminate information about suc- cessful activities. 29 In 1998 USDOT launched the Garrett A. Morgan Technology and Transportation Futures Program to address several transportation workforce issues. Lack of federal support for the program led to elimination of its funding in 2000. Appendix G includes more information on the program. 30The President’s Management Agenda makes the strategic management of human capital one of five federal government management priorities to improve government performance. The initiatives and remedies adopted at the federal level should provide important bases for developing human capital strategies for state and local governments. Source: www. whitehouse.gov/omb/budget/fy2002/mgmt.pdf. 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 89

90 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE BOX 3-7 The 2002 National Transportation Workforce Summit On May 13, 2002, USDOT hosted the National Trans- portation Workforce Summit. The summit brought together leaders from government, academia, and the transit and high- way communities to discuss the future of the transportation workforce, which includes everyone from construction work- ers and bus drivers to professional engineers. Workforce dis- cussion sessions included the following topics: the workforce pipeline, training and professional development, and institu- tionalizing workforce development. Tom Warne, former di- rector of the Utah Department of Transportation, summed up the summit by noting that transportation workforce de- velopment is of concern to all representatives of the various sectors of the transportation community. “The Summit should be seen as a first step of a process that can have a far-reaching impact on the future of transportation workforce develop- ment.” Summit participants were invited to sign the National Partnership for Educating, Training and Developing the Na- tion’s Transportation Workforce. Source: FHWA 2002. SUMMARY Transportation agencies, especially SDOTs, are experiencing considerable change. Traditionally, SDOTs have been civil engineering–oriented organizations. TAs also have a key need for civil engineering professionals. Today’s transportation agencies re- quire a much wider range of skills, and their staffs include people from many disciplines. Moreover, alternative pathways for entering the transportation workforce are increasing in number, but little is known about how such nontraditional pathways attract or prepare 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 90

Tradit iona l and Emerging Sources for Personnel and Tra in ing | 91 future agency staff. More knowledge about the various pathways offered by university engineering and transportation programs, community colleges, and nonengineering university degree pro- grams could help SDOTs and TAs in their search for a qualified workforce. Taken together, many education and training opportunities are available to the transportation workforce. However, because the over- all effort is highly fragmented, with little coordination or collabora- tion (and no single national leader), opportunities for improvement are being missed. Little effort has been made to clarify how much ed- ucation and training are needed, available, or consumed by trans- portation agencies. Moreover, because funding for education and training varies considerably in the agencies, individual efforts often lack sufficient resources to have a national impact. The mix of opportunities available to provide agency staff with the knowledge, skills, and abilities they need indicates that there is much to be learned about alternative ways of supplying this knowledge. Not only traditional classroom training, but also Web-based instruc- tion, distance learning, computer-based training, and Web-based professional networks31—and their cost-effectiveness—need to be explored. Finally, although some agencies have estimated their future work- force needs, the aggregate needs of all agencies have not been docu- mented. Moreover, no single agency, organization, or association addresses the national transportation workforce need. The 2002 Na- tional Transportation Workforce Summit underscored the concerns and interest regarding workforce issues among public and private stakeholders but also illustrated the fragmented ownership and lack of leadership on this issue. Moreover, federal representatives at the National Transportation Workforce Summit acknowledged that 31The U.S. Navy has established computer-based professional networks, called communities of practice, as a part of the knowledge management system it needs for its far-flung enterprise. Private companies such as Parsons Brinckerhoff have created similar networks, called profes- sional area networks, to enable employees to share similar professional interests and work within the same discipline or practice area. Such approaches to training and professional sup- port are only beginning to be exploited. 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 91

92 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE USDOT has yet to address the transportation workforce issue. It re- mains to be seen whether leadership can be brought to bear on the issue. REFERENCES Abbreviations FHWA Federal Highway Administration NCES National Center for Education Statistics Bailey, T. 2002. Community Colleges in the 21st Century: Challenges and Oppor- tunities. In The Knowledge Economy and Postsecondary Education: Report of a Work- shop (P. A. Graham and N. G. Stacey, eds.), National Research Council, Washington, D.C., pp. 59–76. Bechky, B. A. 1999. Summary of the Workshop. In Competence Without Credentials, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Educa- tion, March. www.ed.gov/pubs/Competence/section7.html. Feisel, L., and G. Peterson. 2002. A Colloquy on Learning Objectives for Engineer- ing Education Laboratories. Proc., 2002 American Society for Engineering Education Annual Conference and Exposition, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. FHWA. 2002. National Transportation Workforce Summit: Summary of Proceedings. U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C., May. FHWA. 2003. European Practices in Transportation Workforce Development: Results of an AASHTO–FHWA Scanning Tour. U.S. Department of Transportation, Wash- ington, D.C. Lerman, R., S. K. Riegg, and H. Salzman. 2000. The Role of Community Colleges in Ex- panding the Supply of Information Technology Workers. DOL Contract No. J-9-M- 5-0048. The Urban Institute, May. McGlothin Davis, Inc. 2002. TCRP Report 77: Managing Transit’s Workforce in the New Millennium. TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C. Meyer, M., and L. J. Jacobs. 2000. A Civil Engineering Curriculum for the Future: The Georgia Tech Case. Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice, American Society of Civil Engineers, April, pp. 74–78. Murnane, R., N. Sharkey, and F. Levy. 2002. A Role for the Internet in American Education? Lessons from the Cisco Networking Academies. In The Knowledge Economy and Postsecondary Education: Report of a Workshop (P. A. Graham and N. G. Stacey, eds.), National Research Council, Washington, D.C., pp. 127–158. NCES. 2000. The Condition of Education. U.S. Department of Education, Washing- ton, D.C. 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 92

Tradit iona l and Emerging Sources for Personnel and Tra in ing | 93 New Mexico State Highway and Transportation Department. 1999. Staffing Plan Survey of State Transportation Agencies. Research Report NM99, ADM-01. Sept. Stacey, N. G. 1999. Conclusion. In Competence Without Credentials, Office of Educa- tional Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education. March. www.ed.gov/pubs/Competence/section8.html. Sussman, J. M. 1995. Educating the “New” Transportation Professional. ITS Quar- terly, Summer. Sussman, J. M. 1999. The New Transportation Faculty: The Evolution to Engi- neering Systems. Transportation Quarterly, Summer. Trauner Consulting Services, Inc. 2001. Training Curriculum for Project Personnel. Final Report. Philadelphia, Pa. 55126_TRB_074_111 11/14/03 4:48 AM Page 93

9 4 4 Addressing People and Skill Needs in Transportation Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Personnel Chapter Highlights • Successful public and private organizations have made human resource management a fully integrated strategic partner within the organization. • A strategic approach to agency recruiting, training, and retention recognizes that human resource activities are highly interrelated and often complement and reinforce each other. • Because workforces of state departments of transportation and transit agencies encompass a range of job skills with several classification levels, recruiting, training, and reten- tion strategies for individual agencies encompass a wide variety of activities. • The success of scholarship, cooperative education, and tu- ition support programs in providing qualified transporta- tion agency staff suggests that such programs could serve as a cornerstone for recruiting efforts in many agencies. 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 94

Address ing People and Ski l l Needs in Transportat ion Agencies | 95 • Training is essential to transportation agencies as they ad- dress expanded agency missions, the need to keep skills current, changing skill needs in downsized organizations, and rapidly changing technologies. • Re-recruiting—recruiting experienced people who are changing careers or seeking work after early retirement— can provide applicants seeking the advantages of stability and work–life balance that transportation agencies can offer. In this chapter, what transportation agencies can do to meet theirstrategic staffing needs in today’s highly competitive labor envi-ronment is examined. The focus is on recruiting, training and re- training, and retaining employees and on succession management. Where possible, research findings concerning these activities are provided, practices that have proved successful for private- and public-sector organizations are described, and the committee’s sug- gestions for action by transportation agencies are presented. What the committee believes is a fundamental principle for a successful organization—making the human resource function a strategic partner in setting the organization’s strategic direction—is ad- dressed in the first section. In the second section, how an organiza- tion’s strategic plan determines its core competency needs and how these needs focus recruiting, training, and retention activities are described. In the sections that follow, research and experience con- cerning how to recruit, train and retrain, and retain qualified peo- ple are described. It is important to note that human resource activities are interrelated and that, for example, some actions taken to improve employee retention also support recruiting efforts. More- over, specific agency human resource activities must be customized in light of different job categories and employment requirements. Finally, succession planning and potential agency partnering activi- ties are addressed in separate sections. 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 95

96 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE IMPORTANCE OF STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Background As discussed in Chapter 2, there is no single organizational or oper- ating model for a state department of transportation (SDOT) or a transit agency (TA). Each is unique because of state or local politics, history, geography, size, population, governmental structure, and other conditions.1 Overall, however, as the dominant owners/operators of the nation’s surface transportation infrastructure, SDOTs are re- sponsible for building, operating, and maintaining a vast array of in- frastructure components for a variety of modes, whereas TAs share a common mission of providing public transportation service. Both SDOTs and TAs have planning, environmental, budgeting, finance, and data-gathering and analysis responsibilities. In addition, the work of SDOTs and TAs—like that of other public agencies—involves a network of partnerships among government agencies, private com- panies, nonprofit organizations, and elected officials (Kettl 1993). Public and private organizations that recognize the importance of human capital to their long-term success and establish human re- source management as a strategic function do best at dealing with the uncertainties of a changing work environment and workplace (NAPA 2000).2 Such organizations recognize that the human element must be explicit in strategic plans, which provides the basis for identifying human resource requirements, competency needs, and competency gaps (OPM 1999).3 Accomplishing this requires the active participa- 1 SDOTs differ in “size, staff makeup, jurisdictional responsibilities, political organization, ser- vices rendered, demographic characteristics, geography, and professional profile” (Warne 2003). 2 On the basis of more than 20 studies of key governmentwide human resource management and service delivery issues and nearly 30 public agency technical assistance projects, the National Academy of Public Administration (NAPA) identified this as the key to a successful human re- source enterprise (NAPA 2000). Much of this discussion is based on the NAPA report. In 2002 President Bush made human capital a key focus for federal agencies (OMB 2002). 3 A benchmarking study for the Georgia Department of Transportation revealed that without a strategic focus for human resources in SDOTs, sustained attention to workforce develop- ment is often lacking (Sterling Institute 2002). According to a study of exemplary TA prac- tices, “in most cases the senior human resources manager is a member of the executive staff and participates in strategic direction-setting deliberations” (McGlothin Davis 2002, 36). 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 96

Address ing People and Ski l l Needs in Transportat ion Agencies | 97 tion of human resource managers as fully integrated partners in the development and implementation of such plans. Decisions about privatization, outsourcing, devolution, and the like stem from policy debates about what governments should do in- house and what they should have the private sector do for them. These decisions can also reflect the nature of work, skill availability, the impact of technology, and other factors. Such debates often gen- erate change. SDOTs are changing as their mission broadens (AASHTO 1998) (see Chapter 2). The changes stem from how agen- cies choose or are directed to accomplish their mission. Thus, as in- dividual SDOTs change, they become increasingly differentiated by the kinds of work done by their staff. The changes in TAs are not as extensive, but for both SDOTs and TAs, deciding how work will be done and who will do it is a strategic-level decision that drives human resource management. The Strategic Workforce Planning Process The purpose of strategic workforce planning is to ensure that the or- ganization has the human resources it needs to accomplish its mission. The organization’s leaders must assess the nature and content of its current and future work and the kind of workforce required to per- form it. They must identify and react to the social, technical, eco- nomic, political, and environmental factors that may change the agency’s mission or priorities. Tracking these changes and evaluating how they affect workforce needs help identify gaps to be addressed. These gaps form the basis for actions aimed at providing the work- force needed for future agency work. The workforce planning process addresses four key issues: • Identifying the composition and content of a workforce strategi- cally positioned to deal with possible future situations and business objectives, • Identifying the specific capability gaps—including any special skills required by possible future situations—between the current and future workforces, 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 97

98 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE • Preparing recruiting and training plans for permanent and contin- gent staff that address these gaps, and • Determining what functions or processes can and should be out- sourced and how this will be done. Exemplary organizations are developing carefully crafted work- force planning strategies using multiple approaches or activities (NAPA 2001). Each organization must take into consideration the factors mentioned above that make it unique, as well as its culture, what its employees value, and its industry. The proposed workforce planning process prepared for the Georgia Department of Trans- portation shown in Figure 4-1 exemplifies the needed components. CORE COMPETENCIES AND JOB REQUIREMENTS The core competencies of an organization are the collective knowl- edge, skills, and abilities that set the organization apart from others and without which it cannot accomplish its primary mission or busi- ness and realize its desired outcomes. Core competencies reflect how an organization chooses to accomplish its mission. Traditionally, the core competencies of SDOTs have been oriented to civil engineering because of the agencies’ focus on infrastructure provision and histor- ical decisions that they would rely on their own engineering staffs to accomplish their mission. Nevertheless, the missions and core com- petencies of SDOTs, as well as individual core competencies and job requirements, are changing. Table 4-1 summarizes these changes for SDOTs. At the same time, the committee recognizes that each SDOT and TA defines its own mission and core competencies, along with individual core competencies and job requirements. The core competencies for SDOTs in Florida, Minnesota, and Wisconsin are provided in Appendix D. Although each organization is unique, their individual core values share a common focus on leadership, organiza- tional knowledge, and managing for results. The broadened mission of SDOTs has resulted in the need for a wider range of knowledge, skills, and abilities. Moreover, as some 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 98

S tr at eg ic P la nn in g Id en ti fy N ee de d C o m pe te nc ie s Id en ti fy C ur re nt C o m pe te nc ie s G ap & P ri o ri ty A na ly si s In te gr at e H R S tr at eg ie s E va lu at io n A ss es s W F P R ea di ne ss B us in es s an d S ta ff in g O ut lo o k D iv er si ty a nd T ur no ve r O ut lo o k Id en ti fy O ut co m e P ri o ri ti es M is si on En vi ro nm en ta l S ca n V is io n G oa ls O bj ec tiv es Fu nc tio ns C SF s Lo ng -T er m M ea su re s R es ou rc es & C ap ab ili ty : C om m itm en t, Ex pe rt is e, T im e, M on ey , T ec hn ol og y, et c. Id en tif y N ew & A t- R is k Bu si ne ss , an d FT E Pr oj ec tio ns Ba se d on W ha t is N ee de d to A cc om pl is h O rg an iz at io na l G oa ls & O bj ec tiv es In di vi du al s, Jo bs , O cc up at io na l G ro up s, T ea m s, O rg an iz at io na l U ni ts , e tc . Se le ct a nd In te gr at e H R S tr at eg ie s Ba se d on C os t- Be ne fit ; M ak e Bu y vs . G ro w D ec is io ns Ev al ua tio n, V al id at io n, C os t- Be ne fit , R et ur n O n In ve st m en t (R O I) Im pl em en t St ra te gi es Id en tif y C om pe te nc y G ap s fo r Pe op le , Jo bs , O cc up at io ns , T ea m s, F un ct io ns , U ni ts , e tc .; C on si de r Su pp ly & D em an d Is su es A ge , T en ur e, G en de r, Et hn ic ity ; Pe rm an en t vs . C on tin ge nt ; et c. Pr io ri tiz e W or kf or ce T ar ge ts B as ed o n O pp or tu ni tie s an d R is ks R el at ed t o O ut co m es , R es ul ts , Pr od uc tiv ity , T ur no ve r, C os ts , St ra te gi c Fa ct or s, T re nd s, e tc . F IG U R E 4 -1 P ro po se d G eo rg ia D ep ar tm en t o f T ra ns po rt at io n w o rk fo rc e pl an ni ng p ro ce ss ( C S F  cr it ic al s uc ce ss fa ct o r; F T E  fu ll- ti m e eq ui va le nt ; H R  hu m an r es o ur ce ; W F P  w o rk fo rc e pl an ). 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 99

T A B L E 4 -1 A ge nc y M is si o n, C o m pe te nc ie s, a nd J o b R eq ui re m en ts C ha ra ct er is ti c B as ic D es cr ip ti on C ha ng es U nd er W ay A ge nc y m is si on A ge nc y co re co m pe te nc ie s In di vi du al c or e co m pe te nc ie s Jo b re qu ir em en ts T he a ge nc y’ s m is si on o r ro le is d et er m in ed b y le gi sl at io n; t ha t m is si on o r st ra te gi c fu nc tio n tr an sl at es in to fu nc tio na l a ct iv i- tie s un de rt ak en b y th e ag en cy C or e co m pe te nc ie s ar e th e co lle ct iv e kn ow le dg e, s ki lls , a nd ab ili tie s th at s et a n or ga ni za tio n ap ar t fr om o th er s an d w ith - ou t w hi ch it c an no t ac co m pl is h its p ri m ar y m is si on o r bu si - ne ss a nd r ea liz e its e xp ec te d ou tc om es . C or e co m pe te nc ie s ar e ne ed ed t o en su re s uc ce ss fu l p er fo rm an ce b ut c an no t be ou ts ou rc ed In di vi du al c or e co m pe te nc ie s ar e th e kn ow le dg e, s ki lls , a nd ab ili tie s in di vi du al s m us t ha ve t o pe rf or m s pe ci fic a ct iv iti es T he se a re d et er m in ed b y th e ac tiv iti es s ta ff m us t pe rf or m t o fu lfi ll ag en cy fu nc tio ns . T he y va ry a cr os s ag en ci es d ep en di ng on h ow e ac h ch oo se s to fu lfi ll its m is si on T he m is si on o f S D O T s ha s ex pa nd ed b ey on d bu ild in g a hi gh - w ay n et w or k to in cl ud e pr ot ec tin g an d en ha nc in g th e hi gh - w ay in ve st m en t, ad di ng c ap ac ity a s ne ed ed , a nd m an ag in g ot he r tr an sp or ta tio n w hi le s up po rt in g an d ba la nc in g ec o- no m ic , s oc ia l, an d en vi ro nm en ta l g oa ls . A ge nc ie s ar e hi ri ng ot he rs to p er fo rm a ll or p ar ts o f c er ta in fu nc tio na l a ct iv iti es A ge nc y co re c om pe te nc ie s ca n ch an ge w he n an a ge nc y re - or ga ni ze s or w he n it ch an ge s ho w it w an ts t o fu lfi ll its m is - si on . I f a n ag en cy d ec id es t o co nt ra ct o ut la rg e po rt io ns o f sp ec ifi c fu nc tio ns , i t w ill n ee d m or e co nt ra ct s pe ci al is ts a nd fe w er t ec hn ic al s pe ci al is ts fo r th at fu nc tio n T ra di tio na l S D O T c or e co m pe te nc ie s fo cu s on p la nn in g, de si gn in g, c on st ru ct in g, a nd m ai nt ai ni ng h ig hw ay fa ci lit ie s an d sy st em s. C ha ng in g em ph as es w ith in a ge nc ie s ha ve r e- su lte d in t he n ee d fo r ne w a nd b ro ad en ed s ki ll se ts . K no w l- ed ge o f e nv ir on m en ta l, en er gy , I T S, a nd o th er is su es a nd pr og ra m m an ag em en t, te am -b ui ld in g, a nd c on se ns us - bu ild in g ab ili tie s ar e no w r eq ui re d So m e st at es h av e de ve lo pe d or a re d ev el op in g de ta ile d jo b re qu ir em en t in fo rm at io n fo r ea ch o f t he ir jo b cl as se s. S uc h in fo rm at io n he lp s de fin e be nc hm ar k re qu ir em en ts , d et er - m in e w ha t jo bs a re n on es se nt ia l a nd c an b e ou ts ou rc ed , a nd do cu m en t es se nt ia l t as ks a nd e xp er tis e 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 100

Address ing People and Ski l l Needs in Transportat ion Agencies | 101 SDOTs increase the amount of work they contract out, the way to ac- complish their mission, as well as the knowledge, skills, and abilities needed, changes accordingly. This change is reflected in new agency core competency needs.4 How contracting out can change key skill needs is described in Appendix E. These needs are also affected by such factors as the increasing application of intelligent transportation system (ITS) technologies. RECRUITING QUALIFIED PEOPLE Recruiting for key positions in SDOTs and TAs must reflect current and future workforce needs and the labor market. Although traditional recruiting techniques are likely to continue to be used in addressing agency needs, customizing the recruiting process to better align tactics, market conditions, and the positions being filled can help agencies deal successfully with current and possible future recruiting issues, includ- ing multiple career paths, a pleasant work environment, training and education opportunities, work–life balance, freedom of location, and attractive financial and compensation/benefits packages. While gov- ernment agencies and some private companies may not be able to ad- dress all these issues to the same degree, they can view them as useful benchmarks for evaluating strategies and innovative practices.5 Although SDOTs use a variety of recruiting approaches, most rely on campus recruiting. Many have traditionally hired newly gradu- ated engineers and rotated them through a series of work assign- ments within the agency.6 Some SDOTs have long-standing alumni 4 As organizations get better at identifying their core competency needs and skill gaps, they can document the skills they no longer need. Staff with unneeded skills must be retrained, re- assigned, or rotated out of the organization. 5 James Krug, FMI Engineering Recruiters, told the committee that work–life balance is the primary issue for recruits under age 40, whereas the compensation package is the primary issue for those over 40. 6 A survey of engineering job applicants to the Ontario Ministry of Transportation revealed that the ministry’s 4-year job rotation program is an important attraction for engineering gradu- ates seeking an employer that provides competitive compensation and opportunities for expo- sure to diverse disciplines and state-of-the art technologies. The rotation program is structured to qualify participants for professional engineering licensure requirements by its conclusion. 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 101

102 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE connections with state universities, while others have research or other organizational ties that enable them to identify and encourage potential job applicants. The Kentucky Department of Transporta- tion, for example, has a successful scholarship program that provides it with many graduate engineers (see Box 4-1). Other potential sources for job applicants are university cooperative engineering BOX 4-1 Kentucky Department of Transportation Scholarship Program Since 1948, the Kentucky Department of Transportation (KYDOT) has had a program of civil engineering scholar- ships at four state universities. At present, 75 scholarships are available annually. KYDOT currently has a workforce of 6,100, of whom 445 are engineers; two-thirds of these engi- neers are graduates of the program. The scholarships have conditions. An applicant must be a Kentucky high school graduate or a Kentucky resident, maintain a minimum semester or cumulative grade point av- erage of 2.5 based on a 4.0 scale, continue to maintain full- time student status (12 credit hours per semester), and complete 30 credit hours by the end of each school year. The student receives a stipend: $3,200 for freshmen and sopho- mores, and $3,600 for juniors and seniors. The student applies to the state university of his or her choice. After graduation, there is a 1-year rotation program (2 months in six locations), followed by a 1-year intensive as- signment. KYDOT may provide summer employment as long as the student is making reasonable academic progress. Salaries for summer employment are based on university credit hours earned and range from $1,121 to $1,427 per month. 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 102

Address ing People and Ski l l Needs in Transportat ion Agencies | 103 education programs, scholarship programs, summer employment for promising undergraduate students, support for graduate student re- search, research partnerships between agencies and universities, agency support of student engineering association activities, and job fairs. Career development information can be provided via websites, videos, CDs, and printed materials; career-day participation; and support for mentoring programs, science fairs, and internship pro- grams (Mason et al. 1992).7 The timetable for the college campus re- cruiting process shown in Table 4-2 illustrates the many activities involved in such recruiting, as well as the continuous nature of the process. A recent survey of SDOT recruiting practices confirms that the agencies are becoming more innovative in recruiting (Gilliland 2001). States are using benchmarking and salary surveys to increase salary lev- els, developing flexible employment arrangements for employees with special physical or family needs, and establishing employee satisfaction programs that include frequent communication with supervisors. 7 Several sources stressed to the committee the importance of organization websites for at- tracting today’s young college graduates and other potential job applicants who are computer proficient. TABLE 4-2 Example College Recruitment Timetable (NAPA 1999) Activity Time Frame Establish company or organization identity on campus Identify candidates for formal job interviews Job interviews on campus Site interviews at headquarters Decide whom to hire Issue job offers Decision by candidates Start work Continuous Fall or early spring semester Spring semester, earlier rather than later Invitation issued within days of campus interview— conducted soon thereafter Recruiting team generally makes final decision on the day of the interviews; other required approval, if any, obtained within a day or two Within a day or two of the interview Generally flexible, with ongoing contact Negotiable 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 103

104 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE They are also instituting bonus programs for new hires, referrals by existing employees, and retention in critical job categories; streamlin- ing the hiring process to reduce delays; and using multidisciplinary teams for recruiting visits and interviews (Gilliland 2001). More spe- cific methods are used for some individual job categories. For exam- ple, when one state agency found it difficult to recruit information technology specialists, it instituted an internal training program for employees desiring a career change. Applicants who pass a screening test participate in a 6-month training program while continuing to re- ceive their salary. Trainees are guaranteed the option of returning to their previous jobs if the training is not successful. In its initial year the program had a 100 percent retention rate. Other actions taken by SDOTs include the following: • Partnering with a state university to establish individual develop- ment plans addressing both personal and departmental goals, with all employees being offered core competency courses to increase individual effectiveness and specialized courses to prepare them for future career opportunities; • Providing incentives for highly motivated or economically dis- advantaged students to complete their education while working at the agency; • Working with the universities within a state to establish distance learning opportunities for advanced degree programs in areas of needed expertise; and • Helping universities prepare and monitor senior design projects to provide undergraduate engineers with exposure to multidiscipli- nary projects that reflect agency experience. Re-recruiting, or attracting adults making a career transition, has proved successful at several SDOTs looking to add or replace skills in middle- and upper-management positions. Highly qualified people who are retiring from another organization often remain interested in working in a stable work environment or wish to accumulate addi- tional retirement benefits. Re-recruiting involves many of the same 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 104

Address ing People and Ski l l Needs in Transportat ion Agencies | 105 approaches used to recruit experienced professionals. Some examples are described in Table 4-3. Some TAs have also adopted innovative recruiting methods, espe- cially for bus drivers and information technology specialists, two of the most difficult positions to fill. (See Box 3-2 for details of the tech- nician apprenticeship program at the Metropolitan Transit Author- ity in New York City.) TAs have found that well-planned and highly targeted advertising and outreach programs can be successful in this regard. Some are recognizing the differences between what transit employees value most and what transit managers think they value, and they are tailoring their recruiting efforts accordingly (see Table 4-4). Some are awarding bonuses to employees who recruit new bus oper- ators; others display a promotional bus at major public and sporting events and have bus operators available to talk to prospective opera- tors. Other tactics, which apply to all organizations and most job cat- egories, include the following (Moffat et al. 2001): • Providing website access for potential recruits; • Focusing on inside sources, current or former employees, and in- ternal job postings; • Seeking recruits through schools and fraternal, religious, and com- munity organizations; TABLE 4-3 Recruiting Experienced Professionals (NAPA 1999) Approach Relative Success Newspaper and journal ads Job fairs Internet postings Company Web page Employee referrals Direct sourcing Does not produce a high volume of candidates; best for marketing the firm to potential applicants Can generate a few candidates, as with ads; can be used for marketing High-volume source of resumes, but additional screening is needed Can be a good source of applicants, especially as soft- ware becomes more sophisticated Unquestionably the best source of high-quality applicants Direct calls to firms with a particular expertise (identified through news articles or websites) can be effective for specific skills. Can also be effective for senior positions 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 105

106 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE • Specifically seeking recruits from traditionally underrepresented groups;8 • Orienting the recruiting message to the career life cycle; and • Developing structured assessments of recruits. Some state governments have elevated the issue of strategic work- force planning in all state agencies and consolidated state and local ef- forts to address workforce development issues. States can encourage and support business–government partnerships to address specific needs. A few states, notably Michigan, Maine, and Wisconsin, use the youth apprenticeship approach in which students and employers agree to a program of school-based and work-based learning to achieve a well-designed and broad occupational certification (21st Century Workforce Commission 1998). This approach motivates students not only through incentives to learn for future jobs but also through what they produce today in a work context. Youth appren- ticeship helps connect young people with natural adult mentors, lessens the chance of a mismatch between training and career posi- TABLE 4-4 What Transit Employees Value and What Transit Managers Think Transit Operators Value (Moffat et al. 2001) What Transit Managers Think What Employees Value Operators Value Type of work Competitive benefits Respectful treatment Safety Ability of top management Respect for employees Coaching and feedback from supervisor Performance recognition Opportunity to learn new skills Competitive pay Training Work environment Recognition for a job well done Equity and fairness PayRecognition 8 Civil engineering programs, the traditional source of transportation professionals for SDOTs, are also striving to achieve greater participation of underrepresented groups, as noted in Chapter 3. 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 106

Address ing People and Ski l l Needs in Transportat ion Agencies | 107 tions, and increases the likelihood that students will learn current practice rather than old approaches. Certification can reduce the un- certainty concerning the skills a worker obtains and increase the portability and the market value of the training. Wisconsin developed 20 occupational standards in collaboration with community colleges and associations of employers. The state has more than 1,200 ap- prentices in fields such as financial services, health services, printing, automobile technology, and biotechnology. States could partner to develop additional transportation-related programs. TRAINING THE WORKFORCE: PROVIDING A CONTINUOUS LEARNING ENVIRONMENT Training and retraining have become essential components of an or- ganization’s human resource activities.9 Technology change and in- novation are requiring continuous or lifelong learning to acquire and retain skills at an appropriate level.10 Formal training of new employ- ees has been found to decrease time to competency significantly, as well as to reduce operational problems (LeMay and Carr 1999).11 Benchmarking studies indicate that exemplary organizations spend the equivalent of about 2 percent of their payroll costs on training (Becker et al. 2001). Such organizations view training as an invest- ment in their people and the organization’s future. They recognize that this investment helps forestall the costs and lost opportunities as- sociated with inadequately trained employees. Training is a necessity at all job levels. Lerman and Schmidt (1999) report that more than two-thirds of employers indicated that the skills required for production or support jobs had increased over the prior 9 Retraining is an important means of upgrading employee skills in light of changing job re- quirements; it can also be an option for employees whose skills are no longer needed but who could continue to be effective contributors. 10 The Federal Highway Administration has set a goal of spending 3 percent of annual agency payroll on training programs. 11 Research has shown that new employees are vulnerable to voluntary turnover during their period of acclimation to the organization. Training and mentoring programs and coaching help forestall such turnover. 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 107

108 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE 3 years. Nevertheless, agencies must address certain issues before training programs can achieve their full potential. Organizational commitment to training and adequate funding are key factors; these and other factors are described in Table 4-5.12 Training helps address many of the challenges faced by SDOTs and TAs today, including the need to keep skills current, changing TABLE 4-5 Observations on Issues Faced by Training Program Directors (Cascio 1997, 265) Issue Comment Commitment to training is lacking and uneven Aggregate expenditures on training are inadequate Poaching trained workers provides a strong disincentive for training While some managers view training as an investment, others see it as an expense with little evidence of return Government support for training often does not extend to incumbent workers Too much emphasis on senior managers Ties between employers and schools are not very strong Labor organizations provide useful models for training programs that could be explored more fully Academic credentials are not good indicators of basic skill sets a In general this is the training paradox mentioned in the text. Several committee members expressed the view that employment of SDOT-trained engineers and technicians in the private sector is a good thing. Many organizations spend little on training. Some focus training on managers and professionals only While exemplary organizations spend 2 percent of annual payroll on training and even more, many organizations spend very little Many SDOT managers have expressed this viewa The costs of not training are not well developed. Agency managers often must hide training expenditures State government programs are generally aimed at economic development issues and support of “export” industries for their multiplier effect Training and development should extend to the overwhelming percentage of non–college gradu- ates in the workforce While schools can be more responsive to labor market demands, employers must clearly commu- nicate their needs to the schools Unions have developed many first-rate appren- ticeship programs in a number of crafts and have recognized and supported training programs for their members Many entry-level employees lack basic skills in mathematics and writing 12 Training proponents refer to the “training paradox” as follows: investment in training leads to better-trained employees, who then have more opportunities available to them in the job market. 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 108

Address ing People and Ski l l Needs in Transportat ion Agencies | 109 skill needs in downsized organizations, an expanded agency mission, and rapidly changing technologies.13 Training is also increasingly viewed as an enterprise aimed at yielding organizational performance improvement. In essence, training departments are becoming internal organizational development consultants whose focus expands to in- clude performance management through training (Mason et al. 1992). Transportation agencies and employees are acknowledging that traditional on-the-job training alone is not sufficient for keeping pace with advanced electronics-based technologies. Some TAs have nego- tiated union agreements that include growth, continued learning, and rewards for developing new skills, leading to advancement based on skills attainment rather than seniority (McGlothin Davis 2002, 13). Such agreements reflect a new understanding in today’s workplace concerning roles: employers must provide training, education, and skill development opportunities, and employees must assume re- sponsibility for developing and maintaining the needed skills.14 Train- ing to meet the needs of ITS was the driving force behind the ITS Professional Capacity Building (PCB) Program developed by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). This federally funded na- tional program, with an annual budget of $3.5 million, was launched to provide training for state and local transportation staff to ensure the widest possible implementation of ITS technologies. Appendix B provides a brief history of the ITS PCB Program. Recognizing simi- lar national capacity-building needs in other areas, FHWA has launched two other education and training initiatives—the Metro- politan Capacity Building Program and the Professional Excellence for Highway Safety Program. See Box 4-2 for more details. Both 13 Most states operate state-funded programs to assist private companies in providing training for their employees but restrict eligibility for those funds to firms producing goods and ser- vices that may be imported to or exported from the state. More information on these pro- grams is provided in Appendix F. 14 The Metropolitan Atlanta Regional Transit Authority (MARTA) supports employee train- ing by paying tuition reimbursement of 80 percent per course in a partnership agreement with Georgia State University, which tailors courses to meet the agency’s needs. The agency re- imbursement from MARTA can be packaged with state scholarship funds to pay for most ed- ucational costs at state universities, colleges, and technical schools in Georgia. 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 109

110 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE BOX 4-2 Recent FHWA Initiatives Aimed at Professional Capacity Building FHWA’s ITS Professional Capacity Building Program is well known and well documented (see Appendix B). FHWA has recently begun addressing professional capacity building for metropolitan transportation planners and highway safety specialists. The Metropolitan Capacity Building Program was launched in 2001 to help state and local transportation agency staffs meet the complex political, social, economic, and environmental demands of metropolitan areas. The pro- gram is designed for members of policy boards or executive committees, community leaders, professionals in metropoli- tan areas who participate in the metropolitan transportation planning process, and metropolitan planning organization (MPO) transportation staff. The program’s aims are as follows: • Gather and disseminate examples of effective metropolitan transportation planning practices from across the nation. • Act as a centralized clearinghouse for information and contacts within the metropolitan transportation planning community. • Provide background information for MPO board members to enhance their understanding of the metropolitan trans- portation planning process, their role within the process, and its relationship to community and societal goals. • Provide information, training, and technical assistance to MPOs (including new MPOs and those designated as being in nonattainment for air quality). 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 110

Address ing People and Ski l l Needs in Transportat ion Agencies | 111 The program incorporates information dissemination, technical assistance, training, education, outreach, and cus- tomer feedback. It is a collaborative effort of the Federal Transit Administration, FHWA, the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), the American Public Transportation Association, and the Association of Metropolitan Planning Organizations. FHWA’s Office of Safety launched the Professional Ex- cellence for Highway Safety Program to provide continu- ing education for safety professionals on the basis of an assessment of the needs of the safety profession. The ulti- mate aim is to reduce highway-related crashes, injuries, and fatalities. The program will coordinate interagency partnerships within the U.S. Department of Transporta- tion to integrate the needs of all safety program stakehold- ers, providers, and customers and raise the safety awareness of legislators, the media, and other education providers, with emphasis on intersection safety, speeding, run-off- the-road crashes, and pedestrian and bicyclist safety. The program will encompass infrastructure enhancements, op- erations enhancements, equipment, and onboard vehicle technologies. In an effort to bring more attention to the need for high- way safety training, FHWA has begun an inventory of infor- mation on training courses, software, databases, and curricula to assist in training highway safety practitioners. It is also es- tablishing a highway safety stakeholder database including such information as customer category, region, professional level, and organization. 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 111

112 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE programs are aimed at specific needs of state and local transportation agency staff; neither has attracted significant funding as yet. Successful organizations use a range of techniques for training, in- cluding job rotation, on-the-job training, self-directed learning (often technology-based), mentor relationships, on-the-job coaching, spe- cial projects and assignments, and electronic learning technologies.15 The use of technology-based training in particular has increased in recent years.16 Such training can be expensive and resisted by both trainers and participants,17 but it offers advantages, including the po- tential for presentation at a variety of locations, greater independence of scheduling, and opportunities for cost-sharing among like organi- zations (Tulgan 2001). WORKFORCE RETENTION Creating a workplace that employees find motivating and enriching is perhaps the most effective and low-cost retention strategy organi- zations can adopt (NAPA 2000). Employees want fair compensation, meaningful work, career advancement opportunities, increasing re- sponsibility, and recognition and reward for their accomplishments.18 Fortune’s 2001 Survey of the 100 Best Companies to Work For re- vealed that these companies address retention by devoting consider- able resources to employee development, demonstrating to employees that they are valued, and paying attention to the importance of 15 Training can also be differentiated with regard to whether it is offered in-house or contracted out. A key determinant in deciding between the two is the extent to which the training con- tent requires internal knowledge, such as organizational values and culture, versus technical information. 16 Many transit agencies use CD-ROM training programs for defensive driving training. Mod- ules include The Professional, which discusses operator health, customer relations, and prechecking a bus and Smart Driving+ which emphasizes bus equipment (pretrip inspections, potential road problems, and reporting of problems to the maintenance division). 17 Estimates for the time required to design 1 hour of good, interactive Web-based instruction range between 80 and 350 hours (Rothwell and Benkowski 2002). 18 Preferences of different groups of employees can vary as can be seen by comparing these pref- erences with those of transit agency employees shown in Table 4-4. 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 112

Address ing People and Ski l l Needs in Transportat ion Agencies | 113 employee benefits. The motivation for such efforts is the cost of em- ployee replacement, which ranges from three to five times the indi- vidual’s annual salary.19 In addition to direct replacement costs, unplanned turnover has been shown to create additional operating costs: as the turnover rate increases, operational inefficiencies also in- crease as a result of inexperienced employees who are inadequately trained (CLC 1998). Retention efforts begin when an employee starts to work. Research has shown that employees are vulnerable to voluntary turnover dur- ing their period of acclimation to the organization (NAPA 2000). Training and mentoring programs and organized coaching reduce the potential for turnover due to a new employee’s not being made to feel welcome or wanted in the organization.20 The Salt Lake City transit agency assigns new bus operators to the same specially trained supervisor for the duration of their orientation period. Because em- ployees often cite the quality of their immediate supervisor as a de- termining factor in deciding whether to stay in an organization, managers must be trained and evaluated so that their style fits with the organization’s mission and values. Retention strategies must be based on current information about the characteristics and needs of the organization’s employees, as well as the organization’s needs.21 Turnover can be good for an organiza- tion, especially if it involves unproductive employees. McEvoy and Cascio (1987) found that good performers are less likely to leave an or- ganization than are bad performers. The crucial issue in analyzing turnover is not the number of employees leaving, but the performance 19 A retention study by the Corporate Executive Board revealed that recruiting is more costly than retention, even though difficulties in measuring turnover costs accurately mask the true magnitude of the problem. 20 Retention is difficult for many transit agencies. Some have established mentor programs to assist new hires. Volunteer veteran operators, supervisors, and trainers with superior techni- cal and customer relations skills work with new operators to make them comfortable with their jobs and the agency. Such mentor programs have been shown to reduce turnover sig- nificantly (McGlothin Davis 2002). 21 Recent studies indicate that even highly satisfied employees leave for new opportunities (Cappelli 2000). Because retention is complicated by changing employee attitudes, organiza- tions need to survey regularly what their employees value in the workplace. 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 113

114 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE and replaceability of those leaving versus those staying and the rea- sons difficult-to-replace employees are leaving. If the organization knows and understands these reasons—across occupational groups and geographical locations—it improves its chances of retaining pro- ductive employees, reducing turnover, and avoiding the costs associ- ated with high turnover (CLC 1998).22 Research has shown that work–life programs, in addition to being important for recruiting purposes, improve productivity, reduce turnover, and reduce absen- teeism.23 As a result, they are the key component of retention strate- gies for top-performing organizations. The Conference Board has noted that a primary reason for implementing work–life programs is organizational performance (CLC 1998). Most work–life programs involve a combination of policies and practices that significantly affect the choices available to employees for achieving a desirable work–life balance. Giving employees choices conveys the message that management considers the individual to be important. The National Academy of Public Administration (NAPA) (1998) describes these policies and practices in terms of four dimen- sions of the work environment: personal control, life support, physi- cal workspace, and workplace relationships. While each of these is a management issue, the first three focus more on individual em- ployee issues; the fourth relates to a range of employee–employee and employee–management issues. Policies and practices related to personal control give employees a greater range of choices over how, when, and where they work. They include such options as shared jobs, specialized leave programs, part- time and part-year appointments, and alternative work schedules.24 Life support policies address the health and well-being of employees and those they care for. They include child and elder care, wellness 22 For example, retaining staff with specialized skills in high-cost urban areas presents a chal- lenge different from doing so in lower-cost areas. Regular employee feedback surveys and exit interviews are critical to developing an effective retention program. 23 Recruiting packages must describe such programs. 24 In 1995 workers were found to be more likely to cut back hours at work, turn down a pro- motion, reduce their work commitment, and move to a different community to achieve a less hectic life than has been the case among workers just 5 years earlier, and this trend continues. 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 114

Address ing People and Ski l l Needs in Transportat ion Agencies | 115 and fitness programs, retirement counseling, and career counseling and placement. Physical workplace issues deal with how employees get to work; where they work; and what workspace, equipment, and sup- plies they use. The area of workplace relationships encompasses such is- sues as diversity and affirmative action, labor–management relations, effective communication programs, supervisory training, and leader- ship development. Table 4-6 summarizes information about the prac- tices that address these issues and their effects. The General Accounting Office has found that retention of older workers is helpful for some public and a few private employers for sev- eral reasons, including high demand for their general skills, a critical need for specialized skills, long transition times for new workers, and employees’ desire to continue working (GAO 2001). A variety of incentives, including flexible hours and financial benefits, reduced workloads (part-time or part-year schedules), and job sharing, have proved successful in encouraging older workers to continue working (GAO 2001, Table 8). Nonetheless, pension regulations, corporate culture, employment costs, and other impediments to retaining older workers may have to be addressed. For example, redesigning defined- benefit state pension plans to allow a pension participant of eligible retirement age to begin receiving pension benefits while continuing to work has enabled some public school districts and the SDOT to re- tain retirement-eligible employees and benefit from their experience and institutional knowledge.25 SUCCESSION MANAGEMENT26 Succession management is a way to meet an organization’s future need for leaders with people who are intentionally prepared for such leadership. It is a systematic effort to project leadership requirements, 25 An example is Florida’s Deferred Retirement Option Plan, which allows state employees who are eligible to retire to continue working for the state for 5 years at full salary. The employee’s monthly retirement payment is deposited into a special account and accrues interest, tax de- ferred, as long as the employee continues to work. 26 The discussion in this section is based on NAPA (1997). 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 115

T A B L E 4 -6 E xa m pl e W o rk –L ife P o lic ie s an d P ra ct ic es P ol ic y or P ra ct ic e D es cr ip ti on M ea su re d E ff ec ts P er so na l C on tr ol ( A dd re ss es N ee d fo r M or e P er so na l C on tr ol o f T im e an d G re at er S ch ed ul e F le xi bi lit y) Sh ar ed jo bs a nd pe rm an en t pa rt -t im e ap po in tm en ts Sp ec ia liz ed le av e pr og ra m s A lte rn at iv e w or k sc he du le s L ife S up po rt Em pl oy ee a ss is ta nc e, w el ln es s, a nd fi tn es s pr og ra m s C ar eg iv er a ss is ta nc e pr og ra m A rr an ge m en ts t ha t al lo w e m pl oy ee s to c on tin ue t o w or k pa rt - tim e in s ha re d as si gn m en ts Sp ec ia liz ed le av e to m ee t th e ne ed s of a g ro w in g nu m be r of em pl oy ee s w ith c hi ld a nd e ld er c ar e re sp on si bi lit ie s Fl ex ib le w or k sc he du le s (fl ex tim e) t ha t al lo w e m pl oy ee s to s et th ei r ow n st ar t an d en d tim es w hi le c on tin ui ng t o w or k a sp ec ifi ed nu m be r of h ou rs e ac h w ee k. C om pr es se d w or k sc he du le s al lo w em pl oy ee s to w or k an 8 0- ho ur s ch ed ul e in a 2 -w ee k pe ri od , b ut do it in le ss t ha n 10 w or kd ay s by w or ki ng m or e th an 8 h ou rs so m e da ys C ou ns el in g an d re fe rr al s er vi ce s fo r su bs ta nc e ab us e, in de bt ed - ne ss , s po us al a bu se , e m ot io na l p ro bl em s, a nd o th er is su es . W el l- ne ss p ro gr am s ad dr es s fir st a id a nd e m er ge nc y as se ss m en ts , im m un iz at io ns a nd a lle rg y in je ct io ns , h ea lth -r is k ap pr ai sa ls , h ea lth sc re en in gs , h ea lth c ou ns el in g, a nd h ea lth e du ca tio n se m in ar s. F it- ne ss p ro gr am s ar e of fe re d as p ar t of a n ov er al l h ea lth p ro gr am Le av e- sh ar in g pr og ra m s; c hi ld a nd e ld er c ar e as si st an ce ; de pe nd en t ca re a ss is ta nc e pl an s; c hi ld d ay ca re fa ci lit ie s Im pr ov ed p ro du ct iv ity a nd r ed uc ed a bs en te ei sm an d tu rn ov er Im pr ov ed p ro du ct iv ity ; r ed uc ed in di vi du al st re ss Em pl oy er s ha ve r ep or te d hi gh er p ro du ct iv ity ; em pl oy ee s ha ve r ep or te d th ey a re m or e pr o- du ct iv e w he n th ey c an m an ag e th ei r ow n tim e; al te rn at iv e sc he du le s en la rg e ap pl ic an t po ol Im pr ov ed p ro du ct iv ity a nd r ed uc ed a bs en - te ei sm a nd t ur no ve r V al ua bl e re cr ui tin g an d re te nt io n to ol s; r e- du ce d un ex pe ct ed a bs en te ei sm ; i m pr ov ed p ro - du ct iv ity ; s up po rt ed b y al te rn at iv e w or k sc he du le s. H el p in r et ai ni ng g ro w in g nu m be rs of e m pl oy ee s w ith e ld er c ar e re sp on si bi lit ie s th at c ou ld p ro m pt t he m t o re tir e ea rl y 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 116

P hy si ca l W or ks pa ce ( A im ed a t M at ch in g th e W or kp la ce w it h th e T yp e of W or k an d th e In di vi du al W or ke r) O ffi ce a cc om m od at io ns T el ec om m ut in g W or kp la ce R el at io ns hi ps D iv er si ty a nd a ffi rm at iv e ac tio n La bo r– m an ag em en t re la tio ns Ef fe ct iv e co m m un ic at io ns pr og ra m s C ha ng in g si ze a nd o rg an iz at io n of w or ks pa ce (i nd iv id ua l a nd c om - m un al ) a nd h ot el in g, t ha t is , p ro vi di ng m ob ile e m pl oy ee s w ith c el l ph on es , l ap to p co m pu te rs , a nd o th er e qu ip m en t so t he y ca n w or k at a lte rn at iv e si te s an d re se rv e of fic e sp ac e on a n as -n ee de d ba si s A rr an ge m en ts t ha t al lo w a n em pl oy ee t o w or k aw ay fr om t he t ra - di tio na l w or ks ite , e ith er a t ho m e or a t an a lte rn at iv e si te D iv er si ty a ct io ns r ec og ni ze t ha t a w or kf or ce c om pr is in g pe op le fr om m an y ra ce s, b ac kg ro un ds , a nd c ul tu re s pr ov id es a n as so rt - m en t of v al ue s, e xp er ie nc es , a nd p er sp ec tiv es . O rg an iz at io na l ef fo rt s ai m a t he lp in g em pl oy ee s fr om d iv er se b ac kg ro un ds s uc - ce ed t hr ou gh la ng ua ge a nd c ul tu ra l t ra in in g as n ee de d. A ffi rm at iv e ac tio n is a le gi sl at iv el y re qu ir ed a nd g oa l-o ri en te d pr og ra m t o en su re a le ve l p la yi ng fi el d in t he w or kp la ce M an ag em en t an d un io ns a ck no w le dg e ea ch o th er ’s le gi tim at e va lu e, r ol es , f un ct io ns , a nd r es po ns ib ili tie s to t he e nt er pr is e. Jo in t in iti at iv es a im a t va lu e re so lu tio n of c on fli ct r at he r th an c on fli ct av oi da nc e. D ev el op m en t of a n or ga ni za tio na l c ul tu re t ha t is s up - po rt iv e, fl ex ib le , a nd s en si tiv e to t he n ee ds o f t he w or kf or ce . U ni on in vo lv em en t in a ll as pe ct s of s tr at eg ic p la nn in g, p ro gr am de si gn , a nd s pe ci fic w or k pr oc es se s C om m un ic at io ns p ro gr am s de si gn ed t o de liv er in fo rm at io n si m - pl y, c le ar ly , f re qu en tly , a nd h on es tly . O rg an iz at io ns u se m ul tip le co m m un ic at io ns v eh ic le s, in cl ud in g fa ce -t o- fa ce m ee tin gs , o nl in e m es sa ge s, in tr an et fo ru m s, e -m ai l, te le ph on e ho tli ne s, a nd ne w sl et te rs Im pr ov ed p ro du ct iv ity Im pr ov ed r ec ru iti ng c ap ab ili ty ; e xp an de d ap pl i- ca nt p oo l; re du ce d tu rn ov er ; i m pr ov ed p ro du c- tiv ity ; r ed uc ed c os ts A ne cd ot al e vi de nc e, e m pl oy ee s ur ve ys , a nd li m - ite d m ea su re m en t in la rg e fir m s sh ow t ha t su ch ac tio ns r es ul t in a n ex pa nd ed a pp lic an t po ol ; re du ce d tu rn ov er ; a nd im pr ov ed p ro du ct iv ity Im pr ov ed p ro du ct iv ity a nd r ed uc ed c os ts H el p al ig n em pl oy ee s w ith m is si on , v is io n, va lu es , a nd s tr at eg y of t he o rg an iz at io n. C an im pr ov e pr od uc tiv ity a nd r ed uc e co st s (c on tin ue d on n ex t p ag e) 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 117

Su pe rv is or y tr ai ni ng Le ad er sh ip t ra in in g SO U RC E: Pr ep ar ed b y th e co m m itt ee o n th e ba sis o f N A PA 1 99 9 an d in fo rm at io n pr ov id ed b y Ja ne W ei zm an n of W at so n W ya tt & C om pa ny . T ra in in g to e st ab lis h cl ea r or ga ni za tio na l g oa ls a nd o bj ec tiv es a t th e w or ki ng le ve l, pr ov id e an u nd er st an di ng o f t he t ec hn ic al a s- pe ct s of h um an r es ou rc e ru le s an d re gu la tio ns , d ev el op t he b as is fo r a po si tiv e w or k en vi ro nm en t, an d pr ov id e fe ed ba ck a nd co un se lin g T ra in in g to p ro vi de s en io r m an ag er s w ith a n un de rs ta nd in g of d if- fe re nt le ad er sh ip s ty le s, th e co m po ne nt s of th es e st yl es , a nd h ow ea ch c an b e tie d to o rg an iz at io na l g oa ls a nd m an ag em en t o f p eo pl e H el ps r ei nf or ce o rg an iz at io na l v al ue s an d vi si on . C an im pr ov e pr od uc tiv ity a nd r ed uc e co st s H el ps r ei nf or ce o rg an iz at io na l v al ue s an d vi si on . C an im pr ov e pr od uc tiv ity a nd r ed uc e co st s T A B L E 4 -6 (c on tin ue d) E xa m pl e W o rk –L ife P o lic ie s an d P ra ct ic es P ol ic y or P ra ct ic e D es cr ip ti on M ea su re d E ff ec ts 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 118

Address ing People and Ski l l Needs in Transportat ion Agencies | 119 identify a pool of high-potential candidates, develop leadership com- petencies among those candidates through intentional learning expe- riences, and then select leaders from the pool of candidates.27 To these ends, the organization’s senior executives must be involved in a continuing discussion and analysis of what is needed, when it is needed, and why it is needed. Systematic succession management is undertaken in response to many of the same change factors affecting the workforce, such as changing technology, downsizing and reorganization, globalization, social forces, and rising service expectations. Such questions as the following are addressed: • What types of leaders will be needed? • What competencies should they possess? • Will more leaders (such as for teams, not necessarily more posi- tions) be needed? • What processes will be required to support the development of leaders? • How will this leader development initiative affect performance outcomes, customer service, innovation, and cost reduction? Benchmark principles or critical success factors for succession man- agement were developed by NAPA’s Center for Creative Leadership on the basis of interviews with exemplary organizations (NAPA 1997): • Commitment of leaders: The single greatest determinant of the suc- cess or failure of a succession program in developing leaders is the personal involvement and commitment of the top leadership of the organization—the only ones who can identify and sustain the focus and resources needed to develop future leaders. • Integration with organization business plan: Succession plans must be integrated with strategic business plans and be flexible and rela- tively simple in addressing the organization’s changing needs. 27 Public agencies must work within public disclosure rules concerning job openings and clas- sifications. 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 119

120 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE • Ownership of program: Succession programs must be owned by line managers and supported by human resource staff, integrated into all human resource processes, and consistent with the organiza- tional culture. • Leadership pool: A leadership pool approach that involves identify- ing high-potential candidates and recognizes future leaders as a corporate asset is preferred. • Leadership competencies: The heart of the succession management process is the identification of leadership competencies—while recognizing that they can change—and assessment and develop- ment of potential candidates based on those competencies. • Regular review: Regular review that involves all levels of the orga- nization is essential. Such review addresses future potential as well as current performance • Leadership development: Success in developing leaders depends on three critical dimensions: a variety of job assignments, education and training, and self-development. Leader competencies and a regular review process form the basis for a vision of what potential leaders need for growth. • Follow-through: Accountability and follow-up using measurable outcomes are central to ensuring success. Accountability is the link back to strategy, making visible the value of succession and the de- velopment of leaders. NAPA (1997) cites an effort of the Minnesota Department of Transportation (MNDOT) as a prime example of successful public- sector succession management.28 In 1990 senior MNDOT leaders 28 Another example is the Wisconsin DOT Career Executive Program instituted in the 1980s. Employees who voluntarily entered the program received an extra week of vacation and an early retirement option without penalty. In return, they submitted to executive decisions about assignments in senior positions within the organization anywhere in the state. A for- mer Wisconsin DOT chief administrative officer found the program to be highly successful in recognizing talented workers and encouraging competition for top positions. 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 120

Address ing People and Ski l l Needs in Transportat ion Agencies | 121 saw the need to prepare employees for leadership as the agency began adapting to a changing environment. They undertook a long-term strategic initiative to create a pool of talent for targeted management and technical positions through the development of key competen- cies. Initially, 56 top positions were identified as critical to the agency’s strategic objectives. MNDOT’s succession management process operates as follows. An employee succession plan survey helps identify those who are in- terested in being considered as candidates for the top positions. In- dividuals are rated by their managers and themselves against the competencies. An executive management review process identifies the top candidates; individuals who are not forwarded receive feed- back on areas in which they need to develop for future considera- tion. This screening process occurs at three levels: division, bureau, and department. After final decisions are made, an individual devel- opment strategy is prepared for each competency. The MNDOT process compares well against the eight benchmarks listed above (see Table 4-7). NAPA (1997) points out that the voluntary nature of identifying high-potential candidates may have some unintended consequences. The late bloomer who is not selected after volunteering several times may become discouraged. Moreover, some individuals do not have a good perspective on their potential as a leader and may not opt into the process. Some provision for volunteering by individuals, com- bined with nomination by managers, could provide a more balanced process so that all candidates with high leadership potential will be identified. PARTNERING AND COOPERATIVE EFFORTS In today’s competitive world, no single business, agency, employee organization, educational institution, or union can single-handedly tackle the challenge of educating and training the transportation workforce. Developing a skilled workforce and improving the acade- mic and technical skills of youth and adults are clear areas of mutual 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 121

122 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE TABLE 4-7 Benchmarking MNDOT’s Succession Management Process (NAPA 1997) Benchmark Comments Commitment of leaders Integration with business plan Ownership of the program Leadership pool Leadership competencies Regular review Leadership development Follow-through The process has the full participation of top officials and the support of line managers using a collaborative ap- proach that allows for organizationwide involvement The strategic direction of the organization and the succes- sion plan are integrated primarily by using the strategic di- rection of the organization as the context for reviews at each level Broad representation from all levels of the organization helps focus ownership MNDOT develops a pool of leaders A task group prepares a clear set of competencies A thorough review process occurs at each level MNDOT emphasizes job assignments and temporary or permanent reassignments, along with education and train- ing and individual initiatives as development tools The process ensures participant and managerial account- ability on at least an annual basis interest and advantage for agencies and private companies. The 21st Century Workforce Commission (1998) has stated that partnerships based on local, state, and regional models and supported by well- designed state and federal policies and programs can create mecha- nisms for addressing these and other workforce issues. Cooperative efforts and strategic coordination involving public agencies and pri- vate organizations can leverage the use of limited resources aimed at attracting and educating workers in areas of common interest and need. Box 4-3 describes the AASHTO Lead State Program, a coop- erative effort aimed at promoting the implementation of research products, which could serve as a model for SDOTs and TAs in coop- eratively promoting human resource improvements. Box 4-4 describes a program being developed by the Community Transportation De- velopment Center that is aimed at creating union–agency partnerships for developing transportation career ladders. The types, sizes, and varieties of potential partnerships are nu- merous, but all require leadership and commitment. Partnerships 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 122

Address ing People and Ski l l Needs in Transportat ion Agencies | 123 BOX 4-3 The AASHTO Lead State Program as a Partnership Model for Implementing Best Practices In the mid-1990s, as some SDOTs began implementing the research products developed by the AASHTO-sponsored Strategic Highway Research Program, AASHTO estab- lished several initiatives aimed at accelerating the adoption of these products. One initiative, the Lead State Program, helped ensure that practical experience with the research products would be shared among all states. A Lead State was a transportation agency (together with its contractors and suppliers) that used a specific technology on a large enough scale to gain experience with it and its procedures. The Lead State then volunteered to share this experience and approaches for adapting the products to specific sites and conditions with other agencies on a formal basis. The program helped shorten the learning period for these agen- cies. In addition, accelerating implementation through the direct assistance of peers serves to increase the return on the research investment. Lead State teams were created in each of seven technol- ogy areas, and an SDOT contact was identified as team co- ordinator. Team members provided a peer-level point of contact for SDOTs seeking to implement a research prod- uct and, in some cases, organized and participated in on-site meetings and consultations to assist in implementation. Agency employees created a pooled-fund project supported by AASHTO to help defray some of the program costs— especially travel. 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 123

124 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE BOX 4-4 Union–Management Partnerships to Train Transit Agency Employees The Community Transportation Development Center, a non- profit organization whose board of directors includes repre- sentatives from both management and labor in the transit industry, develops labor–management partnerships for work- force development. One such partnership, the Keystone Tran- sit Career Ladder Partnership, was launched in December 2001 with the cooperation of the Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority, the Port Authority of Allegheny County, the Transport Workers Union, the Amalgamated Transit Union, and the Pennsylvania AFL-CIO. With support from the Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry, the partnership is developing and piloting new training curricula across a range of transit occupations experiencing skill short- ages with the goal of developing career ladders for incumbent workers so they can progress into higher-level positions. Training of incumbent workers can avert layoffs as new tech- nology is introduced. The partnership also engages local com- munity organizations in recruiting new hires and supporting their entry into transit careers. Such organizations recruit from among dislocated workers, youth, and those reentering the workforce from public assistance and other programs. While the curricula being developed are technology oriented, they also address entry-level training, basic skills, and aptitudes. As of January 2003, skill assessments were planned, under way, or completed at transit agencies in Johnstown, Altoona, Erie, Harrisburg, Philadelphia, and Wilkes-Barre. After these assessments are completed, similar assessments will be scheduled for nine other transit agencies in the state. Source: CTDC 2003. 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 124

Address ing People and Ski l l Needs in Transportat ion Agencies | 125 face considerable hurdles. All stakeholders are independent entities, and many have strong traditions of operating without coordinating services or engaging in joint planning among institutions and pro- grams.29 Many organizations are unaware of the existence of the full range of activities and potential outcomes of partnering. Those hav- ing had negative experiences with partnering may believe that the system is too intractable for joint effort to be of any value in ad- dressing their specific needs. Their competitive nature may spur them to go their own way and avoid the possibility of helping another stakeholder. Moreover, even though partnering helps lever- age limited resources, the cost involved may be a deterrent. Partner- ing also takes time. Despite these potential impediments, the 21st Century Workforce Commission (1998) found that various partnerships could be pro- ductive and beneficial. Partnerships aimed at developing the trans- portation workforce might include the following:30 • Raising student awareness and achievement in K–12 education; • Forming stronger linkages between middle and high school stu- dents and postsecondary education and transportation careers; • Helping identify pathways for youth and adults to enter the trans- portation workforce; • Increasing the numbers of workers who acquire skills for the trans- portation workforce through postsecondary education programs; • Expanding lifelong learning opportunities; • Increasing access to transportation workforce opportunities to all segments of the population; • Defining the skills needed for specific job categories; • Developing regional, state, and national job posting systems; and 29 This was highlighted at the 2002 National Transportation Workforce Summit (FHWA 2002). 30 The first three items in this list continue to be addressed by groups, including the National Academy of Engineering and others. Appendix G summarizes key information the commit- tee reviewed on this topic. 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 125

126 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE • Developing a central listing of all available computer-based and long-distance training. Research partnerships can also yield workforce development ben- efits. Collaborations between transportation agencies and universities can support research into specific agency problem areas and expose graduate students to the working environment and career opportu- nities at the agencies. In 2001 the Chicago Transit Authority (CTA) entered into such a collaboration with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), the University of Illinois at Chicago, and O’Brien-Kreitzberg, an engineering and management consultant. CTA and MIT have formulated a research agenda aimed at develop- ing knowledge to help in critical capital and operating decisions fac- ing CTA. Student researchers are from both universities; CTA staff and several consultants provide technical expertise as needed. Several interns from the first year of the program have taken full-time posi- tions at CTA and other transit agencies. SUMMARY There is evidence that strategic workforce planning sets the stage for what agencies need to do in the areas of recruiting, training, retention, and succession management. Successful companies recognize that without locating human resource management at a strategic level within the organization, they will be unable to effect change. In addi- tion, recent studies of private-sector and federal agency workforce is- sues provide guidance to human resource managers in transportation agencies. A key step for agencies is identification of their core compe- tency needs and inventorying of required knowledge, skills, and abili- ties, coupled with a gap analysis to identify specific agency skill needs. Technology change and innovation are requiring continuous or lifelong learning to acquire and retain skills at an appropriate level. Benchmarking studies indicate that exemplary organizations spend the equivalent of about 2 percent of their payroll costs on training. Such organizations view training as an investment in their people and their organization’s future. In addition to providing training for em- 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 126

Address ing People and Ski l l Needs in Transportat ion Agencies | 127 ployees, some organizations require that employees spend a specified amount of time in training, some provide monetary or other incen- tives for training, and others reimburse employees for a portion of an- nual educational or training expenses. Transportation agencies at all levels are in a position to partner with one another and with other organizations in addressing work- force issues and sharing successful practices. The National Trans- portation Workforce Summit illustrated the willingness of federal transportation agencies to partner with other stakeholders to address the issues involved. Sustaining such partnerships, however, will take continuing leadership, time, and resources. Box 4-5 summarizes several promising practices for recruiting, training, retention, and succession management. The committee en- courages agencies to consider these strategies and to adopt or adapt them as appropriate and evaluate their effectiveness. The results of such evaluations should be shared with other agencies to help advance this field of knowledge. BOX 4-5 Selected Practices with Demonstrated Potential to Improve Recruiting, Training, Retention, and Succession Management at Transportation Agencies Recruiting Practices • Employee referral programs that focus on agency sources, current or former employees, and internal job postings as well as schools and fraternal, religious, and community organizations • Scholarship programs, university cooperative engineer- ing programs, and summer employment for promising (continued on next page) 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 127

128 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE undergraduate students provide a direct link between ed- ucational programs and agency employment • Flexible work time schedules that allow employees to set their own start and end times while continuing to work a specified number of hours each week • Re-recruiting aims at experienced employees from other sectors seeking a job, career, or location change Training Practices • Management and financial commitment to training based on a benchmark, for example, a percentage of employee salaries, to support strategic agency needs • Advancement based on skills improvement—union and agency–employee agreements on advancement focusing on skills attainment rather than seniority • Focusing training programs on specific licensing and cer- tification goals aimed at strategic agency needs • Using a range of techniques—such as job rotation, on-the- job training, self-directed learning (often technology- based), mentor relationships, and on-the-job coaching based on agency need and resources Retention Practices • Work–life programs that focus on individual employee needs to achieve a balance that benefits both the agency and the employee BOX 4-5 (continued) Selected Practices with Demonstrated Potential to Improve Recruiting, Training, Retention, and Succession Management at Transportation Agencies 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 128

Address ing People and Ski l l Needs in Transportat ion Agencies | 129 • Providing experienced employees with updated or com- pletely new skill sets—retraining—so that they can be as- signed to new jobs • Older worker retention—providing arrangements such as shared jobs and permanent part-time appointments to en- courage older workers with key skills to continue working Succession Management Practices • Succession planning based on employee input—surveying employees to establish a potential leadership pool • Incentive-based career development—encouraging em- ployees to participate in executive development programs by offering incentives to volunteers for work reassignments REFERENCES Abbreviations AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials CLC Corporate Leadership Council CTDC Community Transportation Development Center FHWA Federal Highway Administration GAO General Accounting Office NAPA National Academy of Public Administration OMB Office of Management and Budget OPM Office of Personnel Management 21st Century Workforce Commission. 1998. Building America’s 21st Century Work- force. Washington, D.C. AASHTO. 1998. The Changing State DOT. Washington, D.C. Becker, B. E., M. A. Husefeld, and D. Ulrich. 2001. The HR Scorecard: Linking Peo- ple, Strategy, and Performance. Harvard University Press. Cappelli, P. 2000. A Market-Driven Approach to Retaining Talent. Harvard Business Review, Jan.–Feb., p. 103. 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 129

130 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE Cascio, W. F. 1997. Managing Human Resources: Productivity, Quality of Work Life, Profits. Irwin/McGraw-Hill. CLC. 1998. Workforce Turnover and Firm Performance. Washington, D.C. CTDC. 2003. Report on the Keystone Transit Career Ladder Partnership. Washington, D.C., Jan. FHWA. 2002. National Transportation Workforce Summit: Summary of Proceedings. U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C., May. GAO. 2001. Older Workers: Demographic Trends Pose Challenges for Employers and Workers. GAO-02-85. Washington, D.C., Nov. Gilliland, C. A. W. 2001. NCHRP Web Document 39: Managing Change in State Departments of Transportation. Scan 5 of 8: Innovations in Work Force Strategies. TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C. gulliver.trb.org/publications/ nchrp/nchrp_w39-5.pdf. Kettl, D. 1993. Sharing Power: Public Governance and Private Markets. The Brookings Institution, Washington, D.C. LeMay, S. A., and J. C. Carr. 1999. The Growth and Development of Logistics Personnel. Council of Logistics Management, Oak Brook, Ill. Lerman, R. I., and S. R. Schmidt. 1999. An Overview of Economic, Social, and Demo- graphic Trends Affecting the U.S. Labor Market. The Urban Institute, Washington, D.C. Mason, J. M., Jr., J. R. Tarris, E. Zaki, and M. S. Bronzini. 1992. NCHRP Report 347: Civil Engineering Careers: Awareness, Retention, and Curriculum. TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C. McEvoy, G. M., and W. F. Cascio. 1987. Do Good or Poor Performers Leave? A Meta-Analysis of the Relationships Between Performance and Turnover. Acad- emy of Management Journal, Vol. 30, pp. 344–364. McGlothin Davis, Inc. 2002. TCRP Report 77: Managing Transit’s Workforce in the New Millennium. TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C. Moffat, G. K., A. H. Ashton, and D. R. Blackburn. 2001. TCRP Synthesis 40: A Chal- lenged Employment System: Hiring, Training, Performance Evaluation, and Retention of Bus Operators. TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C. NAPA. 1997. Managing Succession and Developing Leadership: Growing the Next Gen- eration of Public Service Leaders. Washington, D.C. NAPA. 1998. Work/Life Programs: Helping Managers, Helping Employees. Washington, D.C., Jan. NAPA. 1999. Building the Workforce of the Future to Achieve Organizational Success. Washington, D.C., Dec. NAPA. 2000. Building Successful Organizations: A Guide to Strategic Workforce Plan- ning. Washington, D.C. 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 130

Address ing People and Ski l l Needs in Transportat ion Agencies | 131 NAPA. 2001. A Work Experience Second to None: Impelling the Best to Serve. Washing- ton, D.C., Sept. OMB. 2002. The President’s Management Agenda. www.whitehouse.gov/omb/ budget/fy2002/mgmt.pdf. OPM. 1999. Strategic Human Resources Management: Aligning with the Mission. Office of Merit Systems Oversight and Effectiveness, Sept. Rothwell, W. J., and J. A. Benkowski. 2002. Building Effective Technical Training. Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer, San Francisco, Calif. Sterling Institute. 2002. HR Process Review and Workforce Development Plan: Executive Summary and Recommendations for the Georgia Department of Transportation. Aug. Tulgan, B. 2001. Winning the Talent Wars. W.W. Norton & Company. Warne, T. 2003. NCHRP Synthesis of Highway Practice: Current Practice for Recruiting and Retaining Individuals in State Transportation Agencies. TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C. (in progress). 55126_TRB_112_149 11/14/03 5:03 AM Page 131

1 3 2 5 Data and Analysis Needs As noted in the preceding chapters, transportation agenciesare struggling with their human resource efforts at a basiclevel, and most lack the fundamental tools needed to deter- mine their future agency workforce needs. Few state transportation agencies have yet tied their staffing plans to a strategic plan, identi- fied their core competency needs, or undertaken a systematic analy- sis of the gaps between their workforce needs and staff competencies; the same is true of most transit agencies. Transportation agencies would benefit significantly from more quantitative analyses and as- sessments of their workforce issues. However, such analyses require considerably more agency-level data than are currently available. Key transportation workforce data needs and potential topics for quantitatively based assessments and research are briefly described in the following sections.1 KEY DATA NEEDS There are many opportunities for improved data collection and analysis to support workforce development activities. For example, despite recent and ongoing studies, the data available on agency skill needs, job categories, employee educational background, and employee job skills and on transportation agency employment by 1 This chapter was added to the report as a result of several reviewer comments and suggestions. 55126_TRB_150_153 11/14/03 5:05 AM Page 132

Data and Analys is Needs | 133 level of education and by specific skill are scarce. Moreover, there is no documentation of the labor requirements of public trans- portation agencies by job category or how these requirements com- pare with the needs of private employers in the transportation sector. There are few data on wage trends for public and private transportation agencies and companies or on wage differences be- tween public and private organizations and across job categories. Aside from anecdotal evidence, information about the mobility of workers between the two sectors is limited. Such information would be helpful in assessing the capacity of the private sector to absorb more work from public agencies and the extent to which more con- tracting out shifts workforce issues from the public to the private sector. A better understanding of the different labor needs across comparable job categories within all transportation agencies and across different job categories in agencies of the same type would also be desirable. The aging of the workforce is having considerable impact on transportation agencies, as well as many other components of the public sector. The retirements of a large number of their senior managers are impending, and many transportation agencies may not have an adequate number of skilled middle managers to replace those leaving the workforce. Moreover, the agencies must reexam- ine how the departure of experienced managers affects the skill sets the agencies need. An in-depth analysis of how retirements are af- fecting the agencies and how agencies are addressing the issue would be useful. Information about the extent to which the stock of civil engineers is changing would be useful. While data indicate that only about 10 percent of offers to civil engineering graduates come from gov- ernment and nonprofit organizations, it would be useful to know more about the numbers of civil engineers leaving the transporta- tion workforce or moving from civil engineering to another occupa- tion and why these moves are made. More information on contracting out, especially on the portion of agency budgets contracted out for specific categories, would be useful in analyzing the need for more contract administration 55126_TRB_150_153 11/14/03 5:05 AM Page 133

134 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE specialists as well as what kinds of technical expertise the agencies must retain. AREAS FOR ADDITIONAL ANALYSIS Several areas of analysis could prove beneficial to transportation agen- cies as they address their future workforce needs. The following are key among them: skills standards, training effectiveness, and agency practices. Skills Standards It would be useful to examine how skills standards and certification of skills in a variety of occupations can help meet industry workforce needs, whether developing a limited number of portable skill creden- tials would be useful, and at what level (federal or state) the skills stan- dards should be developed to achieve credibility for and widespread use of the standards. As a recent Federal Highway Administration international scan- ning tour showed, some countries emphasize apprenticeship pro- grams for many job categories (FHWA 2003). More information on the effectiveness of these programs and their training systems in pro- viding needed workers and job ladders for operators and maintenance staff would be useful. Training Effectiveness There is little specific information about the effectiveness and bene- fits of today’s training mechanisms for the transportation workforce in meeting current skill needs. Research and demonstration projects involving different kinds of agencies with similar training needs could supply the basis for answers to these questions. The committee believes that more can be achieved with public– private initiatives for developing training modules (both work-based and curriculum-based) than currently is the case. As noted previously, despite the barriers to joint initiatives, there are examples where they 55126_TRB_150_153 11/14/03 5:05 AM Page 134

Data and Analys is Needs | 135 have been overcome, and these examples need to be examined more closely for broader application. Agency Practices The current joint Federal Highway Administration–American Asso- ciation of State Highway and Transportation Officials effort under way to document and assess innovative practices that agencies are adopting to help meet their workforce needs in recruiting, retention, training, and succession management provides a basis for additional assessments across a wider range of transportation agencies. Such as- sessments can benefit both agencies and the private sector. Finally, transportation agencies can examine how well they are doing in human resource practices by using a tool like the Human Capital Capability Scorecard or a similar proven technique (Bassi et al. 2003). REFERENCES Abbreviation FHWA Federal Highway Administration Bassi, L., K. McGraw, and D. McMurrer. 2003. Beyond Quarterly Earnings: Using Measurement to Create Sustainable Growth. Human Capital Capability, Inc., Feb. FHWA. 2003. European Practices in Transportation Workforce Development: Results of an AASHTO–FHWA Scanning Tour. Washington, D.C. 55126_TRB_150_153 11/14/03 5:05 AM Page 135

1 3 6 6 Findings and Recommendations The nation’s economy and the lifestyles of its citizens dependheavily on a safe and efficient transportation system. Surfacetransportation agencies—including primarily state depart- ments of transportation (SDOTs) and transit agencies—deliver this system with the support of a host of private-sector contractors, con- sultants, and other businesses. Most agencies are under considerable pressure today because of several high-risk issues associated with key components of the transportation workforce. Individually, these issues are of concern, and in combination they are critical to the functioning of the agencies and to the delivery of transportation infrastructure and service. The committee identified five key issues that characterize the current transportation workforce situation for federal, state, and local transportation agencies. • The transportation workforce requires a wider range of skills and abilities than in the past because of changing and ex- panding agency missions as well as new technologies; this has coincided with level or decreasing staffing in transportation agencies. • Transportation agencies face an unprecedented level of re- tirements of senior-level managers over the next decade— nearly double the rate for the nation’s entire workforce. • The agencies are significantly underinvesting in training their workforces. • The agencies are finding it increasingly difficult to recruit and retain professionals and technicians. 55126_TRB_154_164 11/14/03 5:06 AM Page 136

Findings and Recommendat ions | 137 • Few transportation agencies are positioning their human re- source activities at a strategic level so the workforce needs de- scribed by the organization’s strategic plan can be met. These findings echo those identified in an earlier study about sup- ply and demand issues in the transportation profession (TRB 1985) and suggest that, although specific details might have changed, there are fundamental issues that continue to need attention. These key findings are addressed in the following section. The committee’s rec- ommendations for future action are then given. FINDINGS Surface transportation agencies require a workforce encom- passing a wider range of skills and abilities than in the past be- cause of changing and expanding agency missions and new technologies. The Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 and the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (1998) institutionalized many new mission requirements for surface transportation agencies. As a result, these agencies must address a much larger set of issues and responsibilities than in the past— including environmental, social, and community impacts; intelligent transportation system and information technologies; alternative fi- nancing mechanisms; more extensive community involvement; and metropolitan and corridor planning. Quality initiatives, a greater focus on customer service, and more openness in all stages of program and project planning have further expanded agency missions and the skills required to achieve them. In addition, SDOTs are increasing their focus on freight opera- tions. They are engaging in more partnering with nontransportation groups and local governments in project development and with the private sector in pursuit of alternative financing arrangements to fund capital projects. Finally, to meet their expanding needs in all areas with little change in the size of agency staff, many agencies increas- ingly are contracting out work to the private sector. For this purpose agencies need more program and contract managers. 55126_TRB_154_164 11/14/03 5:06 AM Page 137

138 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE Transportation agencies face an unprecedented level of re- tirements of senior-level staff members over the next decade. The aging of the nation’s population and workforce is well docu- mented. The baby boom generation will begin reaching age 65 in 2011, and many will retire. Between 2000 and 2015, the number of workers over age 55 throughout the nation is projected to increase by 69 percent. Against this backdrop, public-sector employers are facing levels of retirement for their professional and managerial staffs of up to 50 percent in the next 10 years, more than double the rate for all workers in the nation. The prospect of high levels of retirement—and the concomitant loss of experience and expertise—is exacerbated for those agencies previously faced with downsizing or hiring limitations in response to executive or legislative direction. In many such cases, agencies have limited numbers of experienced midlevel staff available to move up and fill those positions. Transportation agencies are significantly underinvesting in training their workforces. The underinvestment is especially obvious when agencies are compared with successful or benchmark organiza- tions. While 2 percent of employee salaries—the equivalent of about 40 hours of training per year—is considered a benchmark level for training expenditures, many transportation agencies invest much less. Of the $38 million in discretionary federal funds available to SDOTs for training and workforce development in 2001, only $9 million was used for this purpose. Nevertheless, the expenditures of state funds by some SDOTs exceed the federal funds that are available. Several have developed extensive training programs to meet their needs and focus employee attention on the opportunities available. Such programs, however, are the exception, and they are unlikely to address national is- sues or the training needs of other agencies. Congress has authorized transit agencies to spend up to 0.5 percent of federal operating and cap- ital funds for training, a total of about $33 million in fiscal year 2002. While the Federal Transit Administration (FTA) does not compile in- formation on what transit agencies spend on training, anecdotal evi- dence from FTA, the American Public Transportation Association, and committee members familiar with transit agency spending indicates that only a small portion of the amount available is spent on training. 55126_TRB_154_164 11/14/03 5:06 AM Page 138

Findings and Recommendat ions | 139 Just as important as an adequate training investment is careful monitoring of the quality of the training and its relevance to out- comes—including improvements in productivity and service delivery. Agencies with strong training programs are beginning to develop spe- cific performance measures. Also, despite the wider range of skills needed today by transportation agencies, few systematically develop alternative education and training pathways to meet current and fu- ture staff needs. Civil engineers have been the backbone of many agencies largely because civil engineering education prepares students for the bulk of work for which transportation agencies have tradi- tionally been responsible. Nevertheless, with the broadening of the transportation agency mission and increasing skill needs, undergrad- uate programs in business, planning, environmental science, public policy, and other areas—as well as selected community college pro- grams in business and technology-related fields—provide skills that can form the basis for transportation careers. Recruiting from these and possibly other sources, combined with highly focused training opportunities and incentives, could help agencies meet future work- force needs. Transportation agencies, like many other public agencies, find it increasingly difficult to recruit and retain professionals and technicians. Public agencies and private organizations compete for many of the same employees, including transportation pro- fessionals, environmental specialists, maintainers, technicians, and others. Although some employees favor the combination of compen- sation and work–life balance offered by public agencies, many job seekers base their employment choices on salary. Typically, the pub- lic sector pays less than the private sector, especially for entry-level jobs and positions requiring new skills. Moreover, young workers no longer face the stigma previously associated with moving from em- ployer to employer, and the portability of retirement programs facil- itates such movement. In addition to difficulties in attracting entry-level workers, transportation agencies report difficulty in re- taining young professionals with 5 or more years of experience. Many transportation agencies recognize the importance of aggres- sive retention programs and other elements that make a difference— 55126_TRB_154_164 11/14/03 5:06 AM Page 139

140 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE including a workplace that employees find motivating and enriching, training programs, work schedule flexibility, job reclassifications, and employee recognition activities. Public agencies, however, often are faced with external challenges, such as executive and legislative resis- tance, that limit such benefits and bonus programs. Few transportation agencies are positioning their human re- source function at a strategic level within the organization so that the workforce needs—recruiting, retention, training, and succession planning—of the agency’s strategic plan can be met. The most successful private- and public-sector organizations have raised human resource management to the strategic level in their or- ganizations because they recognize that human capital is a key to suc- cessful performance. Several transportation agencies have already changed their organizational structures to make the human resource function a strategic and equal partner with other key agency func- tions. Without this organizational change, agencies will continue to fill positions in a piecemeal fashion instead of identifying future work- force needs and addressing gaps in their ability to meet those needs through a strategic human resource program. RECOMMENDATIONS The following recommendations address actions to be taken by Con- gress, the U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT), and the na- tion’s surface transportation agencies. Congress determines surface transportation spending priorities, principally through surface trans- portation authorizing legislation. Congress and USDOT are respon- sible for the national transportation system, and USDOT relies heavily on the competency of thousands of state and local transporta- tion agencies and private-sector organizations for infrastructure pro- vision and service delivery. The committee believes that the ultimate success of its recommendations will depend on collaboration and partnerships involving the agencies, the federal government, the pri- vate sector, and academic institutions. Possible consequences of in- action follow each recommendation. 55126_TRB_154_164 11/14/03 5:06 AM Page 140

Findings and Recommendat ions | 141 Transportation agencies at all levels—federal, state, and local— in partnership with the industry, employee organizations, and unions, should establish training as a key priority. Training is es- sential in providing employees with the knowledge, skills, and abili- ties to perform their jobs and in supporting recruitment, retention, and succession management efforts. Moreover, because each agency determines how it will accomplish its mission, only the agency can ac- curately identify the knowledge, skills, and abilities it needs. In this way, agencies exert their individual leadership regarding workforce development issues. In addition, because they depend on the work of private contractors, transportation agencies must develop partner- ships among themselves and with the private sector and educational institutions to develop and execute their training programs. Consequences of inaction: Lack of adequate training can lead to in- effective agency operations, inefficient use of limited resources, and higher future costs to meet future needs. Surface transportation agencies should invest more in train- ing than is currently the case. Commitment to training is measured by the amount of investment in training and the effectiveness of the training. SDOTs currently are permitted to use 0.5 percent of the funds apportioned to the state under Section 104(b)(3) for the surface transportation program account for training and education, but many states do not use those funds for training. Data based on state surveys indicate that states provide about 10 hours of training per employee per year. This represents about 0.5 percent of salaries. Transit agency spending is estimated to be even less. Studies of successful organiza- tions indicate that 2 percent of salaries is an average benchmark; some organizations, including the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), invest even more. Such investment is needed by agencies to meet current and future workforce skill needs. Even more invest- ment may be needed if skill development has been neglected in the past. The administration’s proposal for reauthorization of surface transportation legislation calls for a large increase in the funds that transportation agencies can use for education and training. Several funding categories would be added to the current single eligible fund- 55126_TRB_154_164 11/14/03 5:06 AM Page 141

142 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE ing category. Agencies would have more funds available for education and training and would be able to spread such expenditures over more categories. The increased eligibility should result in an increase in overall spending for education and training and provide significant dividends. The commitment to training also requires effective use of the training investment—as measured by improved performance, lower costs, and other metrics—and the cooperation of the work- force. Consequences of inaction: Failure to invest in training leads to skill gaps and adversely affects the agencies’ ability to implement new technologies and innovations. More federal surface transportation program funds should be eligible for use by state and local transportation agencies for training and education activities. The federal government is de- pendent on state and local transportation agencies to deliver a na- tional transportation program. In surface transportation there is a long history of true federalism whereby state and local governments carry out a national program with guidance and funding from the fed- eral government. Congress currently permits SDOTs to use surface transportation program funds for training and education, but the competition for funds is great and many states do not use all of the funds available for training. Similarly, transit agencies can use a por- tion of their federal operating and capital assistance funds for train- ing. Another component of federal funding for transportation workforce training is the University Transportation Centers (UTC) program, which provides about $160 million to 33 universities for both education and research. FHWA’s National Highway Institute, with an annual budget of $6 million, and FTA’s National Transit In- stitute, with an annual budget of $4 million, help train the trans- portation workforce. The Local Technical Assistance Program (LTAP) makes $140,000 available to each state on a 1:1 matching basis for training and technical assistance. The committee supports the administration reauthorization proposal that calls for making more existing program funds eligible for training and education. By adding several existing programs to those programs whose funds are 55126_TRB_154_164 11/14/03 5:06 AM Page 142

Findings and Recommendat ions | 143 eligible for training and education expenditures, the administration’s proposal, if enacted, would yield a 200 percent increase in available discretionary funds. Each agency could then decide how much of these funds it wishes to invest in education and training across a num- ber of eligible programs. Many federal transportation programs—which amount to about $36 billion annually—encourage the use of new methods and ad- vanced technologies, including planning and environmental models, systems analysis, intelligent transportation systems technologies, community involvement, and alternative-fuel transit vehicles. These programs, however, do not support the training of agency staff re- sponsible for implementing, operating, and maintaining these new methods and technologies. This lack of support acts as a barrier to wider implementation of transportation system innovations that can improve safety and performance and reduce costs. It also hampers the federal stewardship role aimed at ensuring that state and local gov- ernments use national resources efficiently. The committee also supports reauthorization proposals to increase funding for existing federal programs that directly support education and training, including FHWA’s National Highway Institute, FTA’s National Transit Institute, LTAP, and the UTC program. Such in- creases should include incentives that encourage more state and agency spending on training—for example, tying the funding to desired benchmarks for training and training effectiveness or encouraging the use of state funds to supplement federal training funds. Incentives should be added to the UTC program to encourage the UTCs to partner with community colleges to provide specific education and training in areas for which the community colleges are best suited. Although some states provide substantial funding for transporta- tion workforce training, largely through their departments of trans- portation, many could do more. Linking existing federal and state education dollars more closely with state initiatives that address em- ployer needs for higher-skilled workers would be helpful. The use of existing state training funds for incumbent and public-sector trans- portation employees, especially if such action supports economic de- velopment programs, should be encouraged. 55126_TRB_154_164 11/14/03 5:06 AM Page 143

144 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE Increased spending for transportation workforce education and training should be accompanied by requirements that these programs identify and document clear outcomes from associated training ef- forts. Only in this way can the return on investment of such training be determined. The measurement of results such as increased pro- ductivity, reduced costs, or other appropriate metrics would help build support for training funds. Consequences of inaction: Failure to increase federal spending for training will limit the ability of all agencies to provide education and training needed to decrease project delivery times, improve service, reduce system operational problems and failures and their consequences, and use new technologies. USDOT, in partnership with transportation agencies, the private sector, educational institutions, unions, and employees, should undertake an initiative that focuses on innovation in human resource practices and addresses recruitment, training, retention, and succession management for transportation agency personnel. This initiative can provide leadership; a focal point for federal, state, and local agency efforts; and a basis for cre- ating partnerships among all parties. The federal government, be- cause of its national transportation responsibilities and the support available within the human resource organizations in USDOT and the modal agencies, is in an excellent position to lead this initiative as a follow-up to the USDOT-sponsored 2002 National Trans- portation Workforce Summit. USDOT can interact directly with other federal agencies that are moving forward on workforce devel- opment initiatives and acquire useful information from them. The transportation workforce initiative can build on current efforts, in- cluding the Transportation Workforce Development website being developed by FHWA in partnership with the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials to document exem- plary workforce practices at SDOTs. Another example of current work that would be useful to incorporate is that of the American Public Transportation Association’s Workforce Development Task Force. Broadening these efforts to include experiences from all types 55126_TRB_154_164 11/14/03 5:06 AM Page 144

Findings and Recommendat ions | 145 of transportation agencies and private-sector organizations would provide much-needed information and support. All stakeholders in the nation’s workforce—agencies, academia, trainers, unions, em- ployees, and the private sector—should participate in setting priori- ties and direction for the initiative. They should work together to compile information to examine the national implications of trans- portation workforce issues. Consequences of inaction: Without federal leadership in an initia- tive aimed at innovation in human resource practices, a signifi- cant opportunity to improve transportation workforce practice and share information and data will be lost. Transportation agencies should partner with universities, community colleges, training institutes, and the LTAP centers to meet agency training and workforce development needs. Uni- versities, community colleges, training institutes, and the LTAP cen- ters are organized to provide education and training and have the technical expertise to deliver the curricula, courses, and training ma- terials needed to meet agency skill needs. Many have already done so. In addition, transportation agencies could leverage their training in- vestment by partnering with the private sector in areas of common in- terest and need. They might have to address impediments—legal, procurement, institutional, and others—to such partnerships, but the growing experience in public–private partnering could help suggest new ways to overcome such barriers. Consequences of inaction: Failure to partner with established edu- cation and training providers prevents agencies from taking full advantage of key workforce development opportunities. Transportation agency leaders should make human resource management a key strategic function of their agencies. Top- performing private- and public-sector organizations have raised human resource management to the strategic level in their organiza- tions because they recognize that human capital is key to successful operation. In addition, this reflects President Bush’s 2002 Manage- ment Agenda for improving the management and performance of 55126_TRB_154_164 11/14/03 5:06 AM Page 145

146 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE the federal government. The leading initiative of this management agenda is strategic management of human capital. Moreover, in light of federal government dependence on state and local transportation agencies and their workforce to deliver trans- portation infrastructure and service, support for strategic management of human capital in these agencies from the federal government— through USDOT—is a key to successful federal program delivery. Several transportation agencies have already made organizational changes to address this need, and many others are considering doing so. As workforce development issues become a higher priority because of increasing skill needs, large numbers of retirements, and greater competition in recruiting new staff, agency leaders must elevate the human resource function and make it an equal partner with other strategic agency functions. Without this organizational change, agen- cies will continue to fill positions one at a time and be unable to meet future workforce needs through a strategic human resource program. Consequences of inaction: Failure to change agency human re- source focus from solely filling vacant positions to strategically addressing workforce needs will result in agencies falling short of accomplishing their missions, especially in light of today’s competitive job market. All these recommendations aim at improving the performance of transportation agencies and, ultimately, the nation’s transportation system. They reflect the goals and benchmarks of successful public- and private-sector organizations. They also reflect the primary goal— improving human capital—of President Bush’s 2002 Management Agenda. REFERENCE Abbreviation TRB Transportation Research Board TRB. 1985. Special Report 207: Transportation Professionals: Future Needs and Opportu- nities. National Research Council, Washington, D.C. 55126_TRB_154_164 11/14/03 5:06 AM Page 146

A P P E N D I X A Key Differences Between the Federal Highway Administration’s Program and Roles During the Interstate Era and the Early 21st Century 1 4 7 FHWA—Interstate Era Possible FHWA—2010 Focus on fostering self-managed state organizations. FHWA funding for “highways” and transportation planning activities. Transportation planning addressed highway system needs and transit needs in developing a program of individual projects. Implementation of local road programs done by state agency personnel or as pass-through of state organization. Focus was on capital program to construct Interstate and system planning to outline scope of program but implementation on a route-by-route, project-by-project basis. Focus on assisting states in maintaining and improving self-management abilities and sharing best practices with local units of government. Further merging of highway and transit funding with potential of full integration of funding in some areas. Transportation planning addresses inter- modal system capital, safety, and operational needs of integrated system and the associated environmental consequences. Increased outreach to and sharing with county/city/other organizations to assist in the implementation of federal-aid program off and on the state system as well as exten- sive use of consultant/contract forces to de- liver projects. Focus on management of transportation system (extending the life of the facilities and improving safety and operations) and in- tegrated system planning and implementa- tion. New systemwide solutions to age-old issues rather than project-by-project solu- tions. Focus on quality. 55126_TRB_165_168 11/14/03 5:07 AM Page 147

148 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE Focus on effective use of funds (cost-efficiency). Partner was a state highway agency that was typically strongly hierarchical and centrally managed. Transportation facilities are publicly owned and managed. Implementation of FHWA direction primarily by FHWA program/project approvals. Oversight based on compliance and quality control of projects and processes. FHWA organizational structure consists of state division offices; regional oversight offices; headquarters office; FHWA staff conducting research at Turner-Fairbank; Federal Lands Highways providing engineer- ing services and products with other funds and with predominantly government staff. FHWA seen as having the ability to solve state problems, with personnel being avail- able through chain-of-command organiza- tional structure. Offices had similar skill groups with level of expertise varying with organizational unit. Focus will be travelers and local economies affected by system rehabilitation and recon- struction. Implementation will require mate- rials that are quickly installed and have a longer functional life. More consideration given to user benefits. Partners include state DOT, other modal administrations, federal agencies, tribal gov- ernments, counties, municipalities, and re- source agencies. Increased involvement of special interest groups and public in every aspect of the program. Partner agencies and FHWA management styles are decentral- ized. Partners may include private compa- nies as DOT functions and programs are outsourced. Transportation facilities and access increas- ingly are provided through public and private partnerships, and some transpor- tation is provided by private industry exclusively. Implementation of FHWA initiatives more through marketing and educating and influencing partners. Oversight based on promotion and attain- ment of common strategic work objectives. Regulatory actions where partnerships fail. Transportation programs still implemented through FHWA offices in each state be- cause of success of partnerships and cus- tomer satisfaction, but with increased program interaction with the Federal Tran- sit Administration and other modes. Backup support in functional areas via shared re- sources among division offices; specialized technical assistance available through divi- sion, resource center, and headquarters staffs with those staffs leveraging consul- tant/industry expertise. Skill sets vary with organizational units in FHWA with divisions’ skills more closely matching state support needs and resource center/headquarters skill sets more closely aligned with goals, ini- tiatives, and new technologies. Federal Lands Highways is one source for the devel- opment of some of the agency’s technical expertise. FHWA—Interstate Era Possible FHWA—2010 55126_TRB_165_168 11/14/03 5:07 AM Page 148

Key Di f ferences : FHWA Roles in Interstate Era and 21st Century | 149 Direct federal activities were conducted by staff in two regional offices and Region 15. Activities were funded by other agency ap- propriations. FHWA involved in reviews and approvals throughout program. Environmental docu- ment just one stage of the process. Focus of FHWA program activities was obligating funds. Division and regional organizations were uniform (respectively) based on the as- sumption that all like offices needed similar complement of skills. Employees developed by assisting journey- men. Processes learned/applied. Technology transferred to states for implementation. Internal technical assistance requested through management hierarchy (division to region, region to headquarters). Federal Lands Highways Program is a funded program and a core business unit of the agency. Activities include admin- istration of the program, rural transpor- tation planning, innovation and technology transfer, and advocacy for tribes and fed- eral land transportation issues in addition to the continued delivery of engineering services to federal and state agencies. Help develop tribal self-sufficiency. FHWA remains involved in reviews and approvals throughout program. Activity in environmental programs is increased. Em- phasis is on a broader range of alternatives and balanced decision making. FHWA is recognized for its facilitation role between states/locals and resource agencies. Focus of FHWA program activities includes management and sharing of information, new ideas, and innovations (technology de- velopment and deployment). Reduced focus on obligation of funds as a daily routine. Division and resource center organizations will comprise core functions plus additional positions that reflect the unique needs of the partners those offices serve. Employees developed through special as- signments, communities of practice, men- toring, networking, and outside training. Processes continually assessed and im- proved. Demonstration and implementation of new technologies through Federal Lands Highways, resource centers, and divisions. Internal technical assistance provided by peer offices as well as resource centers, Federal-Aid, Federal Lands Highways, or headquarters, as determined by which office has most appropriate source of assistance and the ability to respond. FHWA—Interstate Era Possible FHWA—2010 55126_TRB_165_168 11/14/03 5:07 AM Page 149

150 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE Strategic planning consisted of beginning the journey and categorizing existing activities under the appropriate objectives, but there was no change in the approach to or man- agement of activities. The agency evolved from administering projects to reviewing processes but never took any work off its plate. FHWA staff conducted research at Turner- Fairbank facility. FHWA staff in direct federal activities performed all engineering services. SOURCE: Positioning FHWA for the Future, Task Force on Workforce Planning and Professional Devel- opment, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C., Dec. 2000. Strategic and performance plans are the drivers to generating what activities are pur- sued. Measurement and evaluation systems give managers the ability to identify and focus on results and use resources where there is the biggest payoff. Information sys- tems allow sharing of knowledge. FHWA staff oversee national and interna- tional integration of research efforts. Federal Lands Highways maintains internal technical ability to provide services as well as manage contract services to provide re- quested transportation services. FHWA—Interstate Era Possible FHWA—2010 55126_TRB_165_168 11/14/03 5:07 AM Page 150

A P P E N D I X B Recent Professional Capacity–Building Efforts 1 5 1 INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS The history of the intelligent transportation systems (ITS) profes- sional capacity–building program developed by the U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT) Joint Program Office ( JPO) illustrates how a well-funded response to key changing needs of state depart- ments of transportation can bring focus to the education and training needs created by new technologies and their implementation.1 The need to build professional capacity for ITS deployment was docu- mented in several studies undertaken by ITS America, USDOT, and the Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE) (Humphrey 1997a). In 1996 USDOT, recognizing the need to improve the skills and com- petencies of transportation professionals to enable the deployment of ITS technologies, prepared a 5-year Strategic Plan for ITS Profes- sional Capacity Building (ITS PCB) (Humphrey 1997b). Additional studies launched in 1997 established a baseline for ITS education and training needs. Annual funding for the program was $3.5 million. Implementation of the plan involved three key stakeholder groups: the public sector—federal, state, and local transportation agencies; the private sector—consultants and contractors working with ITS America, the American Association of State Highway and Transpor- tation Officials (AASHTO), and ITE; and the academic community, 1 ITS technologies represent the convergence of communication, computing, sensing, and con- trol technologies aimed at achieving operational improvements through freeway and incident management, traveler information, road weather information, and other user services. 55126_TRB_169_176 11/14/03 5:15 AM Page 151

152 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE primarily through the Council of University Transportation Centers. The purpose of the plan was to overcome the limited technical ex- pertise available in the transportation industry to plan, design, and de- ploy ITS projects (USDOT 1997a). Process to Design and Deliver the Program USDOT, through JPO, initiated a program of seminars and short courses to prepare participants for deploying ITS.2 The seminars and courses were delivered to Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) field and headquarters professionals, state and local transportation agencies, and private-sector consultants and contractors. The pro- gram was designed to deliver assistance in four related areas: training, education, technical assistance, and information dissemination. The ITS PCB Program emphasized the use of ITS technologies to more effectively operate and manage surface transportation systems. It encouraged professionals to think and act differently and to consider changes in their way of doing business. By December 2001 the ITS PCB Program had delivered 21 courses to about 15,000 people throughout the country. In addition, approximately 12,000 people have participated in an ITS/Commercial Vehicle Operations Awareness Briefing in conjunction with a traveling truck display. Many other presentations based on the course materials have been delivered for which participation was not recorded. For exam- ple, field personnel of FHWA and the Federal Transit Administra- tion (FTA) have presented and continue to present courses to state and local partners. Both ITS America and ITE have developed and are delivering professional courses to their members. Universities throughout the country are developing and presenting new under- graduate- and graduate-level programs to their students. Groups of states have also developed core programs to tailor training for state and local participants. 2 A national ITS PCB steering committee was formed to provide guidance, credibility, and peer review of the program. The committee comprised senior-level leaders from the public, private, and academic sectors. Initially formed by ITS America as an official advisory com- mittee to USDOT, the committee was restructured as the ITS America Standing Commit- tee on Education and Training. 55126_TRB_169_176 11/14/03 5:15 AM Page 152

Recent Profess iona l Capac i ty–Bui ld ing Ef forts | 153 The ITS PCB Program initially focused on the need to quickly train as many people as possible in the application of technologies to assist in operating and managing surface transportation systems more efficiently and safely. As those first initiatives were being implemented, some gaps were identified. To obtain a better un- derstanding of the fundamental knowledge, skills, and competen- cies required by professionals and technical personnel to apply ITS technologies, JPO staff interviewed nearly 200 professionals already involved in planning, designing, deploying, operating, and maintaining advanced technology–based programs (USDOT 1997b). This provided essential information about fundamental competency requirements. Analysis of the interview results helped identify the following 10 key competencies needed for successful ITS deployment: • Systems integration—linking systems through information tech- nologies, • Organizational/institutional changes—creating and managing change, • Technology options—analysis and training on technical devices and equipment, • Systems analysis and design application—using concepts of sys- tems engineering, • Managing contractors—designers and systems integrators, • Financing—identifying sources of funding for deployment, • Communications—writing specifications that clearly define func- tional requirements, • ITS planning and regional concepts of operations—integrated sys- tems’ operations, • Building coalitions with new stakeholders, and • Data analysis and management—developing and using critical in- formation. 55126_TRB_169_176 11/14/03 5:15 AM Page 153

154 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE The interviews also provided important information on staff com- petencies for a wide range of typical ITS projects that led to the fol- lowing general principles about attracting, recruiting, training, and retaining skilled professionals (USDOT 1999): 1. Attracting bright young people to transportation and educating the transportation professionals of the future should begin well in ad- vance of the college years. 2. Education and training must be tailored, targeted, and accessible. 3. Education must be a continuous, lifelong endeavor. 4. Education programs must be viewed in a comprehensive and holis- tic way and include the contributions of community and junior col- leges, technical schools, undergraduate and graduate programs, continuing education programs, and new delivery media. 5. In light of the rapid advances in transportation technology, pro- grams must be established for transportation faculty to assist them in keeping up to date. 6. The ability of colleges and universities to adapt to rapidly chang- ing needs in undergraduate transportation programs is a serious challenge for the academic community. 7. New delivery media—including distance learning programs—are being used and are in great demand by students seeking continu- ing education opportunities or degrees. These media must be part of future education and training initiatives. 8. The technical, institutional, and cultural changes under way re- quire the entire transportation profession to change the old ways of doing business. One of the ultimate objectives of the ITS PCB program was to mainstream ITS-related education and training. As a consequence, most ITS PCB courses have now been integrated into the programs carried out by the National Highway Institute (NHI) in FHWA and the National Transit Institute (NTI) at Rutgers University. In addi- tion, both ITS America and ITE have developed and delivered 55126_TRB_169_176 11/14/03 5:15 AM Page 154

Recent Profess iona l Capac i ty–Bui ld ing Ef forts | 155 courses for their members in coordination with the ITS PCB Pro- gram. Finally, many universities have incorporated material from the PCB course into their courses.3 The interviews with ITS practitioners also revealed that while they are eager for more training and education, they are hindered by a lack of time, travel flexibility, and funds. Distance learning—any form of training that is delivered without an instructor being physically pre- sent with the learning audience—offers opportunities for providing training and education while removing the barriers mentioned. Dis- tance learning can be achieved with live, interactive teletraining; CD- ROM programs; the Internet; and linear products such as texts and videotapes. JPO concluded that Web-based training (WBT) offers some signif- icant opportunities to reach a wide audience with the training they need, when and where they need it. Consequently, three WBT pilots were launched and evaluated. On the basis of the success of those pilots JPO established a partnership with the Consortium for ITS Training and Education, which offers a wide variety of Web-based ITS training. Information can be obtained from www.citeconsortium.org. Establish an ITS Training Curriculum There is a continuing need for ITS training for several reasons, pri- marily because new agency staff members need to be trained and pro- gram requirements are changing. The need for continuous training programs has been addressed by JPO with the development of guide- lines for a core training curriculum. The ITS curriculum guide is now available on the ITS PCB website. It provides guidance for individu- als on awareness training, core training, and advanced training. The core courses address the following topics: • Deployment of ITS in metropolitan areas and deployment of ITS rural toolbox, 3 The ITS PCB Web page provides one-stop shopping for training, education, technical assis- tance, and information dissemination. There are links for universities, associations, and many other sources of information, as well as contact persons to schedule courses and view course schedules. 55126_TRB_169_176 11/14/03 5:15 AM Page 155

156 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE • Introduction to systems engineering for transportation, • Telecommunications overview, • Use of the national architecture or the commercial vehicle infor- mation systems and networks architecture for deployment, • ITS standards, • ITS procurement, • ITS software acquisition, • Project management for advanced transportation systems, • ITS public–private partnerships, and • Management of incidents and roadway emergencies. Two course catalogs have been prepared and are available at the following websites: www.vtti.vt.edu for university courses and www. itsa.org for private-sector courses. In addition, NHI course descrip- tions are available at www.nhi.fhwa.dot.gov, NTI course descriptions are available at www.ntionline.com, and course descriptions related to the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration are available at www. fmcsa.dot.gov. OTHER RECENT TRANSPORTATION EDUCATION AND TRAINING INITIATIVES Two recent education and training initiatives have been launched by FHWA: the Metropolitan Capacity Building (MCB) Program and the Professional Excellence for Highway Safety Program. The MCB Pro- gram was launched in 2001 to help state and local transportation agency staffs meet the complex political, social, economic, and environmental demands of metropolitan areas. The program is designed for members of policy boards or executive committees, community leaders and pro- fessionals in metropolitan areas who participate in the metropolitan transportation planning process, and metropolitan planning organiza- tion (MPO) staff. The program’s aims are the following: 55126_TRB_169_176 11/14/03 5:15 AM Page 156

Recent Profess iona l Capac i ty–Bui ld ing Ef forts | 157 • Gather and disseminate examples of effective metropolitan trans- portation planning practices from across the nation. • Act as a clearinghouse for information and contacts within the metropolitan transportation planning community. • Provide background information for MPO board members to en- hance their understanding of the metropolitan transportation plan- ning process, their role within the process, and its relationship to community and societal goals. • Provide information, training, and technical assistance to MPOs (including new MPOs and those designated as nonattainment for air quality). The program incorporates information dissemination, technical assistance, training, education, outreach, and customer feedback. It is a collaborative effort of FTA, FHWA, AASHTO, the American Pub- lic Transportation Association, and the Association of Metropolitan Planning Organizations. FHWA’s Safety Core Business Unit launched the Professional Ex- cellence for Highway Safety Program to provide continuing education for safety professionals based on an assessment of their needs. The ul- timate aim is to reduce highway-related crashes, injuries, and fatalities. The program will coordinate interagency partnerships within USDOT to integrate the needs of all safety program stakeholders, providers, and customers and raise safety awareness of legislators, the media, and other education providers, with emphasis on intersection safety, speeding, run-off-the-road crashes, and pedestrian and bicyclist safety. The program will encompass infrastructure enhancements, operations enhancements, equipment, and onboard vehicle technologies. FHWA has begun an inventory of information on safety training courses, software, databases, and curriculum available for highway safety training to assist safety practitioners. It is also establishing a stakeholders’ database including information on customer category, region, professional level, organization, and so forth. It is planning a 1-day national conference for safety engineers, operators, planners, industry leaders, elected officials, educators, and researchers. 55126_TRB_169_176 11/14/03 5:15 AM Page 157

158 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE REFERENCES Abbreviation USDOT U.S. Department of Transportation Humphrey, T. F. 1997a. ITS Professional Capacity Building Program. Public Roads, Sept.–Oct., pp. 36–38. Humphrey, T. F. 1997b. ITS Deployment: The Critical Need for a Trained Work Force. ITS Quarterly, Winter, pp. 45–54. USDOT. 1997a. ITS Training and Education Needs Assessment Baseline: A Review and Synthesis of Thirteen Prior Studies, Field Interviews, and a Summary Assessment of ITS Needs. Dec. USDOT. 1997b. Planning and Deploying ITS: Six White Papers Describing Current and Planned Programs of Five Transportation Associations and Four University Research Centers of Excellence. Dec. USDOT. 1999. Building Professional Capacity in ITS: Documentation and Analysis of Training and Education Needs in Support of ITS Deployment. April. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES Committee on Science of the National Science and Technology Council’s Inter- agency Working Group. 2000. Ensuring a Strong U.S. Scientific, Technical, and Engineering Workforce in the 21st Century. March. Humphrey, T. F. 2000. Searching for Core Competencies: Continuous Learning Is Key to ITS Deployment. ITS Quarterly, Winter, pp. 49–58. Rand Corporation. 2000. Strategic and Performance Planning for the Office of the Chan- cellor for Education and Professional Development in the Department of Defense. USDOT. 1997. Framework and Overview for Establishing a Professional Capacity Build- ing Program for Transportation Management and Traveler Information Services in Support of ITS Deployment. Sept. 30. 55126_TRB_169_176 11/14/03 5:15 AM Page 158

A P P E N D I X C University Transportation Research Centers 1 5 9 Part 1: University Transportation Centers. These centerswere designated in the Transportation Equity Act for the21st Century (TEA-21) or competed as regional centers to receive TEA-21 funding. Federal funding is matched on a 50/50 basis and is subject to a variable obligation limitation ceiling, which reduced the amounts shown by approximately 12 percent in FY 2000. Group A: Ten regional centers competitively selected; each receives $1 million per year from 1998 to 2003. Location Theme Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Region 1) City College of New York (Region 2) Pennsylvania State University (Region 3) University of Tennessee (Region 4) University of Wisconsin–Madison (Region 5) Texas A&M University (Region 6) Iowa State University (Region 7) Strategic management of transportation systems Regional mobility and accessibility investment strategies Advanced technologies in transportation operations and management Transportation safety Transportation investment and operations Sustainable transportation for mobility and eco- nomic strength Transportation management systems and oper- ations (from 1988 to 1995, theme was intelli- gent transportation systems and geographic information systems; from 1995 to 1999, center operated without federal funding) 55126_TRB_177_181 11/14/03 5:17 AM Page 159

160 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE Location Theme Assumption College (Massachusetts) Purdue University Rutgers University South Carolina State University University of Central Florida University of Denver and Mississippi State University University of Southern California and California State University, Long Beach North Dakota State University (Region 8) University of California–Berkeley (Region 9) University of Washington (Region 10) Rural and nonmetropolitan transportation Improving accessibility for all Management and planning of intermodal operations Location Theme Group B: Seven congressionally designated centers; each re- ceives $300,000 per year in 1998 and 1999 and $500,000 in 2000 and 2001; limited competition with Group C centers for 5th and 6th years. Transportation and environmental education for the 21st century Safe, quiet, and durable highways Advanced infrastructure and transportation Transportation intermodalism Advanced transportation simulation Intermodal transportation—planning, design, and assessment Metropolitan transportation research Location Theme Morgan State University New Jersey Institute of Technology North Carolina A&T State University North Carolina State University Transportation safety and efficiency through management, research, and development Productivity improvements through transportation Urban transit Transportation and the environment Group C: Nine congressionally designated centers; each receives $750,000 per year between 1998 and 2001; limited competition with Group B centers for 5th and 6th years. 55126_TRB_177_181 11/14/03 5:17 AM Page 160

Univers i ty Transportat ion Research Centers | 161 San Jose State University University of Alabama University of Arkansas University of Idaho University of South Florida Surface transportation policy studies Management and safety of transportation systems Rural transportation Advanced transportation technology Urban transportation Program Location/Federal Funds Term Seismic Research Global Climate Research Asphalt Pavement Research University of California at San Diego ($4 million) University of Alabama at Huntsville ($1 million) Auburn University ($0.5 million) Location Theme Group D: Six congressionally designated centers; each receives $2 million per year from 1998 to 2003. Location Theme George Mason University (with University of Virginia and Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University) Marshall University Montana State University, Bozeman Northwestern University University of Minnesota University of Rhode Island Intelligent transportation systems Economic growth and productivity in rural Appalachia through transportation Rural transportation Infrastructure technology Intelligent transportation systems Advanced transportation infrastructure and systems Part 2: Programs designated in TEA-21 and funded from FHWA Surface Transportation Research Program funds. Fund- ing is on an 80/20, federal/other matching basis; federal funds are sub- ject to an obligation limitation ceiling (approximately 12 percent reduction in FY 2000). 1999–2002 1999–2003 1999–2000 55126_TRB_177_181 11/14/03 5:17 AM Page 161

162 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE Seismic Research Program Fundamental Properties of Asphalt and Modified Asphalt Intelligent Infrastructure Research Recycled Materials Research Center Intermodal Transportation Simulation System and National Center for Aviation and Transportation Other designated programs for undesignated recipients National Center for Earthquake Engineering at State University of New York–Buffalo ($12 million) Western Research Institute at the University of Wyoming ($16 million) Drexel University ($10 million) University of New Hampshire ($9 million per year) Dowling College and Auburn Univer- sity ($2 million to Dowling with a min- imum of $0.5 million to Auburn in FY 2000 only) $94 million 1998–2003 1998–2003 1999–2003 1998–2003 FY 2000 1998–2003 Program Location/Federal Funds Term Part 3: Programs designated in TEA-21 and funded from FHWA Technology Deployment Initiatives and Partnerships Program. Funding is on an 80/20 federal/other matching basis; fed- eral funds are subject to an obligation limitation ceiling (approxi- mately 12 percent reduction in FY 2000). Program Location/Federal Funds Term Advanced Vehicle Research Geothermal Heat Pump Smart Bridge Research Intelligent Stiffener for Bridge Stress Reduction Advanced Trauma Care Center for Transportation Injury Research Head and Spinal Cord Injury Research Motor Vehicle Safety Warning System Intelligent Transportation Infrastructure University of Alabama at Tuscaloosa ($2 million) Oklahoma State University ($3.5 million) University of Oklahoma ($2.5 million) University of Alabama at Birmingham ($3.75 million) Calspan of Buffalo Research Center ($12 million) Louisiana State University ($1 million) and George Washington University ($1.5 million) Georgia Tech Research Center ($2.1 million) State of Pennsylvania ($10.2 million) 1999–2003 1999–2002 1999–2001 1999–2003 1998–2003 1999–2003 1998–2000 1998–2003 55126_TRB_177_181 11/14/03 5:17 AM Page 162

Univers i ty Transportat ion Research Centers | 163 Program Location Funding Geosynthetic Materials Polymer Binders Advanced Engineering/ Wood Composites Center for Excellence for Structures and Pavements Native Vegetation Center National Environmental Research Center Montana State University South Carolina State University and Clemson University San Diego State University and the University of Maine West Virginia University University of Northern Iowa University of New Mexico $200,000 $625,000 $600,000 $1,000,000 $150,000 $25,000 Advanced Traffic Monitoring and Response Center Transportation Economics and Land Use Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission ($10 million) New Jersey Institute of Technology ($6 million) 1998–2003 1998–2003 Program Location/Federal Funds Term Part 4: Designated programs (recipients) in the FY 2000 highway appropriations. Funding was at 50 percent of conference earmark. 55126_TRB_177_181 11/14/03 5:17 AM Page 163

A P P E N D I X D Core Competency Statements for Selected State Departments of Transportation 1 6 4 MINNESOTA DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION’S INDIVIDUAL CORE COMPETENCIES (Asterisked items apply to managers and supervisors) Leadership • Build constructive relationships. • Take calculated risks. • Act decisively in a crisis. • Communicate clearly and effectively. • Take actions to improve practices and procedures. • Sought out by others for counsel and advice. Learning/strategic systems thinking • Take responsibility for continued improvement and learning. • Acquire new skills and competencies that benefit the agency. • Appreciate mission of individual work units and how units are part of the whole operation. • Consider all transportation forms when planning and problem solving.* 55126_TRB_182_186 11/14/03 5:41 AM Page 164

Core Competency Statements | 165 • Seek information from multiple sources.* • Share ideas and information with others.* Quality management • Identify and respond to customer needs. • Organize activities for efficient work flow. • Recommend improvements to processes and procedures. • Use assessment measures and be able to explain how they benefit customers. • Recognize when “good enough” is good enough and when it is not. Organizational knowledge • Know how the agency is organized. • Know major products and services. • Work through formal channels and informal networks. • Understand and act in accordance with policies, practices, and procedures. • Understand that the department operates in a political environment. • Support organizational changes. People management • Responsible for personal behavior. • Participate in performance review discussions. • Work effectively with culturally diverse workforce. • Treat others with dignity and respect. • Possess conflict management skills. • Regularly review performance with employees.* 55126_TRB_182_186 11/14/03 5:41 AM Page 165

166 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE • Delegate both routine and important tasks and decisions.* • Support achievement of individual career goals. • Seek development opportunities for employees.* • Hold employees accountable and take necessary corrective action.* Technical knowledge • Possess necessary job skills and knowledge. • Provide technical assistance as needed. • Understand relevance of historical perspectives. • Acquire knowledge of emerging technologies. • Be aware of financial and budget information. FLORIDA DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION LEADERSHIP CORE COMPETENCIES • Leading people encompasses team building, cultural awareness, integrity/honesty, conflict management. • Leading change requires the ability to develop and implement an or- ganizational vision and to incorporate that vision into the state’s transportation goals and the department’s core values. Inherent in this ability is balancing change with stability and continuity while striving to improve customer service within the basic government framework. It also involves the ability to foster a work environment that encourages creative thinking and the ability to maintain focus, intensity, and persistence, even under adversity and in the face of specific as well as institutional resistance to change. • Communicating and building coalitions involves the ability to explain and advocate facts and ideas in a convincing manner while commu- nicating and negotiating with individuals and groups. It also includes the ability to develop a professional network with other organiza- 55126_TRB_182_186 11/14/03 5:41 AM Page 166

Core Competency Statements | 167 tions and individuals to assist in solving issues and identifying the in- ternal and external forces that affect the work of the organization. • Business judgment involves applying principles of management gen- erally used in the private sector to manage a public-sector opera- tion. The public-sector leader must be able to manage and apply financial, human resource, and technology management to ac- complish the organization’s mission. The bottom line of this core qualification is effective and efficient decision making. • Results driven stresses accountability and continuous improvement. It includes the ability to make timely and effective decisions and produce results through strategic planning and the implementation and evaluation of programs and policies. WISCONSIN DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION CORE COMPETENCIES Leadership in the protection of public interests and stewardship of public resources • Anticipate changing and emerging transportation needs. • Implement sound public policies through programs and projects. • Provide safe mobility with minimum waste, expense, and unneces- sary effort. Management of transportation project delivery: Apply project management skills; engineering and environmental expertise; tech- nology; knowledge of local and regional transportation system con- ditions, needs, and plans; and knowledge of public transportation policies to transportation projects. Management of transportation system performance • Set and fulfill priorities for overall maintenance and operation requirements. 55126_TRB_182_186 11/14/03 5:41 AM Page 167

168 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE • Respond to concerns, complaints, and emergencies. • Incorporate maintenance and operation information into im- provement programs and projects. Public and local interactions • Ensure communication with other agencies, local governments, citizens, and industries. • Coordinate local and regional needs with transportation system planning, programming, development, and project implementa- tion. Information management • Maintain and access reliable information on system plans, pro- grams, and operation requirements. • Integrate relevant local and regional information across all phases of project planning and implementation. 55126_TRB_182_186 11/14/03 5:41 AM Page 168

A P P E N D I X E Contracting Out and Core Competencies 1 6 9 Since the earliest days of the Continental Congress, governmenthas sought alternative organizational and procedural mecha-nisms for important support functions and policy instruments that are inherently commercial in nature. In the 1990s governments around the world initiated efforts to reduce their size and costs. Downsizing was accomplished but did not change the need for pro- gram delivery. Sometimes the political pressures to get a program out of a govern- ment agency led to reliance on contractors. Sometimes having to pro- duce a mandated service without an adequate in-house staff led government managers to hire contractors. Sometimes government officials have used contractors to escape ceilings (which did not apply to non-government workers) on the number of government employ- ees. Sometimes contractors have received government work because studies have shown they could do the work better and cheaper, al- though contracting has spread far more quickly than such studies have been done. (Kettl 1996, 46) State governments are exploring alternatives—especially contract- ing out—to the usual in-house provision of services. These alternatives often offer a chance to adopt modern business practices; streamline the organization; and rely on market mechanisms to improve quality, re- duce costs, and become more responsive to constituencies. A major theme for change in government agencies is customer service, but crit- ics have noted that government has citizens, not customers, and that 55126_TRB_187_190 11/14/03 5:45 AM Page 169

170 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE government cannot be run like a private company.1 Moreover, according to Camm and Moore (1997), these alternatives also involve risks such as the following: • A catastrophic failure to perform (which can involve not only qual- ity, performance, and cost issues but also the need to process the contract termination and to renegotiate with another contractor); • Loss of real-time control, which is problematic under an uncertain operating environment; • High transaction costs, especially those that are so subtle as to make it difficult to specify clearly what is needed; • Inadequate investment in customized assets (providers will not make such investments unless they can get a positive return on them); and • Loss of needed skills; an agency must provide aggressive oversight of the outsourcing activity and make certain that the activity is fully integrated with the agency’s planning, operation, and information systems. It may be cost-effective to keep a portion of an activity in- house to train managers who will oversee contract sources. Much of government’s current work, and even more of it in the fu- ture, is likely to be accomplished through a vast network of partner- ships among government workers; private companies; nonprofit corporations; and federal, state, and local governments. Nevertheless, government is ultimately accountable to the public for its programs and for public expenditures. Government’s work requires a strong 1 Mintzberg (1996) notes that when efforts to privatize government activities are considered, it is important to remember that the underlying belief that the country’s interest is best served if government becomes more like business and U.S. citizens more like customers leaves out considerable depth in the relationship between the government and the citizens. Distinctions are made between inherently governmental activities and inherently commercial activities but do not cover a wide variety of legal issues involving Constitutional concerns such as First Amendment rights, procedural and substantive due process, sovereign immunity, and the sep- aration of powers. The Supreme Court has argued that government cannot evade its obliga- tions by simply resorting to the corporate form. This is important to transportation agencies that must seek and trade off efficiency versus equity and address service quality and fairness as well as distributional and financial concerns. 55126_TRB_187_190 11/14/03 5:45 AM Page 170

Contract ing Out and Core Competencies | 171 and competent technical core to ensure that government is a smart buyer of goods and services (Kettl 1993). Unfortunately, as govern- ment increasingly relies on contracting out and other forms of service delivery, it risks losing its in-house technical expertise. The erosion of technical capacity matters in several ways. First, government is pre- sumed capable of carrying out the programs it creates. If it cannot as- sess the work of others, difficulties can quickly arise. Second, the bureaucracy is presumed capable of exercising the discretion that elected officials delegate to it. Such discretion requires technical ex- pertise as well as management capabilities. Third, the government’s legitimacy in day-to-day operations often hinges on the presumption that government agencies are expert and use that expertise to guide their actions. Inevitably, contractors will encounter problems and is- sues that government managers will have to address. They need tech- nical expertise to make intelligent judgments on the basis of available information. Government reliance on contractors changes how things get done and the relationships between all the participants involved in govern- ment service delivery. For example, reliance on contractors changes the relationship between government program managers and pro- gram outputs; instead of using their technical expertise to address program and project issues, program managers can find themselves dealing with the procedural features of contract monitoring and com- pliance. Thus, government workers can be doing jobs for which they were not trained, while their expertise goes unused. Contracting also changes the relationship between political appointees and the pro- grams they are responsible for. The contracting system adds a link in the chain from policy making to policy execution. Program managers can be frustrated by their lack of leverage over contractors’ behavior and over the programs they are charged with managing. A link is also added to the programmatic connection between elected officials and citizens. Elected officials often lack an understanding of how the mar- ket model actually works and the complex partnerships the model produces. Finally, because contracting changes the fundamental rela- tionship between citizens and government, it can complicate efforts to increase citizen involvement in the delivery of services. 55126_TRB_187_190 11/14/03 5:45 AM Page 171

172 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE As government reliance on contracting out increases, the impor- tance of the government being a smart buyer—that is, knowing what it wants and how to get it—increases. If the government is not a smart buyer, the critical responsibility for the performance of public pro- grams passes to its contractors. But effective contract management re- quires some level of government expertise. So while policy makers continue to puzzle over where the line should be drawn between func- tions that are inherently governmental and those that can legitimately be contracted out, government must determine what level of techni- cal expertise it needs to remain a smart buyer.2 REFERENCES Camm, F. S., and N. Y. Moore. 1997. Strategic Sourcing: A Key to the Revolution in Business Affairs. Report DB-208-AF. Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, Calif. Kettl, D. 1993. Sharing Power: Public Governance and Private Markets. The Brookings Institution, Washington, D.C. Kettl, D. 1996. Civil Service Reform: Building a Government That Works. The Brook- ings Institution, Washington, D.C. Mintzberg, H. (ed.). 1996. The Strategy Process: Concepts, Contexts, and Cases. Prentice- Hall International, London. 2 The determination of what are inherently governmental versus commercial activities is largely a policy determination rather than a legal one. 55126_TRB_187_190 11/14/03 5:45 AM Page 172

A P P E N D I X F Background on State-Funded Training Programs 1 7 3 Forty-eight states operate state-funded programs to assist firmsin providing employee training. Such programs are linked to theeconomic development mission of state government. The as- sumption is that public dollars can help create an infrastructure to coordinate public- and private-sector training resources, improve workers’ basic and occupational skills, prevent worker dislocation, contribute to individuals’ economic self-sufficiency and security, and develop new approaches to learning. Public investments are best used to leverage private investments and to build the infrastructure that can address the needs of multiple firms in a collaborative environment. In 1998 state spending on employer-focused job-training programs to- taled about $575 million and exceeded $600 million in 2000. These programs are an important tool to encourage job retention and growth among existing firms. Potential spillover effects are important to consider as states decide which projects to fund and how to lever- age broader results from their job-training investments. Many states are developing funding strategies other than state general fund appropriations. Ten states now fund their programs through an assessment on all employers based on the unemployment insurance fund tax. Most states restrict eligibility for training funds to firms producing goods and services that may be imported to or ex- ported from the state. Most states also tend to direct the funds to large firms rather than small firms. Thirty of the 47 states responding to the study survey indicated that they are making multiform training projects a “high priority.” Multiform projects have several benefits: they enable states to achieve economies of scale, address the training 55126_TRB_191_192 11/14/03 5:51 AM Page 173

174 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE needs of smaller employers through cooperative projects, and in- crease employer involvement in the design and management of train- ing programs. Even states that collect their training funds through an assessment on all employers restrict eligibility to firms that are in the “traded sec- tor” of the economy. Few states are working to apply employer- focused training to the substantial federal and state resources that are used to subsidize traditional, campus-based higher education. There is considerable potential to be realized in developing strategies that link the billions of federal and state higher education dollars more closely with state initiatives to address employer needs for higher- skilled workers. Source: Regional Technology Strategies, Inc. A Comprehensive Look at State-Funded, Employer- Focused Job Training Programs. Prepared for the National Governors Association, 1999. 55126_TRB_191_192 11/14/03 5:51 AM Page 174

A P P E N D I X G Attracting People to Transportation Careers 1 7 5 A lthough the committee focused primarily on the issues thatsurface transportation agencies face in recruiting, training,and retaining the transportation workforce, it recognizes the importance of ensuring that a sufficient number of young peo- ple are interested in pursuing the training and education needed to join the transportation workforce. An earlier study examined how public agencies, private organizations, and professional associa- tions can promote awareness of and interest in a professional ac- tivity and help guide and retain qualified students in the educational path needed to participate in the profession (Mason et al. 1992). The study focused on civil engineering careers and presented a model for awareness, retention, and curriculum that is useful today for developing programs to attract people to transportation careers (see Figure G-1). Candidate action plans aimed at the en- tire range of grade levels, from kindergarten through college, were also prepared. Summary reports from both the Minnesota Transportation Work- force Summit in 2000 and the National Transportation Workforce Summit in 2002 noted the need to raise awareness about transporta- tion careers (Henderson Associates 2000; FHWA 2002). Many orga- nizations in the transportation industry, public and private, support youth-oriented outreach activities. Many transportation industry employees—representing their employers or professional, fraternal, and union associations and societies—participate in these activities by preparing instructional materials for schools, participating in student field trips, making presentations before school classes and youth 55126_TRB_193_198 11/14/03 5:54 AM Page 175

176 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE groups, and so forth. These transportation-oriented efforts reflect even broader engineering involvement in outreach and awareness programs in the field of engineering (NAE 2002). Two recent reports of committees of the National Academy of Engineering (NAE) address awareness of engineering and technol- ogy and how both K-12 education and public understanding of engi- neering and technology can be improved (Pearson and Young 2002; NAE 2002). The findings of these studies apply to attracting young people to transportation careers as well as attracting people to engi- neering careers and improving technology literacy. The committee believes that as the transportation industry begins to look more closely at specific steps it can take to attract young people to trans- portation careers, it can learn and participate through partnerships in the broader efforts described and proposed in these two studies. The NAE Committee on Public Awareness of Engineering found evidence of many grassroots outreach and awareness programs aimed at young people in grades K-12. Organizations use a variety of tools in their programs, including websites, public service announcements, speakers bureaus, and informal education programs. Education pro- grams are skewed toward high school students and generally involve demonstrations, field trips, competitions, and mentor programs. Nevertheless, despite considerable support and evidence of enthusi- 3-410-11-127-8-9 Introduction to Design Project Design Technology Applications Math & Science Emphasis Curriculum Clustering Professional Mentors Field Trips Role Models Peer Mentors Retention Intro to Civil Eng. Disciplines Summer/Co-Op Employment The Environment The Engineer The Civil Engineer Awareness 1-2K-6 College (year of study) Pre-College (grade level) Developmental Stages Market Strategies FIGURE G-1 Primary components of the awareness, retention, and curriculum model. (Source: Mason et al. 1992, 16.) 55126_TRB_193_198 11/14/03 5:54 AM Page 176

Attract ing People to Transportat ion Careers | 177 asm for these programs, very few attempts have been made to deter- mine whether or how effectively such programs are changing atti- tudes or behaviors, especially in terms of improving mathematics and science literacy, encouraging engineering enrollments, and under- standing more about engineering and its value.1 This makes it diffi- cult to identify best practices. There is evidence that outreach to students must begin at the K-3 level if it is to be successful. There is some evidence suggesting that children self-select away from certain subjects and careers as early as the fourth or fifth grade. Sometimes this is based on difficulties with certain subjects (for example, mathematics and science) or percep- tions about the careers themselves. Despite the range and number of awareness programs, engineer- ing enrollments continue to decline, and many engineering schools are responding by becoming more engaged in looking for solu- tions.2 NAE (2002) highlighted three examples of engineering schools forming partnerships with state and local institutions to ex- pand their reach and strengthen their offerings. One engineering school, with significant support from its state business community, has created a successful summer camp for mathematics students. A second engineering school has formed an alliance with the state de- partment of education and other institutions to strengthen the K-12 education curriculum and to train current teachers to teach to those standards. A third engineering school is partnering with eight other universities and the public school system in its metropolitan region to bring hundreds of students, many of them minority, to campuses where college faculty help coach the students in mathe- matics, science, and computer skills they will need to enroll and suc- ceed in college. 1 This leads to an “awareness paradox”: although awareness programs are believed to be needed, measuring their effectiveness is very difficult. 2 Wulf and Fisher (2002, 37) suggest that attracting bright young people to engineering schools could be helped by a mentoring program in which every engineer in the country mentors (at least) four students with an interest in engineering and guides them through their under- graduate years. The same suggestion could be made for transportation careers. 55126_TRB_193_198 11/14/03 5:54 AM Page 177

178 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE The number of ongoing outreach programs is itself encouraging and something to build upon. Many current outreach activities have the potential to increase awareness of and attract young peo- ple to careers in transportation. Without such programs the like- lihood that young people will be attracted to such careers is further reduced. Moreover, in light of the multitude of career paths that people take—for example, making midcareer changes or decid- ing to work again after retirement—outreach programs aimed at these potential workers might help build awareness of transporta- tion career opportunities in a group previously neglected by such programs. The following are examples of how engineering associations are reaching out to young people. • The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has developed the World in Motion series for middle schools. The series consists of 8-week units that focus on problem-solving and design activities. The SAE Foundation supplies materials free of charge to any school that agrees to become partners with a local engineer or company that will provide volunteer support to the classroom. • Three years ago the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engi- neers (IEEE) launched a website, PEERS (Pre-College Engineer/ Education Resource Site) (www.ieee.org/eab/precollege/peers/ index.htm) to facilitate communication and collaboration be- tween practicing engineers and K-12 teachers. IEEE also hosts a comprehensive online resource related to the history of electrical technologies. • The annual National Engineers Week includes the “DiscoverE K-12” program, in which 40,000 engineers volunteer in classrooms across the country. They interact with more than 5 million stu- dents and teachers with support from more than 60 corporations and 75 government, education, and engineering organizations. • A number of engineering associations, businesses, and other or- ganizations sponsor contests and award programs intended to in- 55126_TRB_193_198 11/14/03 5:54 AM Page 178

Attract ing People to Transportat ion Careers | 179 terest students in science, engineering, and technology. The best-known contest is the Intel International Science and Engi- neering Fair in which several million students compete in local, state, and regional fairs around the world. The FIRST Robotics Competition challenges teams of high school students and engi- neers to design and build a robot that can defeat another robot in some kind of game. The competition attracts more than 500 teams each year. In 1998, FIRST initiated a contest for mid- dle school children using LEGO building blocks, sensors, mo- tors, and gears. • Real-world problem-solving is the focus of the TEAMS (Tests of Engineering Aptitude, Mathematics, and Science) Contest, spon- sored by the Junior Engineering Technical Society ( JETS). The National Engineering Design Challenge, sponsored by JETS and several other organizations, attracts about 80 teams from around the country and is held in conjunction with National Engineers Week. From 1997 to 2000 the U.S. Department of Transportation sup- ported a career-oriented outreach program called the Garrett A. Morgan Transportation and Technology Futures Program. It con- sisted of four components. The first was a mathematics, science, and technology literacy program for K-12 students aimed at con- necting school mathematics and science skills with a broad range of attainable transportation career possibilities. The second was a pro- gram that sought greater engagement of community colleges in training transportation employees and retraining people who wish make a career change and work in the transportation sector. Third, a transportation degree program initiative sought to increase the development of and enrollment in multidisciplinary transportation degree programs. Finally, the Morgan program sought to ensure the availability and accessibility of lifelong learning opportunities for transportation agency employees. Funding for the program stopped after 2000. 55126_TRB_193_198 11/14/03 5:54 AM Page 179

180 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE REFERENCES Abbreviations FHWA Federal Highway Administration NAE National Academy of Engineering FHWA. 2002. National Transportation Workforce Summit: Summary of Proceedings. U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C., May. Henderson Associates. 2000. Minnesota Summit on Civil Engineering Workforce Development. Final Report 2000-23. Nov. Mason, J. M., Jr., J. R. Tarris, E. Zaki, and M. S. Bronzini. 1992. NCHRP Report 347: Civil Engineering Careers: Awareness, Retention, and Curriculum. TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C. NAE. 2002. Raising Public Awareness of Engineering. National Research Council, Washington, D.C. Pearson, G., and A. T. Young (eds.). 2002. Technically Speaking: Why All Americans Need to Know More About Technology. National Academy of Engineering, Wash- ington, D.C. Wulf, W. A., and G. M. C. Fisher. 2002. A Makeover for Engineering Education. Issues in Science and Engineering, Spring. 55126_TRB_193_198 11/14/03 5:54 AM Page 180

Study Committee Biographical Information 1 8 1 David L. Winstead, Chair, is a member of the law firm of Holland & Knight, LLP, which has offices in Maryland and the District of Columbia. His practice includes zoning, land use, transportation pol- icy, and municipal affairs. From 1995 to 1999, Mr. Winstead served as the Secretary of the Maryland Department of Transportation. He was elected President of the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials in 1998. As head of the Maryland DOT, he also chaired the Maryland Port Commission, the Maryland Aviation Commission (which has responsibility for Baltimore– Washington International Airport), and the Maryland Transporta- tion Authority. From 1991 to 1995, Mr. Winstead served in a pro bono capacity as chair of the Maryland Transportation Commission. From 1975 to 1979, he was a special assistant to Senator Charles Mathias. From 1981 to 1987 he was the Executive Director of the Washington–Baltimore Regional Association. Mr. Winstead is ac- tive in numerous professional and civic organizations, including the Urban Land Institute, the Economic Club of Washington, and the National Aquarium. He is the Honorary Chair for National Trans- portation Week—2002. He currently chairs the Project Panel on Development of Technical Methods for Environmental Justice Analyses for the National Cooperative Highway Research Program. Mr. Winstead has a B.A. in economics from Denison University, an M.B.A. from Columbia University, and a J.D. from Columbus School of Law at Catholic University. Anthony L. (Tony) Alarid recently retired from the New Mexico State Highway and Transportation Department, where he was Human Resources Director. He was responsible for administration and personnel operations, classification compensation, payroll and 55126_TRB_199_204 11/14/03 5:56 AM Page 181

182 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE benefits, labor relations, and training for the department’s employ- ees. He was formerly personnel director for the City of Santa Fe and for the Administrative Office of the Supreme Court of New Mexico. Mr. Alarid has a bachelor’s degree in sociology from Southern Col- orado State University. He is a member and past chapter president of the Society for Human Resources. David S. Ferguson has been the Chief of Personnel Resources for the Florida Department of Transportation since January 1973. He is responsible for developing and directing the personnel and training program for the department’s 9,000 employees. In 1994 he managed the development and implementation of a new personnel system for the department. Changes included a consolidation of job classes from more than 1,800 to fewer than 100; pay broadbanding; a knowledge, skills, and abilities selection system; a computerized system for rank- ing employees for superior proficiency pay increases; and a bonus payment program. He is currently developing an electronic perfor- mance and evaluation system and bonus payment ranking program for the department. He is assisting the Florida Department of Man- agement Services in revising the Florida Career Service System and outsourcing all human resource transactional activities. He has a bachelor’s degree from Roanoke College. Margaret L. Forde is President of Northeast Houston Community College, where she has been an educator and administrator since 1984. Previously she taught at the University of Houston, Wichita State University, and Bethany College, Lindsborg, Kansas. Dr. Forde has a bachelor of arts degree in English, a master of education degree in English from Wichita State University, and a doctorate in educa- tion from the University of Houston. She also has a certificate in urban and regional planning from Kansas State University. She serves on the boards of several civic and public service organizations and for several years has produced and hosted legislative news analysis pro- grams for public television in Houston. Cameron Gordon is the Executive Director of the American Coun- cil on Intergovernmental Relations, which focuses on tracking inter- 55126_TRB_199_204 11/14/03 5:56 AM Page 182

Study Committee Biographica l In format ion | 183 governmental financial and economic flows and conducts research on urban economic development, the political economy of infrastructure decision making, infrastructure and economic development, and in- tergovernmental governance and political structure. From 1992 to 1996 he was Manager of Infrastructure Economic Studies for the In- stitute for Water Resources of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. He was Assistant Professor at the University of Southern California School of Policy, Planning, and Development from 1996 to 2000. He also served on the staff of the U.S. Congress Joint Committee on Taxation. Dr. Gordon has a B.A. in history from Wesleyan Univer- sity and a Ph.D. in economics from the City University of New York. Damian J. Kulash recently retired as President and CEO of the Eno Foundation for Transportation, which conducts policy forums, oper- ates educational and leadership development programs, produces technical monographs, and publishes Transportation Quarterly in sup- port of the nation’s transportation programs. Dr. Kulash previously served in a number of posts at the National Research Council, in- cluding 6 years as the Executive Director of the Strategic Highway Research Program; he also served as Director of the Special Projects Division of the Transportation Research Board (TRB). From 1977 to 1982, Dr. Kulash was Deputy Assistant Director of the Congressional Budget Office, where he managed policy studies in areas of trans- portation, water resources, and agriculture. Dr. Kulash has a B.S. in industrial management from the Sloan School of Management at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and a Ph.D. in civil en- gineering from MIT. Paul J. Larrousse is the Director of the National Transit Institute at Rutgers University, an education and training institute for public transit. He was previously the general manager of transit systems in Madison and Waukesha, Wisconsin; Wayne and Oakland Counties, Michigan; and York, Pennsylvania. He is a member of the Transit Cooperative Research Program Oversight and Project Selection Committee, having served as chair in 1999–2000, and is a member of the American Public Transportation Association. He has a bachelor’s degree from St. Anselm College and a master’s degree from Brook- lyn Polytechnic University. 55126_TRB_199_204 11/14/03 5:56 AM Page 183

184 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE John M. Mason, Jr., is the Associate Dean for Graduate Studies, Re- search, and Outreach in the College of Engineering at Pennsylvania State University. He is also Professor of Civil Engineering and Re- search Associate with the Pennsylvania Transportation Institute. Dr. Mason has served as Chair of the Education and Training Com- mittee of ITS America; Chair of the Executive Committee, Highway Division, American Society of Civil Engineers; and President of the Council of University Transportation Centers. He previously served as the Associate Director of the Pennsylvania Transportation Insti- tute, Director of the Center for Intelligent Transportation Systems, and Division Coordinator/Executive Committee in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering. Dr. Mason has a B.S. in transportation from Pennsylvania State University, an M.S. in trans- portation engineering from Villanova University, and a Ph.D. in civil engineering from Texas A&M University. He is a registered profes- sional engineer in Pennsylvania. Myra Howze Shiplett is a Senior Consultant at the National Acad- emy of Public Administration’s Center for Human Resources Man- agement. Prior to joining the academy in 1999, Ms. Shiplett worked in both the executive and judicial branches of the federal government. She has served as Assistant Director for Human Resources and Sta- tistics for the federal judiciary, Director of Administration for the Federal Housing Finance Board, Associate Director for Passport Ser- vices and Associate Director of Human Resources at the Department of State, Assistant Director for National and International Affairs with the Office of Personnel Management, and Director of Person- nel for the Federal Trade Commission. Ms. Shiplett has also taught at the high school and college levels. She holds a master’s degree in urban affairs from the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Uni- versity in Blacksburg and a bachelor’s degree in English and journal- ism from the University of South Florida in Tampa. She is a graduate of the Department of State’s Senior Seminar in American Diplomacy. Thomas R. Smith is a Vice President and the Director of Human Resources for Wilbur Smith Associates, an international trans- 55126_TRB_199_204 11/14/03 5:56 AM Page 184

Study Committee Biographica l In format ion | 185 portation consulting company based in Columbia, South Carolina. His responsibilities include employee recruitment and retention, compensation and benefits administration, training and development, employee and community relations, health and safety, governmental compliance, and human resource information systems. Previously he served as the human resources director for accounting, technology, and engineering firms. He has been certified as a Senior Professional in Human Resources by the Human Resource Certification Institute. He has a B.S. in business management from the Indiana University of Pennsylvania. Darwin G. Stuart recently retired from the Chicago Transit Au- thority (CTA), where he was Manager of the Market Research De- partment. He had previously served as Manager of Planning and Research and Manager of Strategic Planning. Prior to joining CTA, he worked for Barton-Aschman Associates, a Chicago-based national transportation consulting firm. He currently serves on sev- eral TRB committees, has chaired two study panels of the National Cooperative Highway Research Program and the Transit Cooper- ative Research Program, and has served on several others. He re- ceived a bachelor’s degree from Dartmouth College, a master of urban planning from the University of Illinois, and a master of transportation science and a Ph.D. in civil engineering from Northwestern University. Paul E. Torgersen is President Emeritus of the Virginia Polytech- nic Institute and State University. He holds the John W. Hancock, Jr., Chair of Engineering, and continues to teach part-time. In 1970, he was appointed Dean of the College of Engineering, a post he held for 20 years. He served as President of the Corporate Research Cen- ter until being appointed president of the university in 1993, a post he held until 2000. Dr. Torgersen is a Fellow of the Institute of In- dustrial Engineers and the American Society of Engineering Educa- tion. He received the College of Engineering’s Outstanding Teacher Award while at Oklahoma State University in 1963. In 1971 he re- ceived the Distinguished Alumnus Award of the College of Engi- 55126_TRB_199_204 11/14/03 5:56 AM Page 185

186 | THE WORKFORCE CHALLENGE neering, Ohio State University. In 1994 he received Virginia Tech’s first affirmative action award. He received the Benjamin G. Lamme Meritorious Achievement Medal from Ohio State in 1990 and the American Society of Engineering Education Lamme Medal in 1994. Also in 1994, Lehigh University awarded him an honorary Doctor of Engineering degree. He is the author or coauthor of five books and numerous technical papers. Dr. Torgersen received a B.S. in indus- trial engineering from Lehigh University and an M.S. and Ph.D. in industrial engineering from Ohio State University. He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and is a registered profes- sional engineer. 55126_TRB_199_204 11/14/03 5:56 AM Page 186

The Transportation Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies -- Special Report 275 Get This Book
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TRB Special Report 275 - The Workforce Challenge: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Qualified Workers for Transportation and Transit Agencies calls upon surface transportation agencies, the private sector, educational institutions, unions, and employees, to establish training as a key priority. The report recommends that this broad coalition work to expand existing federal and academic resources, create an institutional focus for the issue, and establish human resources management as a strategic function within the transportation community.

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