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4
An Assessment of the Current
Public Health System:
A Shattered Vision
The following chapter describes the current state of public health as
observed by the committee during the course of its study. The committee
viewed public health on a broad scale, considering the participation of all of
the groups described in Chapter 2 which fulfill the mission of public health:
government and government agencies, private providers, and voluntary
organizations. This broad level is termed the public health system* by the
committee. Within this group, the committee focused on the role and
activities of the public health agencies, the government entities that focus the
mission of public health. Other participants were considered primarily in
relation to the public health agencies.
Within the United States, the role of public health agencies and their
relationships with other participants in the system vary tremendously. These
variations reflect tremendous differences in the fundamental concept of the
definition and mission of public health across the country.
"Public health" in the United States is defined not only by the scope of
health problems and their interventions in each area, but also by the values
* In the United States, government responsibility to protect the public's health is represented
by public health agencies, state and local health departments, and by the federal Department of
Health and Human Services. Thepublic health system in the United States includes a wide array
of other public agencies, such as environmental, occupational safety, mental health, develop-
mental disability, and social service agencies at national, state, and local levels. It also includes
national, state, and local private organizations and providers, such as health professional
associations, citizen advocacy groups, the media, community health centers, and research
foundations. Together, these participants in the system fulfill the mission of public health. The
public health agencies, as the governmental representative of public health, focus this mission.
73
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74
THE FUTURE OF PUBLIC HEALTH
Americans have about the importance of a particular problem and the
necessity of addressing that problem with public activities. The current
public health system is shaped by its goals, by the health problems to be
solved, and by the political system within which it functions.
Because public health problems are often addressed on a state and local
rather than a national scale, goals are set within different political systems.
Different communities have different health problems and they have appre-
ciably different political and social organizations and values. So, public
health systems in these communities vary widely and offer widely differing
public health services.
Viewed from a national perspective, the national public health system is a
scene of tremendous variety and disarray as different communities work out
different solutions to public health problems.
This chapter describes how the committee conducted its study of the
national public health system and then describes the committee's observa-
tions of the system in specific areas it visited. Anecdotes from local areas are
used as representative data, reflecting trends observed on a national level
from published data, literature, and committee experience. Major charac-
teristics of the entire system are briefly summarized in this chapter. A more
detailed description of the public health system can be found in Appendix
A to this report.
VIEWING THE SYSTEM
For this study, the committee decided that its conclusions about the
current public health system would benefit from firsthand observation that
could augment analysis of more inclusive information summarized in this
chapter and in Appendix A. Therefore, it made site visits to the state capitals
and several local areas in California, Mississippi, New Jersey, South Dakota,
Washington, and West Virginia. In each state committee members and staff
spoke with hundreds of citizens who work in and are served by the public
health system. The committee also held four open meetings in Las Vegas,
Boston, New Orleans, and Chicago at which several hundred citizens and
public health practitioners spoke.
The committee realized that not all variations in the country could possi-
bly be examined in site visits. However, the committee felt that a careful
selection of sites in six states would present sufficient variety to illustrate the
range of health problems and public health activities that exist across the
nation. The areas visited within the states were chosen to reflect a variety of
geographical locations, urban-rural mix, health problems, population mix
and economic status, public health agency organization, and array of public
health services. (See Appendix D for a fuller description of the selection
process and the plan for the site visits.) Individual sites were treated as
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AN ASSESSMENT OF THE CURRENT PUB f IC HEALTH SYSTEM 75
illustrative rather than representative of public health practice in the United
States or as exhaustive case studies. But the committee believes that these
illustrations illuminate fundamental issues for the entire system.
Among the six states, population density ranged from one of the most
densely populated states to one of the least. In one, the proportion of urban
dwellers was 16 percent; in another, 95 percent. Per capita personal income
in the states ranged from $8,857 to $15,182. Percentage of high school
graduates in the state varied from 55 percent to 77 percent, and unemploy-
ment from 6.2 percent to 13 percent. The states had different percentages of
minority groups, including blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and Native Ameri-
cans, as well as populations of illegal immigrants. State and local health
expenditures per person were as low as $72, and as high as $172. Physicians
per 100,000 population ranged from 107 to 230. (U.S. Department of
Commerce, 1986) In some states, private health resources and services were
abundant, and in some they were very scarce. Some state governments put a
great deal of emphasis on carrying out the public health mission, and some
put very little emphasis on it.
At each site, committee members and committee staff spoke with state
and local health officers; state and local health department directors and
program administrators; state and local environmental, social service, and
mental health agency personnel; representatives of local and state govern-
ment; representatives of hospital, medical, and nursing professional associa-
tions and of citizen organizations; health professionals; administrators and
board members in private and public hospitals and clinics; journalists; and
professors of medicine and of public health. The committee conducted a
total of more than 350 interviews.
Interviews focused mainly on health problems identified by those inter-
viewed and the means by which the system was successfully or unsuccessfully
handling these problems. Identified problems included teenage pregnancy,
medical care for indigent populations, safe water supply, the disposal of
hazardous materials, AIDS, alcoholism, mental health, prenatal care,
smoking prevention, access to medical care, sexually transmitted diseases,
infant mortality, home health, long-term care, Alzheimer's disease, injuries,
malpractice, childhood vaccines, substance abuse, asbestos, radiation con-
trol, and dental health. Many views of public health were expressed, ranging
from "it affects everybody" to "it's whatever the market won't do." Descrip-
tions of public health agencies varied from "the public health department is
the champion/guardian of the public's health" to "I don't know what they
do" and "public health professionals are 'also fans' in the medical profession."
Federal health officials were also interviewed during the study. And a
subgroup of the committee made a visit to Toronto, Canada, to discuss the
Canadian public health system with several health officials and health pro-
fessionals.
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76
THE FUTURE OF PUBLIC HEALTH
Of the four meetings to which members of the public were invited, the first
was held during the annual meeting of the American Public Health Associa-
tion in Las Vegas, Nevada, in September 1986. The other meetings were held
in Boston, Massachusetts, in October 1986; New Orleans, Louisiana, Febru-
ary 1987; and Chicago, Illinois, May 1987. More than 350 people, including
citizens of 39 states, the District of Columbia, and Canada, attended these
meetings. Attendees included state health commissioners and state health
agency officials; local health officers; deans and professors of medical
schools, schools of public health, nursing schools, and schools of public
administration; federal health officials; consumer representatives; physi-
cians, nurses, social workers, health educators, and mental health
professionals; representatives of state medical associations, state nurse's
associations, and state social worker's associations; directors of public hospi-
tals and community health centers; members of state boards of health; and
representatives from nonprofit associations. Topics discussed at these meet-
ings included the philosophy and scope of public health, specific issues in
public health organization, management, leadership and resources, and
particular health needs.
The committee also held a special meeting on education and training for
public health. It was attended by deans and professors from all of the schools
of public health, representatives of other educational programs providing
public health training, state and local government officials, representatives
from national organizations focused on health education, and state and local
public health professionals from the field. Presentations were given and
discussions held on a variety of issues pertaining to education and practice,
including the nature of professional education, the nature of public health as
a profession, the relationship between public health practice and education,
and the role and activities of schools of public health in educating health
professionals. The proceedings of this meeting will be published by the
Institute of Medicine in a separate volume.
Additionally, the committee collected and reviewed extensive amounts of
current and historical literature and data on public health problems and the
public health system.
Although the committee looked into a broad array of issues in public
health, it concentrated on those problems of a public scope rather than
health services aimed primarily at the individual. In some cases, this distinc-
tion was not easy to make. For instance, most mental health services are
directed toward the individual, but all states sponsor mental health pro-
grams. Rather than attempt to study both fields, or study such a vast and
important topic in an adjunct manner, the committee decided to focus on
those aspects of mental health that substantially overlap with public health.
During its study, the committee spoke with a number of mental health
professionals; discussed several mental health problems that are dealt with
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AN ASSESSMENT OF THE CURRENT PUB LIC HEALTH SYSTEM 77
on a public level, including alcoholism, substance abuse, Alzheimer's dis-
ease, and homelessness; and discussed the role of public health in coordinat-
ing with mental health programs. But the committee did not make a separate
study of the provision of mental health services to individuals, a very large
public responsibility in all states. Likewise, the committee's approach to
social and human services, many of which intersect with public health
concerns, was limited to those having direct interaction with public health
activities.
The committee paid principal attention to public health at the state and
local levels. An extensive amount of information was collected from the
federal government, but the federal role in public health was mostly consid-
ered as it relates to state and local health systems.
THE PUBLIC HEALTH SYSTEM
This section describes the public health system as observed by the commit-
tee in its research. The discussion focuses on state and local public health
agencies-the central agents in the public health system-and their activities
and describes other components of the system in relation to health agencies.
A brief summary of the organization and scope of the public health system
activities at the national, state, and local levels is followed by a description of
the ways the system operates in the specific localities visited by the commit-
tee in the summer of 1986. Observations on issues and problems of the public
health system are drawn primarily from the site visits conducted by the
committee, but information presented in meetings and literature and data
collected by the committee are also taken into account.
SUMMARY OF THE NATIONAL PUBLIC HEALTH SYSTEM
State
The U.S. Constitution empowers state governments to protect the health
and welfare of their citizens through the exercise of police power. States have
thus become the central authorities in the nation's public health system.
(Grad, 1981)
Each of the 54 states and territories of the United States has designated an
agency for public health. The organization and leadership of these agencies
vary. Some are parts of state superagencies for human services, and some are
independent. Some are combined with mental health or environmental
agencies, and some are not. (Public Health Foundation, 1986) Some state
health agency directors are required to be physicians with public health
experience, and some are administrators with management experience.
(American Medical Association, 1984)
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78
Trill FUTURE OF PUBLIC HEALTH
The state public health agencies carry out each of the public health
functions described in Chapter 2: assessment, policy development, and
assurance of access to health services. Although general functions are the
same, scope of activities and specific activities of health agencies vary
tremendously. Some states conduct a wide array of services, and some only a
few. Some concentrate on assessment and policy development activities,
some concentrate almost solely on assuring access and delivering personal
health services. State resources designated to health also vary. (Public
Health Foundation, 1986)
Finally, state public health agencies differ in their relationships with other
state agencies involved in health, in their relationships with local health
authorities, and in their relationships with the private sector. Some work
closely together, some rarely communicate, and some openly compete.
A more detailed description of state health agencies and their leadership,
organization, activities, and resources is presented in Appendix A.
Local
Local health agencies are the critical components of the public health
system that directly deliver public health services to citizens. Local govern-
ments and local agencies are invested with power by their state governments.
(Grad, 1981) Although local authorities may carry out each of the public
health functions outlined in Chapter 2, they are generally substantially more
involved in assurance activities, largely the actual provision of services to the
population. (Miller and Moos, 1981; Public Health Foundation, 1986)
Differences in geography and systems of government allow local health
agencies to vary even more greatly than state agencies. Some local health
agencies are municipal, some serve a county, and some serve groups of
counties, or districts. (Miller and Moos, 1981) Some are directed by full-time
physician health officers with public health experience; some are run by part-
time administrators with little public health experience. (Miller et al., 1977)
Some local areas have large, sophisticated health departments that carry out
all public health functions with little dependence on the state. Many areas
have smaller, more limited health departments that work in conjunction
with, or as a branch of, the state health department. And some local areas
have no public health department at all. (Public Health Foundation, 1986)
Local health agencies also vary considerably in their procurement and
allocation of resources.
Finally, local health agencies vary in their relationships with other local
agencies and with private providers. Some are components of local super-
agencies; some are independent. Many rely on private providers to augment
services; some have little to do with private providers.
Local health agencies and their activities are also summarized in Appen-
dix A to this report.
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AN ASSESSMENT OF THE CURRENT PUBLIC HEA ETH SYSTEM 79
Federal
The federal government plays a strong role in public health. The federal
government conducts public health activities through its power to regulate
interstate commerce and its power to tax and spend for the public welfare.
(Grad, 1981)
The Public Health Service of the Department of Health and Human
Services is the main federal authority in health. The federal government is
involved in each of the public health functions described in Chapter 2, but its
main efforts are in assessment, research, and policy and program develop-
ment. Most of its assurance activities are conducted through funding con-
tracts with states, local areas, and providers, who actually carry out the
service. Some assurance activities are directly carried out by the federal
government. (Hanlon and Pickett, 1984)
Federal activities in health are described further in Appendix A.
Resources
In 1984, the nation spent about $387 billion on health care. This figure
includes both government and private expenditures for public health pro-
grams and personal medical care. Public only, including federal, state, and
local government spending, totaled about $160 billion. (Bureau of Data
Management and Strategy, Health Care Financing Administration, 1985)
Federal spending alone (including Medicare and Medicaid) was about $112
billion or about $460 per person. (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1986)
State spending, (excluding Medicaid) totaled about $6 billion, averaging $23
to $26 per person. (Public Health Foundation, 1986; U.S. Department of
Commerce, 1986) Local government spending totaled about $2.5 billion.
(Public Health Foundation, 1986)
In all levels of government, spending on personal health services greatly
outweighed spending on population-based public health functions. For ex-
ample, the health portion of the budget of the Health and Human Services
Department included $95 billion to finance the Medicare and Medicaid
programs. The budget for the U.S. Public Health Service, including the
Centers for Disease Control; the National Institutes of Health; the Health
Resources and Services Administration; and the Alcohol Abuse, Drug
Abuse, and Mental Health Administration, totaled only $10 billion. (Execu-
tive Office of the President, Office of Management and Budget, 1987) State
health agencies spent nearly 75 percent of their funds on personal health
services, about $4 billion, while spending less than 1 percent on planning
activities, about 3 percent on laboratory analysis and research, and about 9
percent on all resources development. Local health agencies spent, on the
average, about 58 percent of their funds on personal health services. (Public
Health Foundation, 1986)
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80
THE FUTURE OF PUBLIC HEALTH
National and public spending on health care has been a subject of great
controversy in the 1980s. Public spending on health care increased dramati-
cally throughout the 1960s and 1970s. Much of the federal and state in-
creases reflect increases in spending on personal health services and medical
care. The Medicare and Medicaid programs were initiated in 1966. While
aggregate state health agency spending increased at about 4 percent annu-
ally between 1976 and 1984, the proportion of their finances spent on
personal health services increased from 48 to 58 percent. (Public Health
Foundation, 1987) Spending on assessment and policy activities has not
increased so dramatically.
In the 1980s, cutbacks in public spending for health care became a national
goal. In 1981, federal block grants were initiated which consolidated nu-
merous federal health programs into two blocks. These block grants in-
cluded a 25 percent cut in funding to states for their programs. (Omenn,
1982) Since 1981, these funds have been partially restored. From 1984 to
1985, the maternal and child health block grant increased 16 percent, while
the preventive services block grant increased 21 percent. (Public Health
Foundation, 1986, 1987) The GNP growth factor for this period was at 6.8
percent. (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1986) At the same time, state
health agency spending increased about 10 percent. (Public Health Founda-
tion, 1986, 1987) Nonetheless, these increases are modest compared to
increases in some other social programs. During the same period, funding
for drug enforcement programs, a particular social goal for this period,
increased 550 percent. (Executive Office of the President, Office of Manage-
ment and Budget, 1987)
Increases in public health spending are not keeping pace with the growing
need for assessment, policy development, and assurance activities de-
manded by the range of immediate and impending crises and ongoing
problems in public health as discussed in Chapter 1, particularly in the
assessment and policy development areas. Additionally, resources for par--
ticular needs to fulfill the mission of public health, such as leadership
training, are being cut back. Federal funding for health professions training
is being phased out, and state resources for leadership training and encour-
aging health leaders to take public positions are limited. (Council of State
Governments, 1985; Executive Office of the President, Office of Manage-
ment and Budget, 1987)
Federal, state, and local resources for health are discussed more fully in
Appendix A.
Other Actors
Additionally, it should be noted that other government agencies, such as
federal, state, and local agencies in mental health, environmental health,
and social services, have an impact on the public health system. And private
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AN ASSESSMENT OF THE CURRENT PUBLIC HEALTH SYSTEM 8]
entities, such as health professional organizations, citizen activist groups,
health care providers, and voluntary health organizations, also play a crucial
role. These other components of the public health system are briefly dis-
cussed in Appendix A.
THE PUBLIC HEALTH SYSTEM AS OBSERVED BY THE COMMI1-~PE
In the six states visited by the committee, six different public health
systems were observed. The states varied in their concept of and in the
importance they placed on public health. The health agencies in each state
varied in organization, authority, activities, and resources. The other actors
in the system differed in their participation in public health issues and in their
relationships with the health agencies. Nonetheless, many common themes
emerged between the sites. The need for more authoritative leadership and
greater flexibility in public health was often voiced. Also coveted were
organization, consistent services, and the capacity to maintain staff, fi-
nances, and information. And particular functions of public health and
programs of health agencies were seen as fundamental by many persons
interviewed.
The following section describes characteristics of the six areas visited by
the committee and discusses problems and successes of the health systems in
these areas as told by their participants.
Organization of Health Agencies
Among the six states, two state health agencies were divisions of super-
agencies. One state health agency was also the mental health authority; two
were also the state Medicaid agency. Five were organized into functional
divisions, and one by service populations. The organizational relationships
between the state and local health agencies ranged from one in which all
local health agencies were largely independent to one in which all local
health agencies were run by the state health agency. One state had 114 local
health agencies; one had only one.
The local health agencies also differed. In one of the states, local health
agencies were predominantly municipal; in the rest of the states, they were
predominantly or entirely county. Two states had both municipal and county
health departments. Two local agencies were large and had numerous divi-
sions and hundreds of staff; the rest were small, had only a few programs,
and a dozen or two staff at most. In one of the states visited, most of the local
areas had no health department at all, but had a private physician who
served as a local health officer. Participants of public meetings described
other states in which some local areas have no health department. In these
areas, there are almost no locally based public health programs.
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82
THE FUTURE OF PUBLIC HEALTH
Variation in organization of health agencies existed not only between
states but within states. For example, in two cases a superagency existed at
one level but not at the other; in several, services that were not combined at
one level were combined at the other. For example, in one state the state
health agency was part of a superagency combined with social services, but
separate from mental health and environmental services. The local health
agency visited in this state was independent from the social services agency
but had mental health and environmental divisions.
Organization of state and local agencies also changed over time. Several of
the health departments visited had been organized several different ways
throughout their histories. In one state, the state health agency had been
completely reorganized a few weeks before the committee's visit. In another
state, the section of the health agency dealing with AIDS had recently
moved up three levels in the hierarchy and was growing 10-fold in staff and
finances. In another, the number of local health agencies had recently been
reduced by half, from more than 200 to 114. This had been done mostly
by combining small local health agencies. In another state, many pro-
grams started by the health department had been relocated to other
agencies.
The state of flux in health agencies is due partly to the difficulty of
segregating health-related functions. For example, there was much sharing
of and confusion over environmental responsibilities. The state of flux is also
due to the changing circumstances with which health agencies must deal. As
new problems such as AIDS and taxies develop, new programs are set up for
dealing with them. Or problems become of increased social and political
concern, and new programs are developed or existing ones are given in-
creased importance.
The different patterns of organization in the six states illustrated how the
states dealt with the main difficulty in arranging a public health agency,
namely, coordinating an extensive array of different types of services that
relate to other agencies. One state handled this problem with a health and
social services agency and a separate environmental agency. Health pro-
grams that addressed needs of a particular population were grouped with
social service programs in different divisions of the health and social services
agency. Assessment and education activities were dispersed throughout
these programs. At the local level, both health and social services agencies
existed. In another state, health and social services programs were kept
separate, but health and environmental services were combined at both the
state and local levels. In a third state, the health agency, the social service
agency, and the environmental agency were all separate. Some local health
departments were independent, and some were parts of health and social
service agencies. Environmental services were handled by multicounty com
. .
missions.
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AN ASSESSMENT OF THE CURRENT PUBLIC HEA PITH SYSTEM 83
The various arrangements in the states illustrated problems with combin-
ing services and problems with separating them. In the state with the
superagency, local health officials and some others felt that public health
initiatives were lost in the superagency. Some of the state public health
officials even expressed a desire to be grouped with the environmental
agency, as they felt this would be a more visible location. In a state where the
Medicaid program and the health agency were separate, Medicaid policies
about financing various health services were set without health agency input.
Yet in another state in which the programs were grouped, Medicaid policy
seemed to dominate health policy.
The committee found that, regardless of organization, health services
were often fragmented along organizational lines. In one state, substance
abuse programs were handled by the state health agency, but mental health
services were the responsibility of the social services agency. Almost no
communication took place between the programs. In this same state, the
health agency and the environmental agency were also separate, but inspec-
tions and data collection activities of both agencies were coordinated at the
local level. In another state, local health agencies were responsible for
environmental health, but not hazardous waste disposal. When accidents
occurred in transport of hazardous waste, health authorities were called at
the last moment to inspect the site. In the meantime, they had no knowledge
of the potential dangers of the situation. Participants in each of the open
meetings described the fragmentation that occurs among social, mental
health, and public health services when they are not coordinated.
Leadership
Five of the states required that the state health officer be a physician; one
did not. In five of the states, all of the local health officers were physicians. In
one, most were nurses or sanitarians. In many agencies, the health officer
directs the agency. But in others, the health officer and the director hold
different positions in the agency. In three states and in all but one of the local
areas visited, the health officer was the director of the agency. In three states
and in one local area the health officer reported to an administrative direc-
tor. In two largely rural states, private physicians served part-time as local
health officers who worked with the local agency when there was one.
The variety of requirements and arrangements for health agency leaders
provided examples of strengths and weaknesses in public health leadership.
In one state, the health officer was a physician, was director of the state
agency, had authority over all local services, and reported to a state board of
health. In another state, the health officer, also a physician, filled an advi-
sory position and had no line of authority. The administrator of the agency
seldom called on this health officer for advice. Local health officers in the
first state were physicians, were state employees, and had jurisdiction over
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96
THE FUTURE OF PUBLIC HEALTH
pated costs of providing this care directly to the counties, which were by law
responsible for medically indigent adults, and directly funded about 100
local primary care clinics, which served primarily minority populations. A
fifth state had a catastrophic care fund delegated by the state legislators and
by each county. Citizens could apply to their county executive for reimburse-
ment of expenses under $20,000, if they could prove need. For expenses
above $20,000, state funds became available. The last state was developing a
set of basic services to be provided by public or private clinics and financed
by the state. The commission designing the program was hoping to provide a
package of basic preventive health care services for a cost to the state of $50
per person per month. Several other strategies for state support of indigent
care were discussed during open meetings of the committee.
Despite all of these various programs, there were many examples of health
problems for which services were not being offered by health agencies or by
other participants. One state was facing a crisis in obstetrics care. In this
state, 14 counties had no obstetric services for poor women. Many physicians
were refusing to accept Medicaid patients because they felt that Medicaid
rates for this service were insufficient in light of the costs of their malpractice
insurance. In one local area, no mental health and substance abuse services
were available, notwithstanding a high rate of alcoholism among the popu-
lace. Only one private nonprofit clinic offered mental health care in a
multicounty area. In another state, health officials mentioned that they had
concerns about smoking, but that nothing was being done about this prob-
lem. In another, many children were not receiving dental care.
Several issues concerning the assurance and delivery of health services
were mentioned. In regulation, several participants named areas in which
standards were insufficient. Many were trying to increase state regulatory
activities for specific programs. In one state, the state agency had recently
adopted regulations for certifying water systems operators, in order to
enforce more strictly water supply regulations. Another state was hoping to
develop regulations on the use of medical devices, in order to limit radiation
imposed by these instruments. Another had recently revised its reimburse-
ment regulations for subsidizing care for the medically indigent. In many
cases, the need for further standards, regulations, and new policies was
mentioned.
Some states also described difficulties with setting standards and regula-
tions in new areas and the risk of meeting with public resistance if the agency
is perceived as exceeding its authority. One legislative representative said,
"You have to prove there's a real danger before limiting liberty." A citizen of
another state said, "We want government out of- as much as possible." A
physician at an open meeting commented that too many regulations infringe
on private providers. Yet the committee also frequently heard such com
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AN ASSESSMENT OF THE CURRENT PUBLIC HEA PITH SYSTEM 97
meets as "Government ought to be involved in all areas people can't do for
themselves, health included."
In delivery of personal health services, the most frequently mentioned
problem was unmet need. Every state and local area visited had minority or
indigent populations that local health and government officials and the
citizens felt were being underserved. Participants in open meetings de-
scribed problems with unmet need in additional states. A physician at one of
the open meetings pointed out that health problems tend to be more exten-
sive and more severe in indigent populations. Citizens lacking health care
include migrants, illegal immigrants, homeless people, Native Americans,
the elderly, people in remote rural areas, and people in inner city ghettos.
The need for better and more health services was voiced repeatedly. A
Native American representative in one of the states visited said, "It's frus-
trating-the health care in Indian Health Service facilities is not anywhere
near what's available in the private sector." A health official in another state
declared, "We must be clear about the judgment that health care doesn't
depend on race, income, or class." Just as frequently, the need for more
health education in an entire range of issues was voiced. A health official in a
state with a relatively large number of AIDS victims remarked that the
agency's entire budget could be spent on AIDS education. Many health
officials and providers also mentioned problems with geographic access. The
question, said one local health officer in a rural area, is "How much are you
willing to pay to have health care within 50 miles?"
The extent of unmet need in many areas caused agencies to be concerned
about their responsibility to meet all needs, particularly those of indigent
populations. In several of the local areas, other resources for personal
services were abundant in the form of nonprofit clinics, public hospitals,
and private practitioners and the health agency relied on these sources to
carry out personal health activities. But in some of the local areas, the health
department was one of the few providers of health services, and the agency
was having difficulty meeting all needs. Some local agencies mentioned that
they have difficulty maintaining preventive, assessment, and environmental
services and still provide a large amount of personal services. Other agencies
seemed comfortable with both these roles. In a state that provided a majority
of the personal health services to its low-income residents, a local health
officer said, "We've never questioned providing direct care. Scope may be a
problem, but the function is not." Another health official in this state said,
"Government has to be responsible for personal health care as well as
preventive measures and the environment." But a private provider in a
different, but equally economically deprived, state said, "People can't ex-
pect the government to provide erection to resurrection coverage." Open
meeting participants mentioned that many state governments are unwilling
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98
THE FUTURE OF PUBLIC HEALTH
to provide the large amount of funding necessary for providing health care to
all indigent people as well as support public health departments.
Agencies also mentioned the difficulty of maintaining vigilance on old
problems while addressing new issues. In one state, environmental health
officials felt that their effort was unduly focused on dangers of radiation from
a possible nuclear reactor accident, although the public was suffering more
radiation damage from medical devices. A local agency had difficulty calling
state attention to an increase in measles cases and the need for greater efforts
in measles immunization, because most state officials assumed that measles
epidemics are no longer a problem. Many state and local health officials at
open meetings described the need for public health agencies to become more
involved in health promotion and the difficulty of doing so while maintaining
other programs.
Intergovernmental and Interorganizational Relationships
It is evident in the examples of health agency leadership, assessment,
policy-making, and assurance of educational, environmental, and personal
health services observed during the site visits that the ability of health
agencies to carry out their responsibilities relies in part on their relationships
with other participants in the public health system. Many of the activities
described above were not and could not be carried out by a local health
agency alone. In many cases, the other agencies, private providers, and
private associations in the area worked with the public health agency.
Relationships in carrying out public health functions are fourfold: between
different health agencies at various levels of government, between health
agencies and other public agencies, between health agencies and the private
sector, and between various private organizations. As in all other aspects of
the public health system, the states showed a range of possibilities in all four
types of relationships. Relationships ranged from cooperative to competitive
to indifferent. In two states, relationships between the state and local agen-
cies were minimal. The state health officer in one of these despairingly
declared, "The key word here is home rule." The other said, "It's almost
heresy to say that the state should involve itself more with locals." In another
state, the state and local agencies were a single system. In one state, other
public agencies with duties relating to health were well organized and coordi-
nated with the state health agency. In another, the agencies did not commu-
nicate. In two local areas, many cooperative arrangements existed between
private clinics and the health department. In another, private and public
clinics maintained a friendly but competitive relationship, and in one local
area they virtually ignored one another.
The patterns described above were not even consistent to a state or local
area. In some places, relationships between public agencies were minimal,
but relationships between public and private providers were strong. Or
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AN ASSESSMENT OF THE CURRENT PUB f IC HEA FTH SYSTEM 99
relationships between organizations would be strong on a particular health
issue, but not on other issues. In two of the states, although relationships
between the state health agency and local agencies were minimal, consider-
able networking between state-level agencies took place in one state, and
networking between the local agencies and private providers took place in
both. In one of these states, environmental agencies collaborated on issues
with the state health department, but the mental health agency did not. And
the local area had extensive networks for maternal and child health and
AIDS, but not for mental health and health care for the homeless.
Numerous examples of successful coordination between public agencies
and between public and private agencies were described to the committee.
Several local health agencies mentioned that they were receiving assistance
from the Centers for Disease Control or special funds from another federal
agency. In one state, a board of environmentally related agencies, including
health, had been formed to investigate the nuclear waste issue. In one local
area, the health agencies of nine counties had joined together and joined
with the community clinics in the area to form a consortium for primary
health care. The organizer of this consortium was the local health officer for
two of the counties. In another local area, the health department had set up a
system that included health department clinics and private hospitals for
delivering prenatal and obstetrics care to indigent women. In one state,
private professional associations and the state legislature and citizen groups
had banded together to promote a smoking cessation campaign.
But many interviewees also described situations in which they felt greater
coordination would be desirable. In the two states in which the Indian Health
Service had facilities, almost no contact was taking place between the federal
service and the state agencies. In one of these states, the Indian Health
Service, the state health agency, and the state mental health agency were
arguing about responsibility for adult and aging services. In another state,
numerous environmental agencies existed, all dealing with different envi-
ronmental issues, and none of them dealing with the health agency. In
another local area, most health issues were handled without contact between
the health department, the public hospital, and various nonprofit clinics in
the area.
Problems associated with communication in the public health system were
described. Some agencies felt that relationships between health agencies at
different levels of government were more formal than functional. Some
health officials even described their relationships as dictatorial. A represen-
tative anecdote concerns the state health officer who instituted new regula-
tions defining local health departments without consulting local health de-
partments.
Problems were also mentioned with interagency communication. Several
agencies were accused of "turf-guarding." Officials bemoaned the lack of
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100
THE FUTURE OF PUBLIC HEALTH
definition among responsibilities, particularly between environmental and
public health programs. In one area, the local health officer felt that none of
the numerous state environmental agencies took responsibility for local
environmental issues, so these problems had been left to the local health
department. In one state, the state health agency felt hampered in its efforts
to enforce rules on individual water supply, because responsibilities were
split with the state environmental agency. Officials also described overlap
problems with personal health programs. In one state, the Medicaid agency
and the state health department were described as collecting the same
information from providers without sharing data. In the states with signifi-
cant Native American populations, Indian Health Service programs were
run completely independently from those of the state. This practice caused
difficulties for Native Americans living outside of reservations, and for
people who are only partially Native American, who are sometimes denied
service by both state and federal programs.
Some problems were also described in health agency communication with
the private sector. Many agencies said that cooperation between the public
and private sector was imperative. Said a state health agency director, "We
have to maintain good relationships with the private doctors; if they won't
work with us, we're dead in the water." But some meeting participants said
that if the health department relies too heavily on private providers, it can
lose control of programs. Others described competition between public and
private providers. Said a state official, "We have a statewide system of home
health care we get a lot of competition from private providers." In this
state, the state agency considered competition helpful, but the director of
one private home health agency did not. A private physician in one area of
the state said, "If the health department routinely refers patients to [another
area], they keep on going, and we lose patients." In this same state, the
committee heard that a local health agency was not accepting referrals from
the local community health center. Participants in the open meetings
pointed out that many physicians are unwilling to become involved with the
health department because fees for services are so low or funding for pro-
grams is cut without warning.
Resources
The six states visited illustrated patterns of financing and difficulties with
constrained resources indicated by national trends.
The six states varied in their basic economic situations; in the amount of
money their health agencies received from federal, state, and local sources
and how these finances were allocated; in the manner in which finances were
shared between state and local agencies; in the amount spent on different
types of programs; and in their staffing of state and local agencies.
Two of the states visited were among the wealthier in the nation. One was
OCR for page 101
AN ASSESSMENT OF THE CURRENT PUBLIC HEALTH SYSTEM ]0]
recovering from a recession in the early 1980s, in which large numbers of
residents had lost their jobs. Another was beginning to feel severe effects
from the current national farm crisis. And two were among the most chron-
ically poor in the nation. The local areas visited followed much the same
patterns as their states, although two of the local areas in the wealthier states
were substantially less economically well-off than the state average. And one
local area was generally better off than the majority of areas in the state.
State per capita health expenditures ranged from $72 to $172 among the
six states in 1984. (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1986) Also in 1984, total
state and local health agency expenditures ranged from $736 million in the
largest, most populated state to $14 million in the least populated state.
These figures were $517 million and $13 million for the same states in 1980.
(Association of State and Territorial Health Officials, National Public
Health Program Reporting System, 1981; Public Health Foundation, 1986)
In 1984, total state and local health agency funding derived from federal
contracts and grants ranged from 10 to 60 percent in the six states. Funds
from the states ranged from O to 60 percent. Local funds accounted for O to
60 percent. (Public Health Foundation, 1986; see Figure 4.1) The percentage
of federal funds allocated for general administration "core" support in the
states ranged from O to 2 percent.
loo
50
_
State
\ \
in.
Local
~ ,
,~,
State
~ l ~: L ~
Local
A B C
~ l
i,
i,
Local
ad,
State
~ Federal Grants and Contracts
[~ State Funds
~3 Local Funds
-
:
:
~,
',.,,
State
Pid:\1
Local State Local State Local
D E F
Fees and Reimbursements
Other
FIGURE 4.1 State and local agency sources of funding for six states, 1984. SOURCE: Public
Health Foundation, 1986.
OCR for page 102
102
THE FUTURE OF PUBLIC HEALTH
Program expenditures of state and local agencies for different health
programs varied throughout the states (see Figure 4.2~. For example, agen-
cies spent as much as 95 percent to as little as 45 percent of their budgets on
personal health services. Within this, funding for specific services varied. For
example, in two of the states that were similar in population size and
economy, one of the state agencies spent $1.6 million on health statistics
activities, while the other spent $500,000. In communicable disease control,
one spent nearly $8 million and the other spent $860,000. In maternal and
child health services, one spent $52 million and the other spent $20 million.
(Public Health Foundation, 1986)
Finances from health agencies were not the only source of funding for
health programs. Individuals in states and localities frequently mentioned
finances from other sources. Sometimes special programs had been ar-
ranged with additional grants from federal sources. Sometimes funding had
been received from private foundations. For example, one local area had a
community-based program for AIDS victims financed by The Robert Wood
Johnson Foundation. In one state, the Appalachian Regional Commission
had assisted with many programs. In all of the states, health care providers as
well as agencies mentioned Medicaid, Medicare, and Social Security as
100
IL
() So
IIJ
iii
a,`\
%` ~
''my
State
\\
Local
a_
Personal Health
Environmental Health
Health Resources
l ~ ~ l ~
~1~!
State Local State
7J I
7 J J
~-`'v
Local State
J T r
I T I
,~,.
<~ ,%
,~
,i,t,,-~
,`_-
~,_~;
:".'
_
Local
1 a
my'
<,%~
State Local
7 7 1
~ i,
:
~ ~f4
l l
. 1 1
1
1
~ 1
(~
State Local
B C D E F
Laboratory
General Administration
Not Allocated
N/A Not Available
FIGURE 4.2 Areas of expenditure of state and local health agencies in six states, 1984.
SOURCE: Public Health Foundation, 1986.
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AN ASSESSMENT OF THE CURRENT PUBLIC HEALTH SYSTEM ]03
sources of finances. And public health spending also took place in environ-
mental, mental health, social service, and agricultural state agencies.
In staffing, the state agencies ranged in number from 312 full-time em-
ployees to more than 4,000. In four of the states, the number of agency staff
was remaining fairly constant. One state was planning a large increase
in staff in one particular program. Another had lost a small number of
staff.
The number and type of professional staff varied between agencies. One
state agency had only one physician in the agency, the health officer, who
filled an advisory role to the director. Another health agency had a physician
with a master's degree in public health heading nearly every program. One
of the states had physicians from the U.S. Public Health Service working in
the agency. One local area had a physician from the National Health Service
Corps. Most of the state agencies had a large number of nurses on staff; in
one of the agencies, nurses made up nearly a quarter of the staff. Each of the
states had only a few health educators. Planners, data analysts, and statisti-
cians generally made up less than 10 percent of the staff in all of the six state
agencies. In three of the states, environmental personnel made up about 10
to 20 percent of the staff. (Association of State and Territorial Health
Officials Foundation, 1985)
Staff of the local agencies ranged from a few dozen to more than 600. The
smallest had no physicians on staff; the largest had several. All of the
agencies had several nurses on staff; a few had health educators; most had
sanitarians. All had at least one administrative staff person. Only the larger
agencies had separate staff for vital statistics activities. The number of staff
was fairly constant in most localities.
In most of the areas, the populace relied on private health care profession-
als to provide services as well as on health agency staff. The number of public
health professionals and health care professionals in the states and localities
working outside of the public health agencies varied; physicians per 1,000
population ranged from 107 to 230 in the six states. (U.S. Department of
Commerce, 1986) Two of the states had public health schools within the
state. Each state had at least one medical school. And each had at least one
nursing school. In the local areas, the numbers of private physicians ranged
from three or four to a county in the most rural sites to hundreds in the large
cities. Nurses ranged from only a few to several hundred. And hospitals and
clinics ranged from dozens to only one or two to a county.
Several states were engaged in special activities in resources development.
One had a governor's conference on wellness. Another had raised special
federal funds for high-risk maternity care, and the agency in this state was
also encouraging physicians to accept jobs in underserved areas and training
pediatricians and nurses in high-risk maternal care. One state agency had
obtained funding from a private organization to start up an insurance pro
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104
THE FUTURE OF PUBLIC HEALTH
gram for small employers. And another was seeking funding for research on
the numbers of and health needs of illegal immigrants to the state. One state
had a special program for training and hiring physicians specializing in
preventive medicine.
The most frequent problem mentioned concerning resources in site visits
was the lack of funds to support ongoing and new health programs. This
problem was reiterated throughout open meetings. Although state and local
agency people in the sites did not complain a great deal about past budget
cuts, a general lack of finances was frequently mentioned. Many felt that
departments could not adequately fulfill all of their responsibilities because
of lack of funding. A state health official said, "You know you'll get blamed
if things go wrong, but no one will give you the money to help you get ready."
And a county supervisor described their dilemma, "We rob Peter to pay Paul
just to put out the fires." Several health officials mentioned programs or
activities that were in danger of being cut because of lack of funding. A local
health officer told the committee, "The county hospital pays for ambulance
service, but it's losing money-we can operate the service through next year,
but after that.... " A clinic director in the same local area, a rural county
with a large migrant population, said, "Refugee money will be ending this
year-I don't know how we'll continue to provide services." Public health
officials also described limiting programs because of financial ability. A state
health official said, "First you define a problem, and then you decide if you
can afford it." A local health official in an area with high infant mortality
rates told the committee, "The high-risk pregnancy program is limited in
number due to funds." And a public health agency clinic administrator
confided, "We constantly prescribe less expensive medications or put off
tests." Many health officials and providers mentioned concern about in-
creasing indigent care and uncompensated care in their states. Some officials
feared further cutbacks. A state health officer declared, "If revenue sharing
goes down, 22 local health departments will have to close." One of these
local health departments said it had no alternative but to shut down if federal
funds were lost. Several other departments mentioned the need to seek
funding for programs from other sources. One state health officer said, "In a
poor state we have to look at wherever we can find the funds we can't sit
back and decide this is impossible, now bring us the money for it." Some also
mentioned a lack of staff. In one local agency, the local health officer felt that
his abilities had been severely limited by loss of a key colleague. Participants
in open meetings also mentioned problems with staff shortages.
A few site visit residents mentioned concerns about training public health
personnel. They mentioned that training should include political and com-
munication skills, as well as scientific and technical skills. One state health
officer said, "Public health training is narrow and disciplinary, not outcome
oriented. We say we're scientists, not politicians." A public health professor
OCR for page 105
AN ASSESSMENT OF THE CURRENT PUBLIC HEALTH SYSTEM ]05
said, "We need to teach people to say 'ten leading cripplers and killers,' not
morbidity and mortality." The difficulties of providing education that both
trains frontline workers and educates leaders was extensively discussed at
one of the committee's meetings. The need to interest medical school
students in public health and preventive medicine was mentioned at another
open meeting. The committee also noticed that the training and background
of officials in state and local health departments visited varied tremendously.
In some agencies, most officials had training in medicine, public health,
nursing, health education, or a related field. But in some agencies, few had
public health-related training. Many had spent long careers in public health,
but some had no public health experience prior to employment in the
agency.
CONCLUSION
The above description of the public health system is meant to highlight its
diversity and its dynamism. The system is a problem-processing activity,
involving many participants in different settings and in different disciplines,
who deal with similar and with individual problems. The variety throughout
the system is a consequence of the different values and participants present
in each area and of how these participants determine problems, make
decisions about needs, and organize and allocate resources to meet needs.
Autonomy and the right to make independent relevant decisions about
needs in local areas is a fundamental American approach to government.
But there are also values, equally fundamental, that support the need for
government to provide or make available core public health functions and
activities to all citizens. These values and issues were discussed in Chapter 2
of this report. Observation of the current public health system, as described
in Chapter 4, shows that some states and some local areas are more able to
fulfill these functions than others. Some far exceed the minimum, but some
don't meet it. The following chapter evaluates the current system as de-
scribed and considers problems and opportunities for bringing the current
system, as a whole, closer to the ideals expressed in Chapter 2.
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American Medical Association, Department of State Legislation, Division of Legislative Activ-
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Association of State and Territorial Health Officials Foundation. 1985. Staffs of State Health
Agencies. ASTHO Foundation, Washington, D.C.
Association of State and Territorial Health Officials, National Public Health Program Reporting
System. 1981. Public Health Agencies, 1980: A Report on Their Expenditures and Activities.
ASTHO, Washington, D.C.
OCR for page 106
06
THE FUTURE OF PUBLIC HEALTH
Bureau of Data Management and Strategy, Health Care Financing Administration. 1985.
HCFA Statistics. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Washington, D.C.
Council of State Governments. 1985. The Book ofthe States, 1984-5. Council of State Govern-
ments, Lexington, Ky.
Council of State Governments. 1987. The Book ofthe States, 1986-7. Council of State Govern-
ments, Lexington, Ky.
Executive Office of the President, Office of Management and Budget. 1987. Budget of the
United States Government, Fiscal Year 1988. Government Printing Office, Washington,
D.C.
Grad, Frank P. 1981. Public Health Law Manual: A Handbook on the Legal Aspects of Public
Health Administration and Enforcement. American Public Health Association, Washing-
ton, D.C.
Hanlon, G., and J. Pickett. 1984. Public Health Administration and Practice. Times Mirrort
Mosby.
Miller, C. Arden, and Mary K. Moos. 1981. Local Health Departments: Fifteen Case Studies.
American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.
Miller, C. Arden, E. F. Brooks, G. H. DeFriese, B. Gilbert, S. C. Jain, and F. Kavaler. 1977.
"A Survey of Local Public Health Departments and Their Directors. " American Journal of
Public Health 67(10):931-39.
Omenn, G. S. 1982. "What's Behind Those Block Grants in Health. " New England Journal of
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Public Health Foundation. 1986. Public Health Agencies, 1984, vole. 1, 2, and 4. Public Health
Foundation, Washington, D.C.
Public Health Foundation. 1987. Public Health Agencies, 1987. Public Health Foundation,
Washington, D.C.
U.S. Department of Commerce..1986. National Data Book and Guide to Sources: Statistical
Abstract of the United States, 106th ed. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
health agencies
