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144 WEIGHT MANAGEMENT Andersen T. Stokholm KH, Backer OG, Quaade F. 1988. Long-term (5-year) results after either horizontal gastroplasty or very-low-calorie diet for mor- bid obesity. Int J Obes 12:277-284. Anderson JW, Brinkman VL, Hamilton CC. 1992. Weight loss and 2-y follow- up for 80 morbidly obese patients treated with intensive very-low-calorie diet and an education program. Am J Clin Nutr 56:244S-246S. Anderson JW, Vichitbandra S. Quian W. Kryscio RJ. 1999. Long-term weight maintenance after an intensive weight-loss program. J Am Coll Nutr 18:620~27. Anderson JW, Konz EC, Frederich RC, Wood CL. 2001. Long-term weight-loss maintenance: A meta-analysis of U.S. studies. Am J Clin Nutr 74:579-584. Angotti CM, Levine MS. 1994. Review of 5 years of a combined dietary and physical fitness intervention for control of serum cholesterol. J Am Diet Assoc 94:634~38. Angotti CM, Chan WT, Sample CJ, Levine MS. 2000. Combined dietary and exercise intervention for control of serum cholesterol in the workplace. Am J. Health Promot 15:9-16. Apfelbaum M, Pricker J. Igoin-Apfelbaum L. 1987. Low- and very-low calorie diets. Am JClin Nutr 45:1126-1134. Arch JR. 1981. The contribution of increased thermogenesis to the effect of an- orectic drugs on body composition in mice. Am J Clin Nutr 34:2763-2769. Aronne LJ. 1998. Modern medical management of obesity: The role of pharma- ceutical intervention. JAm Diet Assoc 98:S23-S26. Arsenault JE, Cline AD. 2000. Nutrient intakes and characteristics of normal weight, female military personnel consuming foods reduced in fat or energy content. Appetite 34:227-233. Ashley JM, St. Jeor ST, Perumean-Chaney S. Schrage J. Bovee V. 2001. Meal replacements in weight intervention. Obes Res 9:312S-320S. Astrup A. 1996. Obesity and metabolic efficiency. Ciba Found Symp 201:159- 168. Astrup A. 1999. Macronutrient balances and obesity: The role of diet and physi- cal activity. Public Health Nutr 2:341-347. Astrup A, Breum L, Toubro S. Hein P. Quaade F. 1992a. The effect and safety of an ephedrine/caffeine compound compared to ephedrine, caffeine and placebo in obese subjects on an energy restricted diet. A double blind trial. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 16:269-277. Astrup A, Buermann B. Christensen NJ, Toubro S. Thorbek G. Victor OJ, Quaade F. 1992b. The effect of ephedrine/caffeine mixture on energy ex- penditure and body composition in obese women. Metabolism 41:686~88. Astrup A, Buemann B. Christensen NJ, Toubro S. 1994. Failure to increase lipid oxidation in response to increasing dietary fat content in formerly obese women. Am J Physiol 266:E592-E595.

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146 WEIGHT MANAGEMENT Baumgartner RN, Stauber PM, McHugh D, Koehler KM, Garry PJ. 1995. Cross- sectional age differences in body composition in persons 60+ years of age. J Gerontol 50:M307-M316. Bell EA, Castellanos VH, Pelkman CL, Thorwart ML, Rolls BJ. 1998. Energy density of foods affects energy intake in normal-weight women. Am J Clin Nutr 67:412-420. Bendixen H. Madsen J. Bay-Hansen D, Boesen U. Ovesen LF, Bartels EM, As- trup A. 2002. An observational study of slimming behavior in Denmark in 1992 and 1998. Obes Res 10:911-922. Benotti PN, Hollingshead J. Mascioli EA, Bothe A, Bis~ian BR, Blackburn GL. 1989. Gastric restrictive operations for morbid obesity. Am JSurg 157:150- 155. Bergman BC, Brooks GA. 1999. Respiratory gas-exchange ratios during graded exercise in fed and fasted trained and un~ained men. J Appl Physiol 86:479 487. Bernard A, Zwingelstein G. Meister R. Wild TF. 1988. Hyperinsulinemia in- duced by canine distemper virus infection of mice and its correlation with the appearance of obesity. Comp Biochem Physiol 91B:691~96. Bernard A, Fevre-Montange M, Bencsik A, Giraudon P. Wild TF, Confavreux C, Belin M-F. 1993. Brain structures selectively targeted by canine distem- per virus in a mouse model infection. JNeuropath Exp Neuro 52:471-480. Bhadrinath BR. 1990. Anorexia nervosa in adolescents of Asian extraction. Br J Psychiatry 156:565-568. Bjorntorp P. 1992a. Abdominal fat distribution and the metabolic syndrome. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 20:S2~S28. Bjorntorp P. 1992b. Abdominal obesity and the metabolic syndrome. Ann Med 24:465~68. Blaak EE. 2000. Adrenergically stimulated fat utilization and ageing. Ann Med 32:380-382. Blaak E. 2001. Gender differences in fat metabolism. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Me- tab Care 4:499-502. Blair SN. 1993. Evidence for success of exercise in weight loss and control. Ann Intern Med 119:702-706. Blair SN, Kohl HW 3rd, Paffenbarger RS, Clark DG, Cooper KH, Gibbons LW. 1989. Physical fitness and all-cause mortality: A prospective study of healthy men and women. JAm Med. Assoc 262:2395-2401. Blair SN, Kohl HW 3rd, Barlow CE, Paffenbarger RS Jr, Gibbons LW, Macera CA. 1995. Changes in physical fitness and all-cause mortality: A prospec- tive study of healthy and unhealthy men. JAm Med. Assoc 273: 1093-1098. Blankson H. Stakkestad JA, Fagertun H. Thom E, Wadstein J. Gudmundsen O. 2000. Conjugated linoleic acid reduces body fat mass in overweight and obese humans. JNutr 130:2943-2948.

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148 HEIGHT MANAGEMENT Bray GA. 1998. Pharmacological treatment of obesity. In: Bray GA, Bouchard C, James WPT, eds. Handbook of Obesity. New York: Marcel Dekker. Pp. 953-975. Bray GA, Popkin BM. `1998. Dietary fat intake does affect obesity! Am J Clin Nutr68:1157-1173. Bray GA, Greenway FL, Barry RE, Benfield JR, Fiser RL, Dahms WT, Atkin- son RL, Schwartz AA. 1977. Surgical treatment of obesity: A review of our experience and an analysis of published reports. Int J Obes 1 :331-367. Bray GA, Ryan DH, Gordon D, Heidingsfelder S. Cerise F. Wilson K. 1996. A double-blind randomized placebo-con~olled trial of sibutramine. Obesity Res 4:263-270. Bray RM, Sanchez RP, Ornstein ML, Lentine D, Vincus AA, Baird TU, Walker JA, Wheeless SC, Guess LL, Kroutil LA, Iannacchione VG. 1999. High- lights 1998 Department of Defense Survey of Health Related Behaviors among Military Personnel. Research Triangle Park, NC: Research Triangle Institute. Brooks GA. 1997. Importance of He 'crossover' concept in exercise metabo- lism. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 24:889-895. Bross R. Hoffer LJ. 1995. Fluoxetine increases resting energy expenditure and basal body temperature in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 61 :1020~1025. Brownell KD. 1999. The central role of lifestyle change in long-term weight management. Clin Cornerstone 2:43-51. Brownell KD, Kramer FM. 1994. Behavioral management of obesity. In: Black- burn GL, Kanders BS, eds. Obesity: Pathop*ysiology, Psychology and Treatment. New York: Chapman Hall. Pp. 231-252. Bruce B. Spiller GA, Klevay LM, Gallagher SK. 2000. A diet high in whole and unrefined foods favorably alters lipids, antioxidant defenses, and colon function. JAm Coll Nutr 19:61-67. Burchfiel CM, Curb JD, Sharp DS, Rodriguez BL, Arakaki R. Chyou PH, Yano K. 1995. Distribution and correlates of insulin in elderly men. The Honolulu heart program. Arterioscler Thromb Vase Biol 15:2213-2221. Calles-Escandon J. Horton ES. 1992. The thermogenic role of exercise in the treatment of morbid obesity: A critical evaluation. Am J Clin Nutr 55:533S- 537S. Calles-Escandon J. Poehlman ET. 1997. Aging, fat oxidation and exercise. Ag- ing Clin Exp Res 9:57-63. Cameron N. Demerath EW. 2002. Critical periods in human growth and their relationship to diseases of aging. Yrbk Phys Anthropol 45:159-184. Campfield LA, Smith FJ, Guisez Y. Devos R. Burn P. 1995. Recombinant mouse OB protein: Evidence for a peripheral signal linking adiposity and central neural networks. Science 269:546 549.

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The primary purpose of fitness and body composition standards in the U.S. Armed Forces has always been to select individuals best suited to the physical demands of military service, based on the assumption that proper body weight and composition supports good health, physical fitness, and appropriate military appearance.

The current epidemic of overweight and obesity in the United States affects the military services. The pool of available recruits is reduced because of failure to meet body composition standards for entry into the services and a high percentage of individuals exceeding military weight-for-height standards at the time of entry into the service leave the military before completing their term of enlistment.

To aid in developing strategies for prevention and remediation of overweight in military personnel, the U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command requested the Committee on Military Nutrition Research to review the scientific evidence for: factors that influence body weight, optimal components of a weight loss and weight maintenance program, and the role of gender, age, and ethnicity in weight management.

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