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REFERENCES 189 Baldwin, Laura-Mae, Eric H. Larson, Frederick A. Connell, Daniel Nordlund, et al. 1998. The Effect of Expanding Medicaid Prenatal Services on Birth Outcomes. American Journal of Public Health 88(11):1623-1629. Beauchamp, Dan E., and Ronald L. Rouse. 1990. Universal New York Health Care: A Single-Payer Strategy Linking Cost Control and Universal Access. New England Journal of Medicine 323(10): 640-644. Beckles, Gloria L. A., Michael M. Engelgau, K. M. V. Narayan, William H. Herman, et al. 1998. Population-Based Assessment of the Level of Care Among Adults with Diabetes in the U.S. Diabetes Care 21(9):1432-1438. Berk, Marc L., and Alan C. Monheit. 2001. The Concentration of Health Care Expenditures, Revis- ited. Health Affairs 20(2):9-18. Bernstein, Amy B. 1999. Insurance Status and Use of Health Services by Pregnant Women. Washington, DC: March of Dimes. Bhandari, Shailesh, and Robert Mills. 2003. Dynamics of Economic Well-Being: Health Insurance 1996- 1999. Current Population Reports. P70-92. Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau. Birnbaum, Michael. 2000. Expanding Coverage to Parents Through Medicaid Section 1931. Washington, DC: Academy for Health Services Research and Health Policy, State Coverage Initiatives. Blue Cross Blue Shield Association. 2000. State Legislative Health Care and Insurance Issues: 2000 Survey of Plans. Washington, DC: Blue Cross Blue Shield Association. Blumberg, Linda J. 2001. Health Insurance Tax Credits: Potential for Expanding Coverage. Health Policy Briefs. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute. Bovbjerg, Randall, Charles C. Griffin, and Caitlin E. Carroll. 1993. U.S. Health Care Coverage and Costs: Historical Development and Choices for the 1990s. Journal of Law, Medicine, and Ethics 21(2):141-162. Bovbjerg, Randall R., and Frank C. Ullman. 2002. Recent Changes in Health Policy for Low-Income People in Massachusetts. State Update No. 17. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute. Boyd, Donald J. 2003. Health Care Within the Larger State Budget. Pp. 59-110 in: Federalism and Health Policy, John Holahan, Alan Weil, and Joshua Wiener, eds. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute. Braveman, Paula, Susan Egerter, Trude Bennett, and Jonathan Showstack. 1991. Differences in Hos- pital Resource Allocation Among Sick Newborns According to Insurance Coverage. Journal of the American Medical Association 266(23):3300-3308. Breen, Nancy, Diane Wagener, Martin L. Brown, William Davis, et al. 2001. Progress in Cancer Screening over a Decade. Results of Cancer Screening from the 1987, 1992 and 1998 National Health Interview Surveys. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 93(22):1704-1713. Broaddus, Matthew, and Leighton Ku. 2000. Nearly 95 Percent of Low-Income Uninsured Children Now Are Eligible for Medicaid or SCHIP. Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. Broaddus, Matthew, Shannon Blaney, Annie Dude, Jocelyn Guyer, et al. 2002. Expanding Family Coverage: States’ Medicaid Eligibility Policies for Working Families in the Year 2000. Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. Brown, E. R., Ninez Ponce, Thomas Rice, and Shana Alex Lavarreda. 2002. The State of Health Insurance in California: Findings From the 2001 California Health Interview Survey. Los Angeles: UCLA Center for Health Policy Research. Brown, Lawrence D., and Michael S. Sparer. 2001. Window Shopping: State Health Reform Politics in the 1990s. Health Affairs 20(1):50-67. Bundorf, M. Kate, and Mark V. Pauly. 2002. Is Health Insurance Affordable for the Uninsured? Working Paper No.9281. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. Burstin, Helen R., Stuart R. Lipsitz, and Troyen A. Brennan. 1992. Socioeconomic Status and Risk for Substandard Medical Care. Journal of the American Medical Association 268(17):2383-2387. Burstin, Helen R., Katherine Swartz, Anne C. O’Neill, E. John Orav, et al. 1998. The Effect of Change of Health Insurance on Access to Care. Inquiry 35:389-397.

190 INSURING AMERICA’S HEALTH Butler, Patricia. 2000. ERISA Pre-Emption Manual for State Health Policy Makers. Washington, DC: Academy for Health Services Research and Health Policy, State Coverage Initiatives. ———. 2002. Revisiting Pay or Play: How States Could Expand Employer-Based Coverage Within ERISA Constraints. Portland, ME: National Academy for State Health Policy. Butler, Stuart M. 2001. Reforming the Tax Treatment of Health Care to Achieve Universal Cover- age. Pp. 23-42 in: Covering America: Real Remedies for the Uninsured, Jack A. Meyer and Elliot K. Wicks, eds. Washington, DC: Economic and Social Research Institute. Carlisle, David M., Barbara D. Leake, and Martin F. Shapiro. 1997. Racial and Ethnic Disparities in the Use of Cardiovascular Procedures: Associations with Type of Health Insurance. American Journal of Public Health 87(2):263-267. Carpenter, Charles C. J., Margaret A. Fischl, Scott M. Hammer, Martin S. Hirsch, et al. 1996. Antiretroviral Therapy for HIV Infection in 1996. Journal of the American Medical Association 276(2):146-154. ———. 1998. Antiretroviral Therapy for HIV Infection in 1998: Updated Recommendations of the International AIDS Society-USA Panel. Journal of the American Medical Association 280(1):78-86. Carrier, Paul. 2003. Health-Care Bill Close to Passage in Legislature. Portland Press Herald. June 13, 2003. Catholic Health Association. 2002. A Commitment to Caring. The Role of Catholic Hospitals in the Health Care Safety Net. Accessed November 18, 2002. Available at: http://chausa.org/PUBLICPO/ SAFETYNET.ASP. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2002. Infant Mortality Rates, Fetal Mortality Rates, and Perinatal Rates, According to Race: United States, Selected Years 1950-99. Table 23. Accessed July 7, 2003. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hus/tables/2002/02hus023.pdf. ———. 2003. Early Release of Selected Estimates Based on Data from the 2002 National Health Interview Survey. Accessed October 1, 2003. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhis/ earlyrelease/200306_01.pdf. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS). 2003a. Fiscal Year 2002 Number of Children Ever Enrolled in SCHIP—Preliminary Data Summary. Accessed April 2, 2003. Available at: http:// www.cms.gov/schip/schip02.pdf. ———. 2003b. State Children’s Health Insurance Program Plan Activity Map. Accessed April 2, 2003. Available at: http://www.cms.gov/schip/chip-map.asp. Chernew, Michael, David Cutler, and Patricia Seliger Keenan. 2002. Rising Health Care Costs and the Decline in Insurance Coverage. Ann Arbor, MI: Economic Research Initiative on the Uninsured. Child Health Insurance Initiative. 2002. SCHIP Disenrollment and State Policies. Washington, DC: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Chollet, Deborah, and Lori Achman. 2003. Approaching Universal Coverage: Minnesota’s Health Insurance Programs. Pub. No. 566. New York: The Commonwealth Fund. Chollet, Deborah, and Adele Kirk. 1998. Understanding Individual Health Insurance Markets: Structure, Practices, and Products in Ten States. Menlo Park, CA: The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. Chollet, Deborah, Glen Mays, January Angeles, Roland McDevitt, et al. 2002. Feasibility of a Single- Payer Health Plan Model for the State of Maine. MPR Reference No. 8889-300. Washington, DC: Mathematica Policy Research. Collins, Sara R., Cathy Schoen, and Katie Tenney. 2003. Rites of Passage? Why Young Adults Become Uninsured and How New Policies Can Help. Issue Brief No. 649. New York: The Commonwealth Fund. Commonwealth Fund. 2001. A Shared Responsibility: Academic Health Centers and the Provision of Care to the Poor and Uninsured. New York: The Commonwealth Fund, Task Force on Academic Health Centers. Congressional Budget Office (CBO). 2002. Glossary of Budgetary and Economic Terms. Accessed No- vember 25, 2002. Available at: http://www.cbo.gov/showdoc.cfm?index=3280&sequence=0. ———. 2003. How Many People Lack Health Insurance and for How Long? Washington, DC: Congress of the United States and Congressional Budget Office.

REFERENCES 191 Congressional Quarterly. 1973. Congress and the Nation: A Review of Government and Politics. Vol. 3 (1969-1972). Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Service. ———. 1977. Congress and the Nation: A Review of Government and Politics. Vol. 4 (1973-1976). Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Service. Conover, Christopher J., and Hester H. Davies. 2000. The Role of TennCare in Health Policy for Low- Income People in Tennessee. Occasional Paper No. 33. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute. Conviser, Richard. N.d. A Brief History of the Oregon Health Plan and its Features. Portland, OR: State of Oregon. Cooper, Philip F., and Barbara S. Schone. 1997. More Offers, Fewer Takers for Employer-Based Health Insurance: 1987 and 1996. Health Affairs 16(6):142-149. Cooper-Patrick, Lisa, Rosa M. Crum, Laura A. Pratt, William W. Eaton, et al. 1999. The Psychiatric Profile of Patients with Chronic Disease Who Do Not Receive Regular Medical Care. Interna- tional Journal of Psychiatry 29(2):165-180. Corrigan, Janet M., Ann Greiner, and Shari M. Erickson (eds.). 2003. Fostering Rapid Advances in Health Care. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Cummings, Doyle M., Lauren Whetstone, Amy Shende, and David Weismiller. 2000. Predictors of Screenings Mammography: Implications for Office Practice. Archives of Family Medicine 9(9):870- 875. Cunningham, Peter. 2003. Personal communication with IOM staff. Washington, DC: Center for Study- ing Health System Change. Cunningham, Peter, and Ha T. Tu. 1997. A Changing Picture of Uncompensated Care. Health Affairs 14(4):167-175. Cunningham, Peter J., Jack Hadley, and James D Reschovsky. 2002. The Effects of SCHIP on Children’s Health Insurance Coverage. Accessed April 7, 2003. Available at: http://www.hschange.com/ CONTENT/510. Cunningham, Robert, III, and Cunningham, Robert M. Jr. 1997. The Blues. A History of the Blue Cross and Blue Shield System. DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press. Currie, Janet, and Jonathan Gruber. 1996a. Health Insurance Eligibility, Utilization of Medical Care, and Child Health. The Quarterly Journal of Economics 111(2):431-466. ———. 1996b. Saving Babies: The Efficacy and Cost of Recent Changes in the Medicaid Eligibility of Pregnant Women. Journal of Political Economy 104(6):1263-1296. Curtis, Richard E., and Edward Neuschler. 2002. Tax Credits for Individual Health Insurance: Effects on Employer Coverage and Refinements to Improve Overall Coverage Rates. Washington, DC: Economic and Social Research Institute. Curtis, Richard E., Edward Neuschler, and Rafe Forland. 2001. Consumer-Choice Purchasing Pools: Past Tense, Future Perfect? Health Affairs 20(1):164-168. Custer, William S., and Pat Ketsche. 2000. Employment-Based Health Insurance Coverage. Washington, DC: Health Insurance Association of America. Cutler, David M. 2002. Employee Costs and the Decline in Health Insurance Coverage. Boston, MA: Harvard University and National Bureau of Economic Research. Cutler, David M., and Jonathan Gruber. 1996a. Does Public Insurance Crowd Out Private Insurance? Quarterly Journal of Economics 111:391-430. ———. 1996b. The Effect of Medicaid Expansions on Public Insurance, Private Insurance, and Redistribution. The American Economic Review 86(2):378-383. ———. 1997. Medicaid and Private Insurance: Evidence and Implications. Health Affairs 16(1):194- 200. Cutler, David M., and Elizabeth Richardson. 1997. Measuring the Health of the United States Population. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity. Microeconomics:217-271. Dafny, Leemore, and Jonathan Gruber. 2000. Does Public Insurance Improve the Efficiency of Medical Care? Medicaid Expansions and Child Hospitalizations. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Eco- nomic Research.

192 INSURING AMERICA’S HEALTH Daumit, Gail, Judith A. Hermann, Josef Coresh, and Neil R. Powe. 1999. Use of Cardiovascular Procedures Among Black Persons and White Persons: A 7-Year Nationwide Study in Patients with Renal Disease. Annals of Internal Medicine 130(3):173-182. Daumit, Gail L., Judith A. Hermann, and Neil R. Powe. 2000. Relation of Gender and Health Insurance to Cardiovascular Procedure Use in Persons with Progression of Chronic Renal Disease. Medical Care 38(4):354-365. Davis, Karen. 2001. Universal Coverage in the United States: Lessons from Experience of the 20th Century. Journal of Urban Health 78(1):46-58. Davis, Karen, and Cathy Schoen. 2003. Creating Consensus on Coverage Choices. Accessed May 1, 2003. Available at: http://www.healthaffairs.org/WebExclusives/Davis_Web_Excl_042303.htm. Davis, Karen, Cathy Schoen, and Stephen C. Schoenbaum. 2000. A 2020 Vision for American Health Care. Archives of Internal Medicine 160(22):3357-3362. Derickson, Alan. 2002. Health for Three-Thirds of the Nation. American Journal of Public Health 92(2):180-190. Dick, Andrew W. 1994. Will Employer Mandates Really Work? Another Look at Hawaii. Health Affairs 13(1):343-349. Docteur, Elizabeth, Hannes Suppanz, and Jaejoon Woo. 2003. The US Health System: An Assessment and Prospective Directions for Reform. Economics Department Working Papers No. 350. Accessed April 17, 2003. Available at: http://www.oecd.org/eco. Dorn, Stan. 2003. The Trade Act of 2002: Coverage Options for States. In Focus. Washington, DC: AcademyHealth, State Coverage Initiatives. Doty, Michelle, and Cathy Schoen. 2001. Maintaining Health Insurance During a Recession: Likely COBRA Eligibility. Issue Brief No. 513. New York: The Commonwealth Fund. Doyle, James. 2003. As Medicaid Enrollment Has Surged, Composition of Caseload Has Changed. Back- ground Paper. Accessed July 7, 2003. Available at: http://www.ibo.nyc.ny.us. Doyle, Joseph J. 2001. Does Health Insurance Affect Treatment Decisions & Patient Outcomes? Using Automobile Accidents As Unexpected Health Shocks. Chicago: University of Chicago, Unpublished MS. Draper, Debra A., Linda R. Brewster, Lawrence D. Brown, Lance Heineccius, et al. 2001a. Financial Pressures Continue to Plague Hospitals: Northern New Jersey. Washington, DC: Center for Studying Health System Change. Draper, Debra A., Linda R. Brewster, Lawrence D. Brown, Carolyn A. Watts, et al. 2001b. Rapid Population Growth Attracts National Firm: Phoenix, Arizona. Community Report, Third Visit, 2000-2001. Washington, DC: Center for Studying Health System Change. Dubay, Lisa. 1999. Expansions in Public Health Insurance and Crowd Out: What the Evidence Says. Accessed July 2, 2001. Available at: http://www.kff.org. Dubay, Lisa, Jennifer Haley, and Genevieve Kenney. 2002a. Children’s Eligibility for Medicaid and SCHIP: A View From 2000. Series B, No. B-41.Washington, DC: The Urban Institute. Dubay, Lisa, Ian Hill, and Genevieve Kenney. 2002b. Five Things Everyone Should Know About SCHIP. Series B, No. 40. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute. Dubay, Lisa, Genevieve Kenney, and Jennifer Haley. 2002c. Children’s Participation in Medicaid and SCHIP: Early in the SCHIP Era. Series B, No. B-40. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute. Duchon, Lisa, Cathy Schoen, Michelle M. Doty, Karen Davis, et al. 2001. Security Matters: How Instability in Health Insurance Puts U.S. Workers at Risk: Findings from the 2001 Health Insurance Survey. Pub. 512. New York: The Commonwealth Fund. Eastman, A. B., Charles L. Rice, David G. Bishop, and J. David Richardson. 1991. An Analysis of the Critical Problem of Trauma Center Reimbursement. Journal of Trauma 31(7):920-925. Edmunds, Margo, and Molly Joel Coye (eds.). 1998. America’s Children: Health Insurance and Access to Care. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Etheredge, Lynn. 1990. Universal Health Insurance: Lessons of the 1970s, Prospects for the 1990s. Frontiers of Health Services Management 6(4):3-50.

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According to the Census Bureau, in 2003 more than 43 million Americans lacked health insurance. Being uninsured is associated with a range of adverse health, social, and economic consequences for individuals and their families, for the health care systems in their communities, and for the nation as a whole. This report is the sixth and final report in a series by the Committee on the Consequences of Uninsurance, intended to synthesize what is known about these consequences and communicate the extent and urgency of the issue to the public. Insuring America’s Health recommends principles related to universality, continuity of coverage, affordability to individuals and society, and quality of care to guide health insurance reform. These principles are based on the evidence reviewed in the committee’s previous five reports and on new analyses of past and present federal, state, and local efforts to reduce uninsurance. The report also demonstrates how those principles can be used to assess policy options. The committee does not recommend a specific coverage strategy. Rather, it shows how various approaches could extend coverage and achieve certain of the committee’s principles.

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