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OCR for page 1
Summary
Two endemic fishes of the upper I(lamath basin (Figure S-1), the short-
nose sucker (Chasmistes brevirostris) ancT the Lost River sucker (Deltistes
Fixates), were listecT as enciangerecT uncler the fecleral EnciangerecT Species
Act (ESA) in 1988 by the U.S. Fish ancT WilcTlife Service (USFWS). USFWS
cited overfishing, water management, habitat alteration, nonnative species,
poor water quality, ancT several other factors as likely contributors to the
clecline of the fishes, which once were very abundant. In 1997, the Southern
Oregon Northern California Coast revolutionarily significant unit" of coho
salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch), which is native to the I(lamath basin ancT
several adjacent drainages, was listecT by the National Marine Fisheries
Service (NMFS) as threatened uncler the ESA. NMFS cited water manage-
ment, water quality, loss of habitat, overfishing, ancT several other potential
causes of clecline for the coho salmon.
In 2001, in response to biological assessments prepared by the U.S.
Bureau of Reclamation (USBR), the two listing agencies issued biological
opinions that requirecT USER to take numerous actions, inclucTing mainte-
nance of higher water levels in Upper I(lamath Lake ancT two reservoirs on
the Lost River ancT higher flow of the I(lamath River below Iron Gate Dam.
Release of the two biological opinions coinciclecT with a severe drought.
Because of the new biological opinions ancT the drought, USER was prohib-
itecT from releasing large amounts of water to farmers servecT by its I(lamath
Project, which cTiverts waters from Upper I(lamath Lake ancT the upper Lost
River for use in irrigation through USBR's I(lamath Project. The unex-
pectecT restrictions on water supply, which severely impaired or eliminatecT
1
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2
FISHES IN THE KLAMATH RIVER BASIN
~ OREGON
FIGURE S-1 Map of the Klamath River basin showing surface waters and land-
marks. Source: Modified from USFWS.
~ As,
Dwinnell
Lake Dank
~~ ,,,
~ ~~l ,,WJ
Lake ~ ~ ~
~ it-'
~ , ~ _ ~
a.<,......
....
',! \,: lo
e - :
Crater ~ ~~ N
A' <\ Ri ~'`\
~ ~` \ Sprague
·MedEo :< :3K1a1~ath ; ~ ~~ ,~ ~ ,,
7-~ ~/~
Lake Clear
Lake f '3
fin'.,. no"{ ~ .'~'~'~1 SO
`N ^~ ~ l.
CALIFORNIA
,. .
agricultural production on the 220,000 acres irrigated by the Klamath
Project, causecT agricultural water users ancT others to question the basis for
water restrictions, while other parties, fearing adverse effects of the Klamath
Project on the enciangerecT ancT threatened fishes, supported the restrictions.
In late 2001, the Department of the Interior ancT the Department of
Commerce askecT the National Academies to form a committee (the Com-
mittee on EnciangerecT ancT Threatened Fishes in the Klamath River Basin)
OCR for page 3
SUMMARY
3
to evaluate the strength of scientific support for the biological assessments
ancI biological opinions on the three listecI species, ancI to identify require-
ments for recovery of the species. The committee was charged to complete
an interim report in early 2002, focusing on effects of the Klamath Project,
ancI to complete a final report in 2003 that wouicI take a broacI view of the
scientific aspects of the continued survival of the listecI species (Box Sop.
This is the committee's final report.
In its interim report of February 2002, the committee founcI substantial
scientific support for all recommendations macle by the two listing agencies
for the benefit of the enciangerecI ancI threatened species, except for recom-
menciations requiring more stringent controls over water levels in Upper
Klamath Lake ancI flows at Iron Gate Dam. The committee also noted,
however, that USBR hacI not proviclecI any substantial scientific support for
its own proposal of revised operating procedures, which might have lecI to
lower mean water levels or lower minimum flows.
In 2002, USBR issued a new biological assessment that clealt with the
two enciangerecI sucker species ancI the threatened coho salmon. In re-
sponse, USFWS prepared another biological opinion on the suckers, ancI
NMFS prepared another biological opinion on the coho salmon. These
documents reflect a closer interaction between the agencies than in previous
years. USBR moved toward more restrictive operational practices than it
hacI previously proposed ancI toward clevelopment of reserve water sup-
plies; USFWS ancI NMFS were more cautious in requiring actions whose
basis wouicI be contraclictecI by site-specific studies, ancI they acknowlecigecI
the neecI to consult with parties in aciclition to USBR. The biological assess-
ment anti the two biological opinions for 2002 cover a 10-yr interval (2002-
2012), cluring which time the listing agencies may require aciclitional con-
sultation ancI may revise their biological opinions.
PRINCIPAL FINDINGS OF THE COMMITTEE
Lost River ant! Shortnose Suckers
Upper Klamath Lake
Although suckers of all age classes are present in Upper Klamath Lake,
population densities of suckers are low, ancI there are no signs that the
populations are returning to their previously high abundance.
Suckers spawn in tributaries to Upper Klamath Lake, but they are
blockecI from much potentially suitable spawning habitat by Chiloquin
Dam on the Sprague River (Figure S-11. Numerous smaller blockages ancI
diversions also are present but are poorly clocumentecI. Expansion of spawn-
ing on the Sprague River couicI increase the abundance of fry clescencling to
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4
FISHES IN THE KLAMATH RIVER BASIN
Box S-1. Statement of Task
The committee will review the government's biological opinions regarding the ef-
fects of Klamath Project operations on species in the Klamath River Basin listed
Under the Endangered SPQCje8 Act' including coho salmon and shoftnose and
Cost River suckers. The committee will assess whether the bloioglcal opinions are
consistent with the available sciontiflc information. It will consoler hyClrclogic anti
other environmental parametem (including water quality anti habitat awai|abi|ity)
affecting those species at critical times In their life cycles, the probate conse-
quences to them of not realizing those environmental parameters and the inter-
relationship of these e0Viroomental conditions necessary to recover and sustain
The listed species.
PlTo complete its charge, the committee will
1. Review ebb evaluate the science underlying the Blologlcal Assessments
(USBR 2001 a,b) and Biological Opinions (US6WS 20017 NMFS 2 ).
A. Review and evaluate environmental parameters critical to the survival and
recover of listed species.
3. Identify scientific information relevant to evaluating the Effects of project
operallons that has become available since USFWS and NMFS prepared the bio-
loglcal opl'lons
4. Identify gaps in the ki owledge and sclei tific information that are i ceded to
develop comprehensive strategies for recovering listed species at d provide at
estimate of the time and funding it would require.
A brief Interim report will be or~vitled by Ja' ugly 31, p002. The interim report
will focus on the February 2001 biological assessments of the Bureau of Reclama-
tlon and the April 9001 biological opl' ioi s of the U.S. Eish and Wildlife Service and
National Marli e Fisheries Service regarding the effects of operation s of the Bu-
reau of Reclamation 's K|amath Pioject on listed species. The committee wll; pr~-
wlde a preliminary assessment of the scientific it formation used by the Bureau of
[Reclamation, the Fish and Wildlife Service, and the National Maii'~e Fisheries
Service, as cited In those dock ents' and will consider to what degree the abaly-
sis of effects in the biological opl' ions of the Fish and Wildlife Service and Natio' al
Marli e Fisheries Service is consistent with that sciet tific it formation. The commlt-
tee will islet tify any reievai t scientific information it is aware of that has become
available since the Fish and Wlidjife Seiwlce and Ratio' al Marine Fisheries Ser-
wlce prepared the biological opinloi~s. FlThQ committed will also co' sided any other
relevai t scientific information of which it is aware.
The final report will thoroughly address the scientific aspects related to the
cot tinued survival of coho salmoi and shoit' ose and Lost River suckers it the
Klamath River Basin. The committee will identity gaps in the k' owledge and sclen-
tific information that are neetletl awl or~v'Lle appi~o~lmate estimates of the time
and funding needed to fill those gaps, if such estimates see possible. The commlt-
tee we also provide an assessment of sclet tific considerations relevant to strate-
gies to' piomotl' ~ the recover of listed species in the Klamath Basin.
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SUMMARY
Upper I(lamath Lake anti wouicI beneficially extend the interval over which
they arrive at the lake.
The water quality of the tributaries to Upper I(lamath Lake is poor for
some native fishes but is probably adequate for the listecI suckers. The
tributaries clo, however, show loss of riparian vegetation anti wetiancI
(largely clue to agricultural practices), which couicI aciversely influence the
survival of fry. The physical condition of channels in general anti spawning
areas in particular is clegraclecI, but the nature anti extent of clegraciation is
poorly clocumentecI for the tributaries.
EnciangerecI suckers also spawn near springs that emerge at the margin
of Upper I(lamath Lake. Some apparently suitable spawning sites are no
longer usecI, probably because entire groups of fish that used the sites were
eliminatecI cluring the era of fishing, which enclecI in 1987. Lakeside spawn-
ing behaviors are associated with a specific range of depth. During ciry
years, the amount of appropriate spawning substrate with appropriate wa-
ter clepth is reclucecI by cirawclown of the lake. Data on year-class strength
show no indication of a relationship between year-class strength anti water
level, which might be expected if cirawclown were strongly suppressing pro-
cluction of fry.
Fry are strongly clispersecI from their points of origin by currents ancI
ultimately are founcI in shallow water in or near emergent vegetation at the
margins of the lake. Loss of such vegetation, especially near the tributary
mouths, couicI be clisacivantageous to the fry. The area around the lake
associated with preferred depths ancI presence of emergent vegetation varies
with water level; cirawclown, especially in ciry years, recluces this area.
StanciarclizecI sampling of fry anti studies of year-class strength for large fish
clo not, however, indicate associations between water level ancI abundance
of larvae.
luveniles seek somewhat creeper water than larvae. There is substantial
juvenile mortality, but current information is insufficient to show whether
it is extraordinary in comparison with mortality in other lakes that have
more favorable living conditions.
Subaclult anti aclult fish seek creeper water than younger fish anti con-
gregate in specific areas of Upper I(lamath Lake. In contrast to the tributar-
ies, poor water quality in the lake itself appears to be their greatest vuiner-
ability. Direct evidence of harm to large fish by poor water quality inclucles
physical indications of stress anti mass mortality of large fish ("fish kills")
at times of exceptionally poor water quality.
Mass mortality of large fish occurs cluring the second half of the grow-
ing season, but not in all years. Upper I(lamath Lake is hypertrophic (ex-
tremely procluctive) because its rich supplies of phosphorus leacI to extreme
abundance of phytoplankton clominatecI by Aphanizomenon flos-aq?vae,
a nitrogen-fixing bluegreen (cyanobacterial) alga. High abundances of
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6
FISHES IN THE KLAMATH RIVER BASIN
Aphanizomenon incluce high pH through high rates of photosynthesis. Al-
though strong algal blooms of this type occur each year, conditions for
mass mortality are associated with a specific sequence of weather events
involving calm weather succeeclecI by wincly weather.
Low concentrations of clissolvecI oxygen probably are the immediate
cause of cleath of enciangerecI suckers cluring episodes of mass mortality,
but other water-quality factors may contribute to stress. Mass mortality of
large fish in Upper I(lamath Lake has occurred for many clecacles, but
anthropogenic factors, especially those leacling to strong dominance of
Aphanizomenon, probably have increased its severity ancI frequency. Poor
water quality may also challenge the sucker populations in other ways.
High pH, for example, couicI be harmful to young fish even if they are not
subject to the mass mortality of larger fish.
Because hypertrophic conditions indicate very high supplies of phos-
phorus, much attention has been given to the possibility of reducing the
phosphorus loacI passing from the watershed to Upper I(lamath Lake. The
prospects for suppressing algal blooms by this means in Upper I(lamath
Lake seem poor, however, because about 60% of the external phosphorus
loacI is clerivecI from natural sources. In aciclition, the anthropogenic com-
ponent of loacI is accounted for by clispersecI sources, which are clifficult to
control, ancI the internal loacI (phosphorus releasecI from lake secliments) is
about clouble the external loacI.
The key change over the last 50 yr in Upper I(lamath Lake probably
was the rise of Aphanizomenon, which replacecI diatoms as the dominant
type of algae. Diatoms probably were limitecI by nitrogen clepletion ancI
thus were unable to use fully the rich phosphorus supplies of the lake,
whereas Aphanizomenon is able to fix nitrogen ancI thus can fully exploit
the high availability of phosphorus, which causes it to reach very high
abundances. Various anthropogenic factors couicI have contributed to the
rise of Aphanizomenon; one example is increased transparency of the lake
caused by disconnection of its associated wetiancis, which were sources of
ciark humic compounds. Reestablishment of these sources wouicI seem acI-
visable but may be impractical because the organic deposits in the wetiancis
oxiclizecI extensively after the wetiancis were cirainecI.
There is no evidence of a causal connection between water level ancI
water quality or fish mortality over the broacI operating range in the l990s,
the period for which the most complete ciata are available for Upper I(lamath
Lake. Neither mass mortality of fish nor extremes of poor water quality
shows any cletectable relationship to water level. Thus, despite theoretical
speculations, there is no basis in evidence for optimism that manipulation of
water levels has the potential to moderate mass mortality of suckers in Upper
I(lamath Lake. Planning must anticipate that poor water quality will con-
tinue to affect the sucker populations of Upper I(lamath Lake.
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SUMMARY
7
Suckers in Upper Klamath Lake also are affected by entrainment from
the Link River near the outflow of the lake. Screens installecI at the main
irrigation-water withcirawal point probably will be beneficial, but loss of
small fish still can be expected. The Link River Dam intakes still are not
screened.
Nonnative fishes, which are diverse ancI abundant in Upper Klamath
Lake, may be suppressing the populations of enciangerecI suckers there, but
no practical mechanisms for reducing their abundance are known.
Other Locations in the Klamath Basin
Below Upper Klamath Lake, waters of the upper basin collect through
the Lost River system, which is regulatecI by the Klamath Project (Figure S-
11. The heac~waters inclucle tributaries to Clear Lake anti Gerber Reservoir.
These tributaries support recurrently successful spawning of enciangerecI
suckers, as shown by the apparently stable populations of suckers in the
two reservoirs. UnprececlentecI cirawclown of both reservoirs in the drought
year of 1992 coinciclecI with deteriorating body condition anti increased
incidence of parasitism in the suckers. Thus, the conditions of 1992 have
been used by USFWS in setting threshoicis of water level for these lakes.
On the Lost River below Gerber Reservoir anti Clear Lake (Figure S-1),
all waters are strongly affected by the Klamath Project anti are unsuitable
for suckers, although they still offer some opportunities for restoration,
especially through increases in water clepth for Tule Lake Sumps anti Lower
Klamath Lake.
Reservoirs of the main stem Klamath have created new habitat capa-
ble of hoicling enciangerecI suckers, but recruitment of young fish has not
been observed. Reservoirs have low potential to support self-sustaining
populations.
Coho Salmon
The peak migration of aclult coho salmon in the Klamath basin occurs
between late October anti micI-November; the fish spawn primarily in tribu-
taries. Fry reach peak abundance in March anti April, ancI can disperse as
far as the tributary mouths, but most appear to stay close to the areas where
they originate. Coho clevelop through the juvenile stage in the tributaries
over about 1 yr. They may occupy the main stem at times but are nearly
absent from it by late summer, when the water is warmest. Winter habitat
in the tributaries is critical for the juvenile coho but has not been well
stucliecI.
luveniles smoltify anti migrate downstream in spring, with a peak in
April. Short transit times facilitatecI by high flow couicI be favorable to the
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8
FISHES IN THE KLAMATH RIVER BASIN
migrating smolts, although this has not been clemonstratecI for the Klamath
River. Smolts spencI approximately 1 ma in the estuary ancI then enter the
ocean, where they spencI about 1.5 yr before returning to the Klamath River.
Ocean conditions such as productivity affect the strength of year classes.
The most important cause of impairment of coho salmon probably is
excessively high summer temperatures in tributary waters. Coho salmon,
unlike Chinook salmon, remain in freshwater for an entire year, cluring
which they mainly occupy tributaries, where summer water temperatures
can be ciangerously high. Causes of extreme temperatures inclucle diversion
of coicI flows for use in agriculture, flow clepletion that leacis to warming of
coo! water, ancI destruction of riparian vegetation that leacis to loss of
shacling. Temperatures also are excessively high in the main stem, but at
present high temperatures there probably are more relevant to other species
that are more likely than coho to use the main stem for rearing. Decrease in
main-stem temperatures by augmentation of main-stem flows is problem-
atic because augmentation water must be clerivecI from the surface layer of
Iron Gate Reservoir, which is very warm in summer. Projections of benefit
to be expected from possible thermal manipulations may not have taken
into account the exceptional importance of nocturnal thermal minimums in
determining the energetic balance of coho exposed to high temperatures;
nocturnal minimums can be as important as ciaily maximums in cletermin-
ing the survival of juvenile coho salmon.
Barriers to passage causecI by clams ancI diversion structures are impor-
tant to coho salmon. The main-stem clams on the Klamath River block
spawning movements, as clo Dwinnell Dam on the upper Shasta River ancI
the Trinity River Diversion project on the Trinity River. Numerous small
clams used by incliviclual irrigators or clitch companies also block movement
of coho in tributaries. Dams also have contributed to habitat clegraciation.
Coho habitat has been seriously clegraclecI in the tributaries. Lack of
cover ancI impairment of substrate through deposition of sediments are
common. Woocly clebris, which is critical as cover for young fish, has
largely been lost as a result of human activity. Excessive clepletion of flow
may separate fish from adequate habitat in the last half of summer.
Competition between hatchery coho ancI the smaller wilcI coho cluring
migration to the estuary may be severe. Probably even more important are
competition ancI preciation from large numbers of Chinook salmon ancI
steelheacI that are releasecI from hatcheries to the main stem when smol-
tification of the coho is in progress.
The Klamath River Fish Kill of 2002
During the second half of September 2002, numerous fish cliecI in the
lowermost 40 mi of the Klamath River main stem, 150 mi below Iron Gate
OCR for page 9
SUMMARY
9
Dam (Figure S-11. Most of the cleacI fish were aclult Chinook salmon that
hacI just entered the lower I(lamath River. At least 33,000 Chinook, of a
total estimated spawning run of about 130,000, cliecI. The immediate cause
of cleath was massive infection by two types of pathogens that are wiclely
clistributecI ancI generally become harmful to fish uncler stress, particularly
if crowding occurs. The fish kill, although important for Chinook salmon,
clicI not involve many coho salmon (about 1% of the total cleacI fish) be-
cause coho enter the river later than Chinook, ancI thus were mostly absent
when conditions leacling to mass mortality occurred.
The California Department of Fish ancI Game (CDFG), through an
analysis of environmental conditions over 5 yr of low flow within the last
15 yr, showed that neither the flows nor the temperatures that occurred in
the second half of September 2002 were unprececlentecI. A stucly by the U.S.
Geological Survey (USGS) supports this conclusion. Thus, no obvious ex-
planation of the fish kill basecI on unique flow or temperature conditions is
possible.
CDFG has proposed that the shape of the channel in the lowermost
reaches of the I(lamath main stem changed in 1997-1998 uncler the influ-
ence of high flows, which causecI fish entering the river to be unable to
proceed upstream uncler low-flow conditions. An alternate hypothesis is
that an unusual combination of temperature, flow, ancI migration concli-
tions occurred in 2002, possibly in association with weather that prevented
the river from showing nocturnal cooling to an extent that wouicI usually be
expected.
The two hypotheses or others that may be proposed are clifficult to
test because the conditions coinciding with the fish kill were unexpected
ancI therefore largely unmonitored. If a lasting change in channel configura-
tion was responsible, recurrence of the episode can be expected with similar
low flows in the future. If other factors were responsible, recurrence may be
much less likely. It is unclear what the effect of specific amounts of acicli-
tional flow drawn from controllable upstream sources (waters from reser-
voirs on the Trinity River or Iron Gate Reservoir) wouicI have been. Flows
from the Trinity River couicI be most effective in lowering temperature.
Legal, Regulatory, ant! Administrative Context of Recovery Actions
Adaptive management is accepted in principle by the listing agencies
but has not been implementecI in the I(lamath basin for the benefit of the
listecI species, except as part of the Trinity River Restoration Project. Infor-
mation collectecI through monitoring ancI research has been valuable, but
the absence of an integrated, evolving management plan connected to moni-
toring, research, review, anti periodic readjustment of management actions
will hamper progress in the future. Although agencies must meet the re-
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10
FISHES IN THE KLAMATH RIVER BASIN
quirements of the ESA, many actions that couicI benefit the listecI species
can also be justified from the viewpoint of ecosystem management favor-
able to numerous other species, some of which are perilously close to
listing, ancI to ecosystem functions that have great practical value.
Specifically with reference to ESA Section 4(f), USFWS ancI NMFS
recovery planning for the three listecI species has stallecI ancI neecis to be
revived. leoparcly consultations, which have focused on operation of the
I(lamath Project, must be broaclenecI geographically because critical envi-
ronmental resources of the listecI species are found not only in but also
beyond the I(lamath Project. Furthermore, USFWS ancI NMFS appear to
have overiookecI take (mortality ancI impairment) of the listecI species that
is inciclental to agricultural practice, private water management, ancI other
activities beyond the control of USBR, ancI thus have not taken full acivan-
tage of their authorities uncler ESA Section 9.
The listing agencies have been criticized for using pseudoscientific rea-
soning (" junk science") in justifying their requirements for the protection of
species in the upper I(lamath basin. The committee disagrees with this
criticism. The ESA allows the agencies to use a wicle array of information
sources in protecting listecI species. The agencies can be expected, when
information is scarce, to extend their recommendations beyond rigorously
tested hypotheses ancI into professional judgment as a means of minimizing
risk to the species. In allowing professional judgment to override site-spe-
cific evidence in some cases cluring 2001, however, the agencies accepted a
high risk of error in proposing actions that the available evidence inclicatecI
to be of cloubtful utility. The committee, as explainecI in its interim report,
found some proposed actions as given in the 2001 biological opinions to
lack substantial scientific support. In their biological opinions of 2002, the
listing agencies appear to have resolvecI this issue either by obtaining con-
cessions from USBR through mechanisms that are generally consistent with
USBR's goal of clelivering irrigation water (for example, through establish-
ment of a water bank) or by redesigning their requirements to bring them
into greater conformity with the existing evidence.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Recovery of enciangerecI suckers ancI threatened coho salmon in the I(la-
math basin cannot be achieved by actions that are exclusively or primarily
focused on operation of USBR's I(lamath Project. While continuing consulta-
tion between the listing agencies ancI USBR is important, distribution of the
listecI species well beyond the boundaries of the I(lamath Project ancI the
impairment of these species through lancI- ancI water-management practices
that are not uncler control of USBR require that the agencies use their author-
ity uncler the ESA much more broacIly than they have in the past.
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SUMMARY
11
Recommendation 1. The scope of ESA actions by NMFS anti USFWS
shouicI be expanclecI in several ways, as follows (Chapters 6, 8, 91.
· NMFS anti USFWS shouicI inventory all governmental, tribal, anti
private actions that are causing unauthorized take of enciangerecI suckers
anti threatened coho salmon in the I(lamath basin anti seek either to autho-
rize this take with appropriate mitigative measures or to eliminate it.
· NMFS anti USFWS shouicI consult not only with USER, but also
with other fecleral agencies (e.g., U.S. Forest Service) uncler Section 7(a)~11;
the fecleral agencies collectively shouicI show a will to fulfill the interagency
agreements that were macle in 1994.
· NMFS anti USFWS shouicI use their full authority to control the
actions of fecleral agencies that impair habitat on feclerally managed lancis,
not only within but also beyond the I(lamath Project.
· Within 2 yr, NMFS shouicI prepare ancI promulgate a recovery plan
for coho salmon, anti USFWS shouicI clo the same for shortnose anti Lost
River suckers. The new recovery plans shouicI facilitate consultations uncler
ESA Sections 7(a)~1), 7(a)~2), anti lO(a)(l) across the entire geographic
ranges of the listecI species.
· NMFS anti USFWS shouicI more aggressively pursue opportunities
for non-regulatory stimulation of recovery actions through the creation of
demonstration projects, technical guidance, anti extension activities that
are intenclecI to encourage anti maximize the effectiveness of non-govern-
mental recovery efforts.
Recommendation 2. Planning anti organization of research anti moni-
toring for listecI species shouicI be implementecI as follows (Chapters 6, 8, 101.
· Research anti monitoring programs for enciangerecI suckers shouicI
be guiclecI by a master plan for collection of information in clirect support of
the recovery plan; the same shouicI be true of coho salmon.
· A recovery team for suckers anti a second recovery team for coho
salmon shouicI administer research anti monitoring on the listecI species.
The recovery team shouicI use an aciaptive management framework that
serves as a clirect link between research anti remecliation by testing the
effectiveness anti feasibility of specific remecliation strategies.
· Research anti monitoring shouicI be reviewed comprehensively by an
external pane! of experts every 3 yr.
· Scientists participating in research shouicI be requirecI to publish key
findings in peer-reviewecI journals or in synthesis volumes subjected to
external review; administrators shouicI allow researchers sufficient time to
clo this important aspect of their work.
· Separately or jointly for the upper anti lower basins, a broacIly basecI,
diverse committee of cooperators shouicI be establishecI for the purpose of
pursuing ecosystem-basecI environmental improvements throughout the
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2
FISHES IN THE KLAMATH RIVER BASIN
basin for the benefit of all fish species as a means of preventing future
listings while also preserving economically beneficial uses of water that are
compatible with high environmental quality. Where possible, existing fecI-
eral ancI state legislation shouicI be used as a framework for organization of
this effort.
Recommendation 3. Research ancI monitoring on the enciangerecI suckers
shouicI be continued. Topics for research shouicI be acljustecI annually to
reflect recent findings ancI to aciciress questions for which lack of knowlecige
is a handicap to the clevelopment or implementation of the recovery plan.
Gaps in knowlecige that require research in the near future are as follows
(Chapters 5, 61.
· Efforts shouicI be expanclecI to estimate annually the abundance or
relative abundance of all life stages of the two enciangerecI sucker species in
Upper I(lamath Lake.
· At intervals of 3 yr, biotic as well as physical ancI chemical surveys
shouicI be concluctecI throughout the geographic range of the enciangerecI
suckers. Suckers shouicI be samplecI for indications of age distribution,
qualitative measures of abundance, ancI condition factors. Sampling shouicI
inclucle fish other than suckers on grouncis that the presence of other fish is
an indicator of the spreacI of nonnative species, of changing environmental
conditions, or of changes in abundance of other endemic species that may
be approaching the status at which listing is neeclecI. Habitat conditions ancI
water-quality information potentially relevant to the welfare of the suckers
shouicI be recorclecI in a manner that allows comparison across years. The
resulting survey information, along with the more cletailecI information
available from annual monitoring of populations in Upper I(lamath Lake,
shouicI be synthesized as an overview of status.
· DetailecI comparisons of the Upper I(lamath Lake populations
(which are suppressed ancI the Clear Lake ancI Gerber Reservoir popula-
tions (which are apparently stable), in combination with studies of the
environmental factors that may affect welfare of the fish, shouicI be con-
cluctecI as a means of diagnosing specific life-history bottlenecks that are
affecting the Upper I(lamath Lake populations.
· Multifactorial studies uncler conditions as realistic as pract~can~e
shouicI be macle of tolerance ancI stress for the listecI suckers relevant to
poor water-quality conditions in Upper I(lamath Lake ancI elsewhere.
· Factors affecting spawning success ancI larval survival in the
Williamson River system shouicI be stucliecI more intensively in support of
recovery efforts that are focused on improvements in physical habitat pro-
tection for spawners ancI larvae in rivers.
· An analysis shouicI be concluctecI of the hyciraulic transport of larvae
in Upper I(lamath Lake.
1 1
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SUMMARY
13
· Relevant to the water quality of Upper I(lamath Lake, more inten-
sive studies should be macle of water-column stability ancI mixing, espe-
cially in relation to physiological status of Aphanizomenon ancI the occur-
rence of mass mortality; of mechanisms for internal loading of phosphorus;
of winter oxygen concentrations; ancI of the effects of limnohumic acicis on
Aphanizomenon.
· A demographic model of the populations in Upper I(lamath Lake
should be prepared ancI used in integrating information on factors that
affect incliviclual life-history stages.
· Studies should be clone on the clegree ancI importance of predation
on young fish by nonnative species.
· Aciclitional studies should be clone on the genetic identities of sub-
populations.
Recommendation 4. Recovery actions of highest priority basecI on current
knowledge of enciangerecI suckers are as follows (Chapter 61.
· Removal of Chiloquin Dam to increase the extent of spawning habi-
tat in the upper Sprague River ancI expand the duration over which larvae
enter Upper I(lamath Lake.
· Removal or facilitation of passage at all small blockages, clams,
diversions, ancI tributaries where suckers are or could be present.
· Screening of water intakes at Link River Dam.
· Modification of screening ancI intake procedures at the A Canal as
recommenclecI by USFWS (20021.
· Protection of known spawning areas within Upper I(lamath Lake
from disturbance (inclucling hydrologic manipulation, in the case of springs),
. . . .
except: -or restoration activities.
· For river spawning suckers of Upper I(lamath Lake, protection ancI
restoration of riparian conditions, channel geomorphology, ancI sediment
transport; elimination of disturbance at locations where suckers clo spawn
or could spawn. These actions will require changes in grazing ancI
agricultural practices, lancI management, riparian corridors, ancI public
education.
· Seecling of abanclonecI spawning areas in Upper I(lamath Lake with
new spawners ancI physical improvement of selected spawning areas.
· Restoration of wetland vegetation in the Williamson River estuary
ancI northern portions of Upper I(lamath Lake.
· Use of oxygenation on a trial basis to provide refugia for large
suckers in Upper I(lamath Lake.
· Rigorous protection of tributary spawning areas on Clear Lake ancI
Gerber Reservoir, where populations are apparently stable.
· Reintroduction of enciangerecI suckers to Lake of the Woocis after
elimination of its nonnative fish populations.
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4
FISHES IN THE KLAMATH RIVER BASIN
· Reestablishment of spawning anti recruitment capability for encian-
gerecI suckers in Tule Lake anti Lower I(lamath Lake, even if the attempts
require alterations in water management, proviclecI that preliminary studies
indicate feasibility; increased control of sedimentation in Tule Lake.
· Review of all proposed changes in I(lamath Project operations for
potential adverse effects on suckers; maintenance of water level limits for
the near future as proposed by USER in 2002 but with modifications as
required by USFWS in its most recent biological opinion (20021.
Recommendation 5. Needs for new information on coho salmon are as
follows (Chapters 7, 81.
· Annual monitoring of aclults ancI juveniles shouicI be concluctecI at
the mouths of major tributaries anti the main stem as a means of establish-
ing a record of year-class strength for coho. Every 3 yr, synoptic studies of
the presence anti status of coho shouicI be macle of coho in the I(lamath
basin. Physical ancI chemical conditions shouicI be clocumentecI in a manner
that allows interannual comparisons. Not only coho but other fish species
present in coho habitats shouicI be samplecI simultaneously on grouncis that
changes in the relative abundance of species are relevant to the welfare of
coho ancI may serve as an early warning of cleclines in the abundance of
other species. Results of synoptic studies, along with the annual monitoring
at tributary mouths, shouicI be synthesized as an overview of population
status at 3-yr intervals.
· DetailecI comparisons shouicI be macle of the success of coho in
specific small tributaries that are chosen so as to represent gradients in
potential stressors. The objective of the stucly shouicI be to identify thresh-
oicis for specific stressors or combinations of stressors anti thus to establish
more specifically the tolerance threshoicis for coho salmon in the I(lamath
basin.
· The effect on wilcI coho of fish releasecI in quantity from hatcheries
shouicI be cleterminecI by manipulation of hatchery operations according to
aciaptive-management principles. As an initial step, release of hatchery fish
from Iron Gate Hatchery (all species) shouicI be eliminatecI for 3 yr, ancI
indicators of coho response shouicI be clevisecI. Complementary manipula-
tions at the Trinity River Hatchery wouicI be clesirable as well.
· SelectecI small tributaries that have been impaired shouicI be experi-
mentally restored, ancI the success of various restoration strategies shouicI
be cleterminecI.
· Success of specific livestock-management practices in improving
channel conditions anti promoting clevelopment of riparian vegetation
shouicI be evaluatecI systematically.
· Relationships between flow ancI temperature at the junctions of
tributaries with the main stem ancI the estuary shouicI be quantified; pos-
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SUMMARY
15
sible benefits of coordinating flow management in the Trinity anti I(lamath
main stem shouicI be stucliecI.
Recommendation 6. Remecliation measures that can be justified from cur-
rent knowlecige inclucle the following (Chapter 81.
· Reestablishment of coo! summer flows in the Shasta anti Scott rivers
in particular but also in small tributaries that reach the I(lamath main stem
or the Trinity main stem where water has been anthropogenically warmed.
Reestablishment of coo! flows shouicI be pursued through purchase, tracI-
ing, or leasing of grounc~water flows (inclucling springs) for clirect clelivery
to streams; by extensive restoration of woocly riparian vegetation capable
of providing shacle; anti by increase of summer low flows.
· Removal or provision for effective passage at all small clams anti
diversions throughout the distribution of the coho salmon, to be completecI
within 3 yr. In aciclition, serious evaluation shouicI be macle of the benefits
to coho salmon from elimination of Dwinnell Dam anti Iron Gate Dam on
grouncis that these structures block substantial amounts of coho habitat
anti, in the case of Dwinnell Dam, clegracle downstream habitat as well.
· Prescription of lancI-use practices for timber management, roacI con-
struction, anti grazing that are sufficiently stringent to prevent physical
clegraciation of tributary habitat for coho, especially in the Scott, Salmon,
anti Trinity river basins as well as small tributaries affected by erosion.
· Facilitation through cooperative efforts or, if necessary, use of ESA
authority to recluce impairment of spawning gravels anti other critical habi-
tat features by livestock, fine sediments clerivecI from agricultural practice,
timber management, or other human activities.
· Changes in hatchery operations to the extent necessary, inclucling
possible closure of hatcheries, for the benefit of coho salmon as cleterminecI
through research by way of aciaptive management of the hatcheries.
COSTS
The costs of remecliation actions are clifficult to estimate without more
cletail on their mocle of implementation by the agencies. Based on general
knowlecige of costs of research anti monitoring at other locations, an ap-
proximate figure for the recommendations on enciangerecI suckers over a 5-
yr period is $15-20 million, inclucling research, monitoring, anti remeclial
actions of minor scope. ExcluclecI are administrative costs anti the costs of
remeclial actions of major scope (e.g., removal of Chiloquin Dam), which
wouicI neecI to be evaluatecI incliviclually for cost. For coho salmon, re-
search, monitoring, anti remeclial projects of small scope over 5 yr is esti-
matecI at $10-15 million. Thus, the total for all three species over 5 yr is
$25-35 million, exclucling major projects such as removal of clams. These
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1
6
FISHES IN THE KLAMATH RIVER BASIN
costs are high relative to past expenditures on research anti remecliation in
the basin, but the costs of further deterioration of sucker ancI coho popula-
tions, along with crisis management ancI disruptions of human activities,
may be far more costly. A hopeful vision is that increased knowlecige,
improved management, anti cohesive community action will promote re-
covery of the fishes. This outcome, which wouicI be of great benefit to the
I(lamath basin, couicI provide a mocle! for the nation.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
klamath river
