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2
Justification for a New
Ocean Exploration Program
The ocean supports us whether we live in land-locked or coastal
communities in myriad ways. Living resources provide food, and explora-
tion of marine biological and chemical diversity has led to the discovery of
drugs to treat cancer and infections. Oil and natural gas extracted from the
oceans have already been used to meet much of the energy needs of our
societies. With the application of new technology to locate, extract, and
exploit potential ocean resources, such as methane hydrates, renewable
ocean energy, and seafloor minerals, the value of the oceans to society will
continue to expand.
Improved understanding of the oceans is necessary to better manage
our living marine resources. The oceans provide a very large portion of
Earth's food supply (Figure 2.1; Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, 19981. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations estimated capture fisheries (primarily marine) produced
83 million metric tons of fish in 2001. Approximately 16 kg (or 36 pounds)
of fish per person on Earth were either captured or produced in that year.
Appropriate fisheries management depends a great deal on knowledge of
fish stocks, distribution, and life histories. Additional information about
ocean circulation patterns, chemistry, seafloor terrain and fish distributions,
for instance, should assist attempts to improve fisheries management.
Marine organisms also supply a host of unique compounds for medical
uses. The ancient horseshoe crab (Limu/us polyphemus) supplies blood
used in common toxin-screening tests, and its eyes continue to provide
researchers with a model of how vision works. The nerve cells of the long-
finned squid (Lo/igo pealed) include "giant axons" that are used by neuro-
biologists as an analogue to understand mammalian neurobiology. These
cells are approximately 100 times the diameter of a mammal axon, allowing
experimentation and analysis that would otherwise be exceedingly difficult
or impossible. Discodermo/ide, a compound extracted from marine sponges,
26
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JUSTIFICATION FOR A NEW OCEAN EXPLORATION PROGRAM
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
o
27
Aquaculture
Capture fisheries
1950 1954 1958 1962 1966 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998
FIGURE 2.1A World capture fisheries and aquaculture production (used with permission from the Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). Note: Aquaculture quantities prior to 1984 are
estimates.
100
{_ cot
~0 A
.o ~ 60
= ~
. _
~ Q
.0 ~= 40
Cd
N ~
·— O
~ ~0
S
(a
. _
IL
80
20
Food
Feed
Population
Per capita supply
1950 1954 1958 1962 1966 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998
4
o
_`
o
. _
. _
Q
o
. _
Cd
Q
o
AL
FIGURE 2.1 B World fish utilization and supply, excluding China (used with permission from the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations).
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28
EXPLORATION OF THE SEAS
has been shown to stop the growth of cancer cells in laboratory tests. The
discovery of microorganisms within deep ocean sediments that could inhibit
cancer cell growth has opened a door to the search for new compounds for
use in medicine (Figure 2.2) (Mincer et al., 2002; Feling et al., 20031. These
examples are among the hundreds of uses for marine organisms and com-
pounds. Vast numbers of organisms remain to be discovered, and they will
yield additional important benefits for humankind. Responsible exploita-
tion of the genetic diversity of life in the ocean, including new and existing
fisheries, requires a thorough understanding of those resources and their
variability over time.
As the human population expands, so will the need for energy and
mineral resources. In 2002, the coastal zones of the United States provided
25 percent of the country's natural gas production and 30 percent of the
U.S. oil production (Minerals Management Service, 20031. The Minerals
FIGURE 2.2 Twelve different strains of the microbial group Salinospora. These newly
discovered microorganisms, which inhabit the mud at the bottom of the sea, produce
new antibiotics and anticancer agents that are believed to be a completely new source
of new drugs (used with permission from W. Fenical).
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JUSTIFICATION FOR A NEW OCEAN EXPLORATION PROGRAM
Management Service estimates the majority of undiscovered gas and oil is
in coastal areas albeit in deeper and deeper water on the continental slope.
The oceans sustain a large portion of Earth's biodiversity in complex
food webs; microbial life; extreme, deep habitats including within the sea-
floor, and hydrothermal vents; and dynamic coastal environments. Indeed,
the midwater environment of oceans harbor an ecosystem whose biomass is
larger than that of the terrestrial biota. The complex biological systems both
rely on and support the global cycling of carbon and nutrients, and they are
estimated to sustain half of all carbon-based life on this planet (Figure 2.3;
Field et al., 1 9981.
29
FIGURE 2.3 Global annual net primary productivity (in grams of carbon [C] per square meter per year) for
the biosphere, calculated from the integrated Carnegie-Ames-Stanford Approach-Vertically Generalized
Production Model. The spatial resolution of the calculations is 1 x 1 for land and 1/6 x 1/6 for the oceans.
Input data for ocean color from the Coastal Zone Color Scanner sensor are averages from 1978 to 1983.
The land vegetation index from the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer sensors is the average
from 1982 to 1990. Global net primary productivity is 105 picograms of C per year (105 x 1015 g of C per
year), with 46 percent contributed by the oceans and 54 percent contributed by the land. (Reprinted with
permission from Field et al., 1998. Copyright 1998 American Association for the Advancement of Science;
http://www.sciencemag.org.)
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30
EXPLORATION OF THE SEAS
Appreciation for the role of the oceans in global climate patterns and
change continues to grow (Sutton and Allen, 1 997; Rahmstorf, 20021. The
oceans regulate climate by absorbing solar energy and redistributing it via
global circulation patterns resulting in identifiable systems of climate and
weather. Our knowledge of interannual climate variations has improved to
the point that scientists are now be able to forecast El Nino climate distur-
bances months in advance (Chen, 20011.
With all of the benefits the oceans provide come potentially harmful-
sometimes disastrous hazards to human health. Tsunamis, for example,
are legendary in their power to devastate coastal communities (e.g., Satake
et al., 19951. In the United States, a single hurricane can cause billions of
dollars of damage (Figure 2.~; Federal Emergency Management Agency,
FIGURE 2.4 Damage from Hurricane Andrew that occurred in Florida on August 24, 1992. Many houses,
businesses, and personal effects suffered extensive damage from one of the most destructive hurricanes
ever recorded in the United States. One million people were evacuated, and 54 died in this hurricane.
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JUSTIFICATION FOR A NEW OCEAN EXPLORATION PROGRAM
2003), and coastal erosion threatens to destroy 25 percent of dwellings
within 150 m of the coast (Heinz Center, 20021. Major earthquake faults
offshore coastal states in the western United States are among the most
potentially hazardous in the world given the concentrations in population
and economic productivity. Although more difficultto estimate in monetary
terms, water pollution and marine habitat degradation decrease the aesthetic
value and the biotic richness of our coastal waters. Habitat degradation
also threatens human health: viruses, bacteria, and infectious diseases that
can be transmitted to human populations contaminate coastal waters
(National Research Council, 19991.
Finding: The oceans play a critical role in the maintenance of the
ecosystems of the Earth. Resources contained in the oceans currently
supply much of the world's food and fuel supply, and maintain global
climate patterns. The oceans harbor as yet undiscovered organisms-
new searches for life continue to discover previously unknown organ-
isms. Only a portion of the potential of the oceans has been tapped.
Recommendation: As was true when the International Decade of
Ocean Exploration (1971-1980) was proposed and supported, ocean
exploration remains a necessary endeavor to identify and fully describe
the resources the oceans contain and uncover processes with far-
ranging implications for the study of Earth as a whole. The pace at
which we discover living and nonliving resources and improve our
understanding of how the oceans respond to chemical, biological, and
physical changes must increase.
INTERDISCIPLINARY EXPLORATION IS NEEDED
Every time a scientist happens upon some completely unexpected dis-
covery in the ocean, it is a reminder of how little is known about this
environment that is so critically important to the sustainability of the planet.
We now recognize that different facets of the ocean small-scale geological,
biological, and genetic diversity; chemical, geophysical, and physical
oceanographic properties interact in complex ways, and our understand-
ing of the ocean requires examination as a whole system. It is difficult to
predict what discoveries are still to come, but it is clear that ocean explora-
tion will improve the accuracy of our predictions of global climate change,
produce new products that will benefit humanity, inform policy choices,
and allow better stewardship of the oceans and the planet. To reach this
31
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32
EXPLORATION OF THE SEAS
potential, ocean research should encourage collaboration between researchers
from varied disciplines.
Finding: Currently ocean science funding in the United States is pre-
dominantly awarded to research in specific disciplines, such as bio-
logical, physical or chemical oceanography. Proposals for inter-
disciplinary work are hampered by a funding bureaucracy that is also
discipline-based. Ocean exploration is an integrative activity that will
encourage and support interdisciplinary efforts that seek to discover
new contributions to the marine sciences.
ACCESS TO NEW REGIONS IS NEEDED
Successful marine science proposals habitually pursue information
about regions, areas, and phenomena that have been described previously.
For instance, repeated visits to unique sites, such as the hydrothermal vents
of the spreading seafloor ridges, have allowed repeated sampling of both
the vent systems and sites along the cruise track. Although the data sets
have improved our understanding of ocean processes and dynamics, this
"yo-yo" phenomenon is the result of selective funding for research proposals
that build on established data sets and access vessels already scheduled-
not exploratory investigations of new systems. Similar data collected out-
side of these focused study areas are extremely rare. The current ocean
research support framework does not favor such exploratory proposals.
Highlighting this emphasis on previously-visited regions is the compila-
tion of requests for access to the U.S. fleet of research vessels filed with the
University-National Oceanographic Laboratory System. A summary of all
vessel requests from 1998 through those filed for 2008 shows a strong
emphasis on the coastal regions, with large tracts of the open ocean, par-
ticularly the southern hemisphere, largely uninvestigated (Figure 2.5A). In
fact, the majority of the vessel requests for the southern hemisphere have yet
to receive research funding, and are proposed for 2004 and beyond few
U.S. research cruises have been conducted in those regions (Figure 2.5B).
Of the funded cruises, even fewer have been equipped with Alvin or a
remotely operated vehicle (Figure 2.5C).
Vast portions of the oceans have not been systematically examined for
geochemical or biological characteristics. Ground-breaking discoveries,
such as hydrothermal vents, fueled intensive investigations of those regions,
but it did not lead to systematic, large-scale investigations of new regions.
(e.g., the Ridge 2000 program [Pennsylvania State University, 200011. As is
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JUSTIFICATION FOR A NEW OCEAN EXPLORATION PROGRAM
1 80°W 1 35°W 90°W 45°W 0° 45°E 90°E 1 35°E 1 80°E
80°N
)~)
60°N
40°N
20°N
oo
80°S
,~
FIGURE 2.5A
FIGURE 2.5 (A) All vessel requests for 1998-2008 showing a strong emphasis on the coastal regions,
with large tracts of the open ocean, particularly the southern hemisphere, largely uninvestigated.
(B) The number of research cruises that actually have been funded (1998-2003). (C) Funded research
cruises that were equipped with Alvin or a remotely operated vehicle. (Data obtained from the
University-National Oceanographic Laboratory System.)
33
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34
EXPLORATION OF THE SEAS
80°N
60°N
40°N
20°N
on
20°S
40°S
60°S
80°S
1 80°W 1 35°W 90°W 45°W 0° 45°E 90°E 1 35°E 1 80°E
FIGURE 2.5B
being shown by an Australian-New Zealand expedition (National Oceans
Office, 2003), systematic biological exploration in even a small portion of
the ocean can provide a rich collection of new organisms. This recent effort
explored deep sea habitats of the seamounts and abyssal plains and has
identified new species and improved our understanding of the distributions
of previously-identified organisms. This one month journey collected more
than 100 previously unidentified fish species and up to 300 new species of
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JUSTIFICATION FOR A NEW OCEAN EXPLORATION PROGRAM
1 80°W 1 35°W 90°W
odor
Balm ~ HI L
1 ~ ~~ ;
^~ ~ ~ ~ .
. ~~d ~~ .
~~ 2~°~~
~ , ....
45°W 0° 45°E
.
90°E 1 35°E 1 80°E
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FIGURE 2.5C
35
il
Invertebrates (Figure 2.6; National Oceans Office, 2003~. This type of
systematic, organized exploration is not currently under way in the United
States and highlights the types of exciting discoveries that the oceans still
hold. A very recent, but limited, example of such an exploratory effort by
the U n ited States has been i n itiated by the Department of Energy to i nvesti-
gate the genomic structures of all organisms within an oceanic ecosystem
(Whitfield, 2003~. Although the Sargasso Sea is thought to exhibit limited
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36
EXPLORATION OF THE SEAS
FIGURE 2.6 This is a member of the lantern shark family (Dalatiidae), which belongs to
a new species recently recognized but yet to be described, was discovered off the
coast of New Zealand in May 2003 (used with permission from the National Oceans
Office [Aus], the Ministry of Fisheries [NZ], CSIRO [Aus], and the National Institute of
Water and Atmospheric Research [NZ]). They are small sharks that range in size from
20 to 80 cm long, and they get their name from the dark patches on the undersides of
the belly and tail, which are light organs. The light is made using chemicals to hide the
shark's silhouette from predators beneath it.
biodiversity and a simple ecosystem (Holder, 2003), it is anticipated that
this work may reveal new pathways of carbon sequestration and hydrogen
generation (Whitfield, 20031.
In addition to the regional needs for exploration, ocean research that
investigates changes over time is limited. Exploring the fourth dimension-
time has typically not received sufficient attention. Expeditions to new
areas for short periods can provide "snapshots" of the state of the ocean, but
they are inadequate for explaining change or transient events, many of
which pose considerable hazard to humans and our structures. Examples
include phenomena such as El Nino, rapid climate change, volcanic erup-
tions, and earthquakes (National Research Council, 20011.
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JUSTIFICATION FOR A NEW OCEAN EXPLORATION PROGRAM
Finding: The very nature of scientific investigation leads oceanographers
to seek out information to verify hypotheses and confirm earlier find-
ings. The infrastructure and support needed for oceanographic work
is expensive, limited, and highly scheduled to ensure efficiency in the
pursuit of knowledge about the oceans.
As a result, much of the
oceanographic research currently conducted re-investigates previously
visited locations, limiting access to new regions and restricting long-
term data collection.
Recommendation: Oceanographic research should encourage
scientifically-rigorous, systematic investigations of new sites in the
oceans. Exploration through time should be included in oceanographic
research.
UNIQUE APPLICATIONS OF NEW CAPABILITIES
The development and adoption of technology and rapid advancement
of data processing and storage have been keys in the advancement of ocean
science. Inevitably, chance discoveries enabled by new technology have
identified useful concepts (Box 2.1 ). The development of a scalar magne-
tometer was used in the discovery of plate tectonics and deep-towed
vehicles and submersibles led to the discovery of life forms that have chemo-
synthetic metabolic pathways that are independent of photosynthesis.
Exciting new technologies allow access to regions, and on geographical
scales, that the previous generation of oceanographers would not have
dreamt possible. Satellites provide a platform for both remote sensing
equipment capable of measuring such things as global ocean temperature,
and can act as relay stations for real-time data downloading from oceano-
graphic systems around the globe.
. . ..
it
to
Increased computer storage enables
researchers to compile and store enormous datasets that were previously
unimaginable and allow for rabid mathematical and Graphical analysis of
data. The great leaps in ocean technology over the past 7() years from
remotely operated vehicles to the satellite-based remote sensing systems-
now provide access to new locations and should be capitalized on to
mp rove our knowledge of the oceans. Chapter 6 describes many of the
existing and new technologies that support ocean research.
The data collected during exploration provide a legacy for research,
commerce, education, and regulation. Ocean explorers have an obligation
to collect data systematically and to pass their observations along quickly
for use by others in ways that could be entirely unforeseen. Freedom of
cat . ,
. ~
37
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38
EXPLORATION OF THE SEAS
The continental margins contain the Earth's largest remaining source of fossil fuel in the
form of methane hydrates. Some 5 to 25 percent of this methane is consumed by microbes in
the shallow surface sediments. However, because the habitats generally are anaerobic (lacking
free oxygen), it has long been a puzzle how those organisms oxidize methane to provide energy
for their life functions. Using samples collected by a remotely operated vehicle from methane
seeps near Eel River, California, scientists from the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute,
the Pennsylvania State University, and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution obtained the
first direct identification of the Archaea that consume methane near anoxic methane seeps and
hydrates. The by-products of this reaction are free hydrogen and carbon dioxide. The process
involves a novel symbiotic relationship with sulfate-reducing bacteria that maintain a low
enough partial pressure of hydrogen to keep the methane reaction energetically favorable.
What is intriguing about this chance discovery is the possibility that the organic process could
be used to "mine" deep-sea deposits of methane hydrate, which could be supplied to clean-
burning fuel cells in the form of free hydrogen. The process would not exacerbate global
warming because the carbon dioxide would remain in the deep sea.
access to data is essential for fostering innovation and the conversion of the
investment into scientific discoveries, commercial products, and the devel-
opment of sound ocean policy. Sampling procedures should be standard-
ized to ensure quality control, and data should be publicly available, insofar
as possible, in real time. Although commercial investment can require
restrictions to protect proprietary data and to foster development of dis-
coveries, such cases should be regarded as exceptions.
There are aspects, regions, and dimensions of the world's oceans that
arguably will not advance in our understanding without a new systematic,
coordinated exploration program for collecting the fundamental data from
which unifying, predictive theories can emerge. Is there a paradigm that
will explain the first-order patterns of biomass or biodiversity in the deep
sea based on variations in temperature, nutrient availability, hydrothermal
circulation, or other environmental factors? Researchers cannot begin to
understand this question now because there are no systematic data sets that
allow comparison of different regions. Because of their inaccessibility some
regions have been overlooked in the earlier phases of exploration. Little is
known of tectonic history or circulation patterns in the Arctic Ocean, for
example. Because of the difficulty in mounting expeditions to the Arctic,
conducting exploratory research (for example, by collecting systematic
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JUSTIFICATION FOR A NEW OCEAN EXPLORATION PROGRAM
observations broadly in all scientific dimensions that can be practically
accommodated) is the most cost-effective way to advance our understand-
ing of this region that is so sensitive to climate change.
.
Finding: Rapid progress in ocean sampling devices now allows
researchers access to new environments, including the extremes of
hydrothermal systems, the seafloor, and waters beneath the ice of the
Arctic Ocean. The potential of new technology in satellites, under-
water equipment, remote sensing technology, and observing systems
has not yet been met.
Recommendation: An ocean exploration program should seek to access
and encourage new developments in ocean technology.
A NEW PROGRAM OF OCEAN EXPLORATION IS NECESSARY
Systematic, or coordinated, ocean exploration is not a current practice
within the United States. New discoveries about the oceans are often the
result of serendipitous circumstances, for instance, the inadvertent discovery
of entirely new ecosystems at hydrothermal vents. Exciting discoveries
about the oceans occur frequently, but the rate could be greatly enhanced
by pursuing new research topics in new regions of the oceans.
A limited national ocean exploration effort has recently begun and is
operated through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
Since 2001, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Office
of Ocean Exploration has sought to "...explore and better understand our
oceans. The office supports expeditions, exploration projects, and a number
of related field campaigns for the purpose of discovery and documentation
of ocean voyages" (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
2003a). It is the committee's sense that this fledgling national effort is too
limited in scope. The education and outreach efforts are laudable, and the
office has made the important step of committing 10 percent of their budget
to those activities. However, uncertainty in the annual budgeting process
makes long-term planning difficult, and the funding levels to date hover at
$14 million. As no future vision for the program has yet been released it is
difficult for this committee to determine whether this young program can be
adapted to fill the role outlined in this report, but the program has not
capitalized on much of the scientific expertise in the United States and
relies on heavily leveraging funds and assets against other oceanographic
research programs.
39
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do
EXPLORATION OF THE SEAS
Currently the pursuit of ocean data is largely an independent, researcher-
driven effort with only scattered attempts at public education. As a largely
publicly-funded endeavor, oceanographers have a responsibility to com-
municate their findings clearly not only to the funding agencies, but to the
broader public. Large numbers of people live near oceans and many depend
on it for their sustenance or livelihood, but few understand the complexity
of the ocean ecosystem or its importance to society. Although efforts to
educate the public in both formal and informal settings are increasing
through programs such as the National Science Foundation's Centers for
Ocean Science Education Excellence program, outreach and education in
the marine sciences is largely uncoordinated. Few members of the public
appreciate the role the oceans play in our lives, and the relationship between
the oceans, atmosphere, and land. Good public policy demands that the
public engage in the excitement of ocean research, exploit public interest
through education about the wealth and limitations of the ocean, and pro-
mote citizen and decision-makers understanding about ocean issues and
policy. Chapter 7 discusses some of the outreach and education possibili-
ties i n more detai 1.
Finding: Oceans provide food, energy and mineral resources, products
capable of treating human disease, and affect climate and global
responses to changes in climate. A new large-scale program devoted
to ocean exploration is necessary to:
· coordinate efforts in ocean discovery and capitalize on the wide
array of available data;
· provide new resources and facilities for access by researchers;
· establish support for and promote interdisciplinary approaches to
ocean investigations;
· develop outreach and public education tools to increase public
awareness and understanding of the oceans;
· discover the living and nonliving resources of the oceans; and
· provide a multidisciplinary archive of ocean data to serve as a
source of basic data upon which to develop hypotheses for further
investigation.
Recommendation: A coordinated, broadly-based ocean exploration
effort that meets the highest standards of scientific excellence should
be aggressively pursued. An ocean exploration program should be
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JUSTIFICATION FOR A NEW OCEAN EXPLORATION PROGRAM
initiated and exhibit the following characteristics, which can also be
used to gauge its ultimate success:
The program should be global and multidisciplinary.
The program must receive international support.
The program should consider all three spatial dimensions as well as
time.
The program should seek to discover new living and nonliving
resources in the ocean.
The program should include developments of new tools, probes,
sensors, and systems for multidisciplinary ocean exploration.
The program should reach out to increase literacy pertaining to
ocean science and management issues for learners of all ages to
maximize the impact for research, commercial, regulatory, and
educational benefits.
· The program should standardize sampling, data management, and
dissemination.
~1
Representative terms from entire chapter:
exploration program
