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ARTHUR SCHAWLOW
May 5, 1921-April 28, 1999
BY STEVEN CHU AND CHARLES H. TOWNES
ARTHUR SCHAW~OW, the ]. G. Jackson and C. ]. Wood Pro-
fessor of Physics at Stanforc! University en c! coinventor
of the laser, contributed to many aspects of nuclear, atomic,
en cl molecular physics. He was awarclecl the ~ 98 ~ Nobel
Prize in physics for "contributions to the clevelopment of
laser spectroscopy." His early work incluclecl examination
of the shapes, raclial charge distributions, en cl moments of
nuclei, the first microwave spectroscopy of a free raclical, ant!
coauthoring a wiclely usecl text on microwave spectroscopy.
After the laser invention he introclucecl many innovative
techniques for very-high-precision spectroscopic measure-
ments, inclucling new types of two-step spectroscopy of
molecules. With Theoclor Hansch, SchawTow proposal the
idea of laser cooling atoms in a vapor to extremely Tow
temperatures. This new fielcl has progressed to the point
where atoms can be coolecl to temperatures of less than lo-6
degrees above absolute zero, en c! where new states of mat-
ter have been created. (David Wineland and Hans Dehmelt
proposal a closely relatecl iclea in the same year.) His work
has had far-reaching effects in physics, chemistry, biology,
medicine, communications, en cl many other aspects of mocI-
ern technology.
197
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98
B I O G RA P H I C A L
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In aciclition to receiving the Nobel Prize Arthur SchawTow
was electecl a member of the National Academy of Sciences
and was accorclecl many aciclitional awards and honors,
inclucling the National Mecial of Science in 1991. He was
one of two people who hacl the distinction of serving as
both president of the American Physical Society en cl president
of the Optical Society of America. He was also chairman of
the Physics Division of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science.
Arthur L. SchawTow was born in Mount Vernon, New
York, on May 5, 1921. His mother, Helen Mason, was from
Canada en cl his father, Arthur SchawTow, was an emigrant
from Latvia. They mover! to Toronto, Canada, when Arthur
the son was only three years oIcI, en cl he was brought up
there, though remaining a U.S. citizen. As a youngster Arthur
enjoyed! the famous Book of Know~ecige, react about engi-
neering en cl science, likocl to tinker, was intriguccl by raclio,
en cl built raclio receivers. His intellectual skills were notable,
resulting in completion of high school at the age of 16, en c!
receipt of a scholarship in science at the University of
Toronto. The latter was important because his family hacl
no excess funcis, en c! it steerer! him towarc! physics rather
than engineering, which he hacl been seriously considering.
Arthur very much enjoyocl jazz music, and while at
Toronto he playact the clarinet in the Delta Jazz BancI, which
he helpecl to organize. This en cl his engineering interests
lecl him to record en cl collect jazz records, an avocation he
continued during his entire career. This resulted in an
extensive jazz record collection that is now in the Stanford
University archives.
After earning his unclergracluate degree Arthur continued
in graduate school at the University of Toronto. His graduate
work was interrupted during World War II. After receiving
a master's degree in physics he took a job at Research Enter-
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ARTHUR SCHAWLOW
199
prises burbling racier equipment for several years. Towarc!
the end of the war he began work on his Ph.D. at Toronto
with Professor Malcolm Crawford, a spectroscopist of high
stanciarcis who was particularly interested! in examining
nuclear properties. Working with him. Arthur clevelonecl a
O ' 1
goocl unclerstancling of electron interactions with nuclei in
atoms, ant! publisher! what he felt was one of his most
important papers, on the determination of nuclear size from
hyperfine structure. This interest was to show up again when
he took a postcloctoral position with me (C.H.T.) at Columbia
University.
In the 1950s I (C.H.T.) was in the physics department at
Columbia University en c! fortunately hac! been given money
for a postcloctoral fellowship by the Carbide en cl Carbon
Corporation because Helmut ("Hap") Schulz, a creative,
blinc! theoretical chemist there, thought my work on micro-
wave spectroscopy of molecules might leacl to work with
infrared racliation en cl its effect on chemical reactions. The
University of Toronto was outstanding in spectroscopy, en c!
I knew professors there, such as Harry Welsh, who toIcl me
that Arthur SchawTow wouIcl be a goocl person for this
postcloctoral position en c! wouic! probably be interested.
Several faculty members recommenclecl him very highly, en cl
I was glacl that he accepted the position en cl joined me at
Columbia University in the fall of 1949. His work at Columbia
macle it clear to me that he was unusually capable en cl hacl
remarkable intuition en cl insight. I wouIcl have likocl to have
seen him in a permanent academic position at Columbia,
but another event, though a happy one, unfortunately macle
this impractical.
My younger sister, Aurelia Townes,
had come to New
York to stucly voice en cl for a time livecl in our apartment
near Columbia. Arthur has often saicl that the very best
thing that happened! to him in New York was that he met
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B I O G RA P H I C A L
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Aurelia, the first meeting being when my wife, Frances, macle
a point of inviting him to clinner en cl introducing the two
of them. They were married in 1951, en cl I was clelightecI.
We continues! to work together at Columbia, both on research
en cl on writing the book Microwave Spectroscopy. I would
have wan tell our collaboration to continue, with him on
the Columbia faculty, however I was moving into the chair-
manship of the physics department at Columbia, en cl potential
claims of nepotism macle it impractical for me to be instru-
mental in putting my new brother-in-law on the faculty. He
accepted a position at Bell Telephone Laboratories in late
1951 en cl left Columbia.
The SchawTows hac! three chiTciren, Arthur Jr., Helen,
en cl Edith. The family was religious, en cl Aurelia sang en cl
concluctecl the choir at their church. Their two daughters,
now Helen Johnson en c! Eclith Dwan, have families en c! are
in Wisconsin en cl California, respectively. Arthur {r. intro-
clucecl a clifficult en cl challenging problem into the family,
one on which Arthur Sr. en c! his wife, Aurelia, worker! tire-
lessly en cl hopefully. Arthur {r. was autistic, with very little
speech ability. Part of the reason the SchawTows accepted a
position at Stanford was that Professor Robert Hofstadter
there also hacl an autistic chilcl en cl they, the ShawTows en cl
Hofstadters, hoped to help each other find solutions to the
problem.
After his early years Arthur Jr. was put in a special center
for autistic inclivicluals, en cl later Arthur Sr. put together an
institution to care for autistic inclivicluals in Paradise, CaTi-
fornia. This was named the Arthur SchawTow Center in 1999
shortly before Arthur Sr. 's death. Both parents worked
intensively towarc! fincling ways for communicating with
autistic inclivicluals. One somewhat controversial method on
which Arthur Sr. clicl research en cl became well known was
for the autistic individual to spell words with a small handheld
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ARTHUR SCHAWLOW
20
machine. Arthur en c! Aurelia wrote a chapter in a book
Integrating Moderate en c! Severely Hanclicappec! Learners
uncler the title "Our Son: The EncIless Search for Help."
The two parents spent many weekends at the center in
Paradise, en cl in 1991 Aurelia SchawTow cliecl as a result of
an automobile accident cluring the long drive from Stanford
to see her son at the center. The Arthur SchawTow Center
continues to give important service to inclivicluals with autism
or relatecl problems en cl their families.
In 1961 Arthur left Bell Laboratories to join the faculty
at Stanford University, where he remained until he retired
to emeritus status in 1996. During this time he embarkocl
on his remarkable career cleveloping laser spectroscopy.
In aciclition to being an eminent scientist, Arthur was an
entertaining lecturer en cl belovecl mentor. He was a jovial
en c! friencITy person who enjoyed! his own jokes so much
that he wouIcl burst out laughing as he came to the punch
lines. He attracted a large group of students en cl postclocs
who affectionately caller! him "the boss." While his brilliant
insight produced many striking and incisive experiments,
and yielded new phenomena and high-precision instruments,
his guiding maxim for experimental physics was "keep it
simple. "
Arthur showered fatherly acivice and maxims to the point
where "the sayings of Art SchawTow" became known beyond
Stanford's physics department. To a young scientist intimi-
ciatecl by information overIoacl he wouIcl say, "To clo successful
research, you clon't neec! to know everything, you just neec!
to know one thing that isn't known." Art felt that one of
the hallmarks of a successful scientist was a ciriving neecl
"to find the answer" and toward this goal "anything worth
doing is worth doing twice, the first time quick and dirty
and the second time the best way you can." Having been
infectec! with his charm en c! vision, many of his flock have
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B I O G RA P H I C A L
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gone on to make their own significant contributions in
science.
Arthur's wit and humor became renown. Recognizing
that a scientist does his best work on the back of an envelope,
he had envelopes with two backs made. They could be bought
from Double Think, Inc., a division of Nocturnal Aviation,
Art SchawTow Proorietor. The comnanv's motto: "We fly by
night." Art was chairing a session of an optical pumping
conference in 1959 when Gordon Gould presented a paper
entitled "The LASER, Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation," thus introducing the acronym that
was to soon replace the "optical maser." At the end of the
paper Chairman SchawTow could not resist a comment. As
Don Nelson of Bell Laboratories recalls, "Beginning with
mock solemnity and ending in belly-shaking laughter, Art
opined that the laser was likely to be most used as an oscillator
and so should be named 'light oscillation by stimulated
emission of radiation,' or the LOSER."i Once he gave a
physics colloquium at Stanford entitled "Is Spectroscopy
Dead?" He began the talk by defining at great length what
he meant by "spectroscopy." After this long introduction
his colleague at Stanford, Felix Bloch, asked him to define
"dead." After a thoughtful pause Art answered, "Dead is
when the chemists take over the subject." Art could say this
and make the chemists laugh.
1 J
a--
For Art, physics was fun and he made it more fun for
the rest of us. While president of the Optical Society of
America, Art initiated a "turvy-topsy" contest seeking the
inverse of a topsy-turvy picture. A turvy-topsy slide was one
that can never be presented correct side up. Four prizes
were offered: first prize, $ ~ 0, second prize, a copy of
SchawTow's latest paper, third prize, copies of SchawTow's
two latest papers, honorable mention, a choice of bumper
stickers reading "Optics is Light Work," "Spectroscopists Have
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ARTHUR SCHAWLOW
203
Seen the Light," "Light Headed? Stop Eating Photons," or
"Photons are Phorever."
Even SchawTow's amusing jokes and demonstrations have
turned into profound contributions. Guided by his postulate
that "anything will lase if you hit it hard enough," he and
Ted Hansch strove to create the first "edible laser" made
out of Jell-O dessert. Working with two flavors per day, they
marched through all 12 flavors of Knox-brand {ell-O. Unfor-
tunately, none of the gelatin desserts showed lasing action,
and Art retreated back to his office, where he ate each of
the failures! Eventually he and Ted spiked the {ell-O with
sodium fluorescein, a known laser dye, and immediately
saw lasing action.2 The news of the almost-edible laser spread
rapidly and was eventually published in the IEEE To urn e] of
Quan tom Electronics in ~ 971. This experiment stimulated
an experiment done by Herwig Kogeinik and Charles Shank
at Bell Laboratories, where they irradiated a gelatin film
with the interference pattern of two laser beams, making
the first distributed feedback laser. This type of laser is now
widely used in long-distance optical fiber communications.
His well-known demonstration during which he broke a
blue Mickey Mouse balloon inside a clear outer balloon
with a portable laser (in the shape of a ray gun, of course!)
showed us that a beam of light could reach inside an object
without puncturing the outer layers resurfaced when lasers
were used to repair detached retinas. In a more recent
embodiment the concept was used as an application of
"optical tweezers," an optical trap fashioned out of a single
focused laser beam. This trap, which was invented to hold
onto atoms and micron-size particles, has also been used to
reach inside a living cell and manipulate an organelle or
chromosomes without damaging the cell or nucleus mem-
brane. Similar optical tweezers have been used to manipu-
late a single molecule of DNA and pull against the force of
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B I O G RA P H I C A L
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a myosin molecule fount! in muscle tissue tugging on an
actin filament.
SchawTow hacl many productive students en cl associates.
I (C.H.T.) was clelightec! with our association at Columbia
University. The last paper we ever publishecl together was
"Infrared en cl Optical Masers,"3 which initiated the laser
clevelopment. At Stanforc! University he attracted! many
excellent students en cl postcloctoral fellows. Perhaps his closest
long-term associate was Theodore Hansch, who with him
clic! much innovative work on high-precision spectroscopy.
Professor SchawTow cliecl of leukemia on April 2S, 1999,
very close to what wouIcl have been his seventy-eighth birthday.
He spent his last few months in a wheel chair, gracefully
accepting the expected outcome en cl welcoming the visits
of friends en cl family. Appropriately, the memorial service,
which celebrates! his remarkable life, incluclec! happy music
by the Magnolia Jazz Band.
Arthur SchawTow was not just acimirecI, he was cherished
by those who knew him. He was a great scientist of remark-
able modesty, a supportive teacher, a gentle leader, and a
caring human being.
Arthur SchawTow's thesis research, in close collabora-
tion with Professor Malcolm Crawford, lecl him into high-
resolution spectroscopy en cl stucly of nuclear characteristics
by atomic spectroscopy. His student work produced seven
publications, mostly on nuclear spins en cl magnetic move-
ments. They incluclecl an important paper on electric fielcl
distribution within nuclei. After he came to Columbia Uni-
versity to work with me (C.H.T.) on a postcloctoral fellowship
his interest and ideas about nuclei continued. This resulted
in measurements and interpretation of nuclear quadrupole
moments and a publication concerning the effect of nuclear
charge distribution on X-ray fine structure. At Columbia he
also was deeply involved with microwave spectroscopy of
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ARTHUR SCHAWLOW
205
molecules, en c! with some of my students fount! the first
microwave spectrum of a free raclical, OH. This initial
measurement was critically important in the later search
for en c! discovery of OH in interstellar gas cloucis by Allen
Barrett, who was one of my students at that time. This was
the first molecular microwave racliation founcl in interstellar
cloucis. It helpec! open up an important series of discoveries
of interstellar molecules en cl molecular masers, OH itself
proclucing many powerful masers. I was also pleasecl that
Arthur agrees! to coauthor with me the book on Microwave
Spectroscopy, published in 1955 by McGraw-Hill. His work
on it began at Columbia University but continual nights
en c! weekends after he mover! to the Bell Laboratories in
1951.
At Bell Laboratories Arthur initially workocl on super-
concluctivity, collaborating with others there, inclucling Berncit
Matthias, HaroIcl W. Lewis, en cl George DevIin. As a consultant
at Bell Laboratories I visited him there on occasion, en cl
one clay in the fall of 1957 I mentioner! my icleas about
making optical en cl infrared masers (later to be callecl lasers),
en cl found he hacl also become interested in this possibility.
We put our ideas and efforts together and Art came up
with the iclea of using two parallel mirrors as a way of
obtaining a single mocle of oscillation. I thought this iclea
might have somehow come from his early work at Toronto
University on Fabry-Perot interferometers, but he always dis-
missecl that as unlikely. After all, I hacl myself workocl with
Fabry-Perot systems but somehow missed the idea. Because
we felt optical en cl infrared masers clearly shouIcl be patented,
en cl I cleciclecl to interpret my own icleas as belonging to
Bell Laboratories, from then on we kept the laser iclea as a
proprietary secret until a patent was prepared in mid-1958.
After this our manuscript on the subject could be circu-
latec! en c! it was publisher! in late 1958.
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B I O G RA P H I C A L
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Publication of the paper on "Infrarec! en c! Optical Masers"3
stimulatecl a number of efforts to builcl them. The first
International Quantum Electronics Conference, helcl in the
fall of 1959, was humming with icleas of possible optical
transitions that might leacl to the realization of the first
laser. Art, along with colleagues Frank Varsani, Dar Wood,
Al Clogston, Stanley GeshwincI, en c! Robert Collins et Bell
Laboratories, were exploring the optical properties of ruby
(Al2O3:Cr3+) en cl were thinking that this material couIcl be
a potential cancliciate for a laser. Art's studies of the properties
of the narrow Ret en cl R2 resonance lines in ruby4 generated
significant interest, but he eventually rejected the R lines as
a potential lasing cancliciate at the Quantum Electronics
Conference.5 Art was skeptical that a goocl lasing transition
couIcl terminate in the ground state, en cl suggested insteacl
the near-neighbor pair lines in ruby he hac! also been studying
as a means of obtaining a 4-level system.6
In this case Art's intuition provecl wrong. The following
year Theodore Maiman user! a flash lamp to excite a lightly
clopecl "pink" ruby crystal en cl achieved laser action on the
Ret resonance line. Shortly afterward Art en cl his colleagues
were able to demonstrate lasing on his cancliciate pair lines
with more highly doped ruby using the same type of a flash
lamp used by Maiman in his landmark experiment. Art later
remarkocI, "I thought I was being clever, but I outsmarted!
myself. "7
Art en cl his Bell Laboratories colleagues continual to
explore narrow resonance impurity lines in solids and how
these lines were affected by strain, magnetic fielcis, tem-
perature, and other perturbations. In 1961 he accepted a
professorship at Stanford, where he continued these pio-
neering studies with his graduate students en cl postcloctoral
fellows. His young colleagues incluclecl Roger MacfarIancI,
William Yen, Linn Mollenauer, en c! Frank Imbush, who went
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ARTHUR SCHAWLOW
207
on to become leaclers in solicI-state spectroscopy in their
own right. Other Art SchawTow students, inclucling John
Emmett, John Ho~zrichter, en cl Jeff Paisner, became experts
in high-energy puisec! lasers, eventually rising to positions
of high responsibility at Lawrence Livermore National Labo-
ratory. Warren Moos, a postcloc cluring these years, went on
to Johns Hopkins University to become a leacler in astro-
physics spectroscopy.
In the spring of 1970 Theoclor Hansch arrive cl at Stanford,
having just finisher! his graduate studies with Peter Toschek.
He recalls, "Walking clown the hallway of the second floor
of the Varian physics builcling, a futuristic poster on one of
the Coors caught my eye. It shower! an enormous laser gun
blasting at some attacking rockets in the sky. The caption
in bold letters read "The incredible laser." In smaller letters
below someone hac! written, "For creclible lasers, see insicle."8
Ted Hansch and, independently, Christian Borde invented
Doppler-free saturation spectroscopy, basecl in part on the
spectral hole-burning effect (the "Lamb clip") cliscoverec!
by Roger MacfarIane, William Bennett, en cl Willis Lamb.
With Art's support, encouragement, and council Ted initi-
atec! a remarkable series of experiments in which narrow
atomic and molecular lines could be observed without the
inhomogeneous broadening clue to the Doppler effect. Using
a prism-tunecI, single-mocle argon ion laser, TecI, Marc
Levenson, en cl Art resolvecl the hyperfine lines of molecular
iodine. With a pulsed dye laser that Ted built they were
liberates! from working with absorption lines that acciclentally
overIappecl the narrow tuning range of existing lasers. TecI,
Issa Shahin, en cl Art were able to measure the Doppler-free
spectra of the soclium D lines.9 Upon seeing the soclium
spectra taken the night before, Art immediately urged, "You
have to clo the same with the reel Balmer-oc line of atomic
hydrogen."
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B I O G RA P H I C A L
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Within a few weeks the same team recorclec! the saturation
spectra of the reel Balmer line of atomic hycirogen.~° This
quick en cl clirty experiment with atomic hydrogen was to
initiate an experimental program that is continuing tociay
after three clecacles en cl seven orders of magnitude of spec-
tacular improvement. In aciclition to Shahin, other students
en c! postcloctoral fellows that further refiner! this measure-
ment in these early clays incluclecl Munir Nayfoh, Sin Au
Lee, Stephen Curry, Carl Wieman, John Goldsmith, and
Erharc! Weber.
During this enormously productive period Art introclucecl
molecular-state labeling, in which a laser is usecl to prefer-
entially pump molecules out of a specific occupier! molecular
level. Absorption lines from the labelecl level as measured
using a second broacibancl laser were then weakened, as
observer! by Mark Kaminsky, R. Thomas Hawkins, en c! Frank
Kowalski.~i Following the invention of polarization spec-
troscopy by Carl Wieman en cl Tell Hansch, Art en cl his stu-
clents user! polarizer! light to label specific angular momentum
states.~2~~5 These methods enablecl Art en cl his associates to
greatly simplify and then give assignment to the forest of
absorption lines in molecular spectra.
Other advances cluring this time incluclecl the two-photon
Doppler-free spectroscopy of sodium using a CW dye laser
with Ted Hansch et al.,~6 near-resonant enhancement of
two-photon spectra with Sune Svanberg et al.,~7 observation
of quantum beats with Serge Haroche en cl Jeff Paisner,~8
ant! Doppler-free opto-galvanic spectroscopy with James
Lawler, Allister Ferguson et al.,~9~20 en cl polarization inter-
moclulation spectroscopy with Tell Hansch et al.2i Also cluring
this time William Fairbank, Jr., and Gary Klauminzer studied
the excited-state absorption spectra of ruby, emerald, and
MgO:Cr3+,22 and Fairbank demonstrated that it was possible
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ARTHUR SCHAWLOW
209
to use resonance fluorescence to detect a single atom in a
laser beam.23
In ~ 98 ~ Arthur SchawTow was namecl co-winner of the
Nobel Prize for his many contributions to the clevelopment
of laser spectroscopy. In his Nobel lecture "Spectroscopy in
a New Light" he listecl 21 of his most significant papers out
of the 168 papers he hac! coauthored. Conspicuously absent
from this list is a two-page paper published in Optics Com-
munications in 1975 entitlecl "Cooling of Gases by Laser
Racliation.''24
In their paper Tecl anclArt outlinecl a proposal to cool
atoms by surrounding the atoms with light from all sicles,
realizing that the atoms wouic! lose kinetic energy by pref-
erentially scattering laser light opposing the motion of the
atoms clue to the Doppler effect. They macle a rough estimate
of the final temperature by assuming that the initial Doppler
width of the absorption line couIcl be reclucecl to the natural
line width of the scattering transition. In the case of mag-
nesium they estimates! that atoms in the vapor phase conic!
be coolecl to temperatures of~O.24 K.
Their iclea was clemonstratecl by Leo HolIberg, John
Bjorkholm, Alex Cable, Art Ashkin, en c! myself (S.C.) 10 years
after their publication. In our initial experiments sodium
atoms were cooled to temperatures of ~0.24 thousandths of
a degree above absolute zero. Progress in this field! clevel-
opecl rapicIly en cl by the year 2000 billions of atoms couIcl
be laser coolecl to temperatures as low as 300 nanokeIvin at
densities greater than 10~3 atoms/cm3. Further cooling by
evaporation in magnetic or optical traps has led to the
formation of new states of matter: Bose condensates in a
cliTute gas en c! degenerate Fermi gases.
The fielcl of laser cooling en cl trapping of atoms was
recognized with a Nobel Prize in 1997 in recognition of the
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B I O G RA P H I C A L
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revolutionary impact of this work on atomic physics, laser
spectroscopy, and metrology. An cl in 2001 on the one-
huncirecith anniversary of the first Nobel Prize, a Nobel
Prize was given to researchers who user! laser cooling en c!
atom trapping methods to achieve Bose condensation of a
clilute alkali gas.
In 1987 Arthur Schawlow succeeclec! in convincing me
(S.C.) to leave Bell Laboratories en cl join the faculty at
Stanford University. Soon after arriving I settlecl into the
enjoyable routine of retreating often into his office to unwinc!
en cl discuss what was happening in my laboratory, with physics
at large, en cl life in general. During one of these conversa-
O a
tions I asker! Art why he clic! not even mention his seminal
laser cooling paper in his 1981 Nobel lecture. He shrugged
in his characteristically moclest en cl self-effacing way, "In
1981 how was I to know it was going to become important?"
NOTES
1. D. F. Nelson. A tribute to Arthur Schawlow. In Lasers, Spectroscopy
and New Ideas, eds. W. M. Yen and M. D. Levenson, pp. 121-22. New
York: Springer-Verlag, 1987.
2. T. W. Hacnsch, M. Pernier, and A. L. Schawlow. Laser action
of dyes in gelatin. IEEE Quantum Electr. QE-7~1971~:45.
3. A. L. Schawlow and C. H. Townes. Infrared and optical masers.
Phys. Rev. 112 (1958) :1940.
4. F. Varsanyi, D. L. Wood, and A. L. Schawlow. Self-absorption
and trapping of sharp-line resonance radiation in ruby. Phys. Rev.
Lett. 3 (1959) :544.
5. A. L. Schawlow. Infrared and optical masers. In Quantum Electronics,
A Symloosium, ed. C. Townes, p. 553. New York: Columbia University
~~ Or ~ V..V,
Press, 1960.
6. A. L. Schawlow, D. L. Wood, and A. M. Clogston. Electronic
spectra of exchange-coupled ion pairs in crystals. Phys. Rev. Lett.
3 (1959) :271.
7. A. L. Schawlow. Origins of the laser. In Laser Pioneer Interviews,
pp. 40-62. High Tech Publications, Inc., 1985.
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ARTHUR SCHAWLOW
211
8. T. W. Hacnsch. From lint edible lasers to new spectroscopy.
In Lasers, Spectroscopy, and New Ideas, eds. W. M. Yen and M. D.
Stevenson, pp. 3-16. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1987.
9. T. W. Hacnsch, I. S. Shahin, and A. L. Schawlow. High resolu-
tion saturation spectroscopy of the sodium D lines with a pulsed
tunable dye laser. Phys. Rev. Lett. 27~1971~:707.
10. T. W. Hacnsch, I. S. Shahin, and A. L. Schawlow. Optical
resolution of the Lamb Swifr in atomic hydrogen by laser saturation
spectroscopy. Nature 235 ~ 1972) :63.
11. M. E. Kaminshy, R. T. Hawkins, F. V., Kowalski, and A. L.
Schawlow. Identification of absorption lines by modulated lower-
level population: Spectrum of Na2. Phys. Rev. Lett. 36~1976~:671.
12. R. Feinberg, R. E. Teets, T. Rubbmark, and A.L. Schawlow.
Ground state relaxation measurements by laser-induced depopulation.
J. Chem. Phys. 66 ~ 1977) :4330.
13. R. E. Teets, N. W. Carlson, and A.L. Schawlow. Polarization
labeling spectroscopy of NO2. J. Mol. Spectrosc. 78~1979~:415.
14. N. W. Carlson, F. V. Kowalski, R. S. Teets, and A. L. Schawlow.
Identification of excited states in Na2 by two-step polarization label-
ing. Opt. Commun. 29 ~ 1979) :302.
15. N. W. Carlson, A. T. Taylor, and A. L. Schawlow. Identification
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1 1 0
--a -- -- --I - ------- -or-- ------------- -- I-- - -I-- --
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
bell laboratories
