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OCR for page 577
Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate
Index
A
Acetaminophen, 428
Acid-base balance, 8, 136, 186-187, 189-190, 194, 221, 224-225, 228, 229, 240
Addison’s disease, 243
Adenosine triphosphate, 426
Adequate Intakes (AIs). See also individual nutrients
applicable population, 22
criteria used to derive, 6-7, 10, 12, 22, 28-29
defined, 3, 22, 26-27, 471
derivation of, 28-29, 30, 43-46, 140, 452, 454, 456-457
extrapolation between other age groups, 27
indicators used to set, 3-4, 28-29
for labeling, 456
RDA compared, 23, 27
uncertainty in, 27
uses, 18-19, 27, 144, 452, 453-456, 462-463
Adipose tissue, water content of, 75
Adolescents, ages 9 through 18 years
ages 9 through 13 years, 31-32, 143, 306
ages 14 through 18 years, 31-32, 143-144, 152, 239, 306, 382-383, 540-545
AIs, 27, 142-143, 232-234, 306-307, 316
blood pressure, 232-233
cystic fibrosis, 137, 138
energy intakes, 306
lactation, 153, 316, 383
physical activity, 540-545
potassium, 232-234, 239, 240, 249, 252
pregnancy, 152, 239, 316, 382-383
sodium and chloride, 306-307, 316, 382-383, 385-387
ULs, 373, 376-381, 385-387
water, 90, 142-144, 152, 153, 155-157, 159-160, 540-545
weights and heights, reference, 482, 483
Adrenal insufficiency, 253
Adults, ages 19 through 50 years
active, 154-155
ages 19 through 30 years, 32, 145, 148, 528-533, 540-545
ages 31 through 50 years, 32, 145, 148, 528-533, 540-545
AIs, 32, 144-147, 234-235, 307-310
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Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate
blood pressure, 234
Body Mass Index, 483
bone mass, peak, 32
bone mineral density, 234
cardiovascular disease, 234
dietary intakes, 86, 307-308, 309, 320
energy metabolism, 32, 386
extrapolation of data to infants and children, 45, 233, 386
extrapolation of data to older adults, 45
heat stress, 307
insulin resistance, 307
kidney stones, 234
lactation, 153, 316
lipid levels, 308
physical activity, 103, 154-155, 308, 540-545
potassium, 32, 191, 225, 226, 228, 234-235, 245, 249, 323, 530-531
pregnancy, 152, 316
pulmonary function, 225
renal function, 148
sodium and chloride, 11, 32, 148, 234, 270, 271, 276, 281-282, 307-310, 316, 320, 322, 323, 373, 376-381, 382-383, 532-533
special considerations, 144, 154-155, 308
stroke, 234
sulfate, 428, 433-436, 440-441
supplements, 249
thermoregulation, 83
ULs, 249, 373, 386-381
urine osmolalities, 82
water, 5-6, 75, 82, 83, 86, 87-88, 90, 92-93, 103, 144-147, 148, 153, 154-155, 157-158, 159-160, 161, 528-529, 540-545
weights and heights, reference, 482
Adults, ages 51 through 70+ years
ages 51 through 70 years, 32-33, 150, 528-533, 540-545
ages 71 years and older, 32-33, 150, 528-533, 540-545
AIs, 45-46, 147-150, 236-237, 310-313
alcohol, 148
bioavailability of nutrients, 32
blood pressure, 46, 237, 311-312, 380
cognitive function and motor control, 105-108
dehydration, 148, 149
derivation of DRIs for, 32
diuretics, 299
energy expenditure, 33
energy intakes, 312
extrapolation of data from younger adults, 45-46, 237, 312
hyperinsulinemia, 236-237
hyperkalemia, 188, 237
hypernatremia, 149
hypertension, 283
hyponatremia, 299
physical activity, 540-545
plasma renin activity, 283, 311
potassium, 46, 188, 213, 236-237, 323, 530-531
renal function, 32, 99, 147-149, 236, 310-312
reserve capacity and functioning, 32
salt sensitivity, 311
sodium and chloride, 11-12, 45-46, 148, 270, 271, 280-281, 283, 299, 301, 310-313, 323, 381-382, 380, 381-382, 532-533
stroke, 150, 213
supplements
thirst, 149-150
ULs, 381-382
urine osmolalities, 82, 147, 149
water, 82, 92-93, 99, 147-150, 159-160, 161, 310, 528-529, 540-545
Adverse effects, 50-51, 66, 70, 471
African Americans
blood pressure, 187, 202-203, 212, 230-231, 234, 380, 387, 393
hydration of fat-free mass, 76-77
hypertension, 195-196, 218, 334-335, 340-341, 346, 347
left ventricular hypertrophy, 366
plasma renin activity, 283, 284-287
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Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate
potassium, 9, 187, 195-196, 202-203, 212, 234, 245, 247, 334-335, 508-509
pubertal development, 32
salt sensitivity, 195-196, 230-231, 387
sodium, 202-203, 212, 334-335, 340-341, 346, 347, 514-515
water consumption, 141
Age. See also Adolescents;
Adults;
Children;
Infants;
Life-stage groups;
Toddlers
and hydration of fat-free mass, 76-77
Alcohol, 7, 123, 134-135, 148, 323, 329, 354-355, 458
Aldosterone, 189, 194, 238-239, 243, 277, 281, 291, 311, 314, 315, 393
Aldosteronism, 238-239, 314, 393
Alpha-adrenergic agonists, 243, 381
Altitude exposure, 80, 132-133
American Academy of Pediatrics, 30, 43, 44
American Water Works Association, 442
Amiloride, 227, 243
Amino acids, sulfur-containing, 187, 189, 244, 425, 427, 429, 434-435
5-Aminosalicylic acid, 440
Analgesics, 139
Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor drug therapy, 188, 241-242, 243, 283
Angiotensin gene, 394
Angiotensin II, 111, 273, 274, 281, 311, 315
receptor blocker, 392
Animal studies
cardiovascular disease, 357-358
of dehydration, 79, 111, 120-121
extrapolation of data from, 53, 65, 68, 564, 565
potassium, 213, 236
pregnant animals, 437-438
relevance of, 38, 61-62, 63-64
sodium and chloride, 301, 302-303, 357-358, 373
sulfate, 437-438
young animals, 438
Antibiotics, 139
Anticholinergic drugs, 139
Antidepressants, 139
Arginine vasopressin, 92, 94, 104, 111, 134, 135, 139, 140, 148, 149, 151, 152, 163, 315
Asians
sodium intake, 358
water requirements, 90
Asthma, 372, 377
Atherosclerosis, 386
Athletes. See also Physical exercise and activity
body weight changes, 102
carbohydrate loading, 102
dehydration, 121, 125
potassium balance, 226-227
rapid weight loss, 121, 125
sodium balance, 317
sweating rates, 127, 226
total body water, 78
urine color chart, 99
water consumption, 127, 162, 163
Atrial natriuretic peptide, 139, 148, 273, 315
B
Bacteria, sulfate-reducing, 439
Balance studies
chloride, 280
defined, 39
potassium, 191-192, 193
pregnant women, 314
sodium and chloride, 275-281, 301-302, 314
water, 86-89, 93, 140, 142
Bartter’s syndrome, 239, 303
Beta-adrenergic blockade, 236, 237, 243
Bicarbonate, 190, 194.
See also Potassium bicarbonate
precursors, 8, 186, 188, 240-241, 242, 244
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Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate
Bioavailability of nutrients
defined, 60
factors affecting, 60-61
from infant formula, 30
nutrient-nutrient interactions and, 60
and risk assessment, 60-61, 66
sulfate, 431
from supplements, 22, 60-61
Bioelectric impedance analysis, 91-92, 151
Biomarkers of disease, 39
Biotin, 426
Bladder cancer, 124-125
Bladder lesions, 164
Blood clots, 126
Blood lipid concentrations, 12, 270, 283, 292, 294-295, 308
Blood pressure. See also Hypertension
calcium and, 388, 389, 390
and cardiovascular disease, 272, 323-325, 366, 377, 378, 379, 380, 385, 387
DASH diet and, 292, 295, 308, 309, 334-335, 346, 347, 348-349, 355, 369, 379, 390, 391, 472, 553-555
diabetes mellitus and, 16, 271, 272, 391-392
elevation in, 286-291
as endpoint, 376-377
epidemiological studies, 197-200, 323-324, 326-329
fruit and vegetable intakes and, 200-201
gender and, 348, 386, 390-391
genetic factors, 16, 271, 393-394
hydration status and, 118-120
interaction of dietary factors and, 388-390
intervention studies, 200-212, 325, 329-351, 546-557
intrinsic variability in, 287-290
longitudinal studies, 385-386
magnesium and, 388, 389, 390
measurement precision, 289, 328, 385
observational studies, 197-200, 326-329
plasma renin activity, 283
potassium and, 8, 9, 38, 186, 187, 194, 195-212, 213, 218, 228, 229, 230-231, 232-233, 234, 235, 237, 239, 241, 298, 330-345, 347, 388, 390
prehypertension category, 378
pressor response, 289
race/ethnicity and, 348, 380, 387, 388
and renal disease, 16, 271, 272, 325-326, 380, 392
salt resistant, 287, 292, 388
salt sensitive, 8, 9, 16, 38, 186, 187, 194, 195-197, 228, 230-231, 234, 235, 271, 287, 311, 380, 381-382, 387-388, 389, 391, 392, 393, 475
sodium bicarbonate and, 275
sodium chloride and, 15-16, 195-197, 202-212, 228, 230-231, 270-271, 273, 275, 281-291, 300, 311-312, 323-357, 376-379, 382-394, 395, 546-557
weight and, 390, 394
Blood urea nitrogen (BUN), 98-99
BUN:creatinine ratio, 99
Body Mass Index, 34, 59, 348, 364, 482, 483
Body water. See also Hydration status;
Water consumption
adolescents, 90
adults (19-50 years), 75, 82, 83, 86-87, 90, 92-93
by age and gender group, 77-78
assessment of changes, 90-99;
see also Hydration status
balance, 92, 93, 100, 140, 142, 154, 367
bioelectric impedance analysis, 91-92, 151
children, 75, 90, 142
determinants, 79-86
distribution, 78
exchange, 78-79
OCR for page 581
Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate
fat-free mass, 75-77, 142, 457
function, 4, 37, 73, 74
hydrogen isotope activity, 89, 91, 142, 151
infants, 75, 90, 140-141
insensible and sweat losses, 83-85, 105, 127, 140, 154, 155-156, 163
metabolic production, 81, 83, 85-86, 102, 140-141
older adults (51+ years), 92-93
pregnancy, 151
respiratory losses, 80-81, 102, 132-133
total, 77-79, 90-99, 142, 163
turnover rates, 78, 89-90, 91, 140, 141, 142, 154
urinary and gastrointestinal losses, 81-83, 102, 105, 135-136, 140
weight and, 77, 78, 86-87
Bone catabolism, 38, 274
Bone mass, peak, 32
Bone mineral density
calcium and, 190, 372, 374-375, 377
fluid intakes and, 126-127
hypercalciuria and, 372, 374-375
potassium and, 8, 38, 186, 187, 189, 190, 194, 219-222, 228, 231, 233, 234, 235, 240
sodium chloride and, 190, 372, 374-375, 377, 395
Breastfeeding. See also Human milk;
Lactation
recommendations, 29-30, 43, 384
and water intakes from weaning foods, 526
Bronchitis, 372
C
Caffeine, 7, 133-134, 226, 458
Calcium, 33
and blood pressure, 388, 389, 390
and bone mineral density, 190, 372, 374-375, 377
dietary intakes, 309
in drinking water, 127
epidemiological studies, 374-377
gender differences, 369
high-protein diet and, 369
intervention studies, 370-371
and kidney stones, 122, 123, 223, 372, 374-377
potassium and, 189, 190, 194, 218, 219, 221, 222, 224, 228, 229, 230, 240
sodium chloride and, 222, 299, 369-372, 374-375, 377, 388, 389
supplements, 299, 389
urinary excretion, 240, 377
urolithiasis, 221-222
Calcium for Prevention of Preeclampsia trial, 245, 322-323
Canada
dietary intake data, 48, 187, 245, 320, 394-395, 527-533
flavor preference in beverages, 103-104
hypertension prevalence, 351
potassium intakes, 187, 245
reference nutrient values, 1, 449, 478
sulfate standard for drinking water, 442
water intakes, 6, 74, 160, 528-529
weights and heights, reference, 482-483
Canadian National Institute of Nutrition, 478
Canadian Paediatric Society, 29-30, 43, 44
Carbamazepine, 299
Carbohydrate, 135, 309.
See Low-carbohydrate, high-protein diets
CARDIA Study, 200-201
Cardiac arrhythmias, 8, 38, 125-126, 186, 194, 227, 242, 248-249
CARDIAC Study, 360-361
Cardiovascular disease
animal studies, 357-358
children, 385
diabetes and, 300
epidemiological studies, 358-365, 368
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Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate
gender differences, 366
high blood pressure and, 272, 323-325, 357-365, 366, 377, 378, 379, 385, 387;
see also Hypertension
intervention studies, 364, 367, 368-369
left ventricular hypertrophy, 283, 323, 358, 365-369, 377
mortality, 324, 365
potassium and, 8, 186, 195, 213-219, 241, 323
prevention, 213-219
sodium chloride and, 12, 270, 283, 323-325, 357-365, 377, 378, 379, 385, 387, 395
Cardiovascular function
arterial pH, 190, 221
cold beverages and, 125-126
heat stress and, 120
hydration status and, 110, 118-120, 125-126
long airline flights, 126
physical exercise and, 119-120
Caucasians
blood pressure, 195-196, 202-203, 230-231
hydration of fat-free mass, 76-77
potassium, 506-507
pubertal development, 31
salt sensitivity, 195-196, 230-231
sodium, 512-513
water consumption, 141
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 433, 440
Central nervous system function, 110
Cerebroside sulfate, 13
Children, ages 4 through 8 years, 31.
See also Life-stage groups;
Toddlers
active, 155
AIs, 24, 27, 45, 142-143, 232-233, 306-307
blood pressure, 232-233
dehydration, 110
energy intakes, 306, 386
extrapolation of data from adults to, 24, 27, 33, 45, 306, 386
flavor preferences, 103-104
hypercalciuria, 223
hypertension, 386
hyponatremia, 164
physical activity, 45, 103, 110, 538-539
potassium, 45, 223, 225, 232-233, 234, 237, 249, 252, 323
pulmonary function, 225
sodium and chloride, 45, 103-104, 278-281, 306-307, 323, 385-387
sweating, 155-156
UL derivation for, 45, 249, 252, 385-387
water, 45, 75, 87, 90, 103-104, 142-143, 155-157, 159-160, 164, 538-539
weights and heights, reference, 33, 482, 483
Chloride. See also Sodium and chloride
AIs, 12-13, 270, 305, 307, 310, 313, 316
balance studies, 280
bicarbonate ratio, 228
deficiency, 280
infants, 280, 303
serum, 562-563
ULs, 382, 383, 385, 387
Chlorpropamide, 299, 300
Chondroitin sulfate, 13, 429, 431, 439
Chorthalidone, 227, 241
Chronic diseases
dehydration and, 122-127, 136-138
preventive effects of potassium, 194, 213-219
Citrate excretion, 188, 224-225
Climate
cold, 81, 83, 89, 102, 132-133
and exercise-related dehydration, 108-110, 111
hot, 81, 82, 83-84, 102, 104, 110, 111, 115, 117, 127, 128-129, 154, 155, 157, 164, 297-298
and hydration, 81, 82, 132-133, 154
and potassium, 225-227
and sodium, 275-276
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Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate
and sweating rate, 102
and thirst, 104
and urine output, 82, 83
and water consumption, 6, 74, 88, 89, 90, 132-133, 157, 164
Cognitive function, 32, 105-108, 139, 150
Colon cancer, 124
Congestive heart failure, 227, 241, 242, 253, 365
Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals, 47-48, 141, 157, 158, 231, 232, 233, 304, 306, 312, 320, 461, 471-472, 518-526
Coronary heart disease, 213, 216-217, 218, 283, 323, 325, 357-365, 377
Creatinine, 242, 358
Critical endpoint
blood pressure as, 376-377
defined, 66
sodium and chloride, 376-377
Cyclo-oxygenase-2 inhibitors and, 242, 243
Cysteine, 27, 13, 424, 425, 426, 427, 429, 432, 439
Cystic fibrosis, 137-138, 163, 300, 303
Cystine, 439
D
D-penicillamine, 430
DASH diet, 292, 295, 308, 309, 334-335, 346, 347, 348-349, 355, 369, 379, 390, 391, 472, 553-555
DASH-Sodium Trial, 308, 346, 347-348, 350, 391, 461, 472, 553-555
DASH trial, 231, 289-290, 472
Data and database issues
availability of data, 2-3, 24, 27, 28, 29, 31, 298, 376, 451
critical data set, 65
for dose-response assessment, 65-66, 373, 376
for hazard identification, 61-62, 63-64
human studies, 2-3, 65
quality and completeness of, 3, 4, 13, 27, 41-43, 47, 51, 56, 63-64, 66, 123, 235, 307, 382, 424, 430, 441, 467
selection for dose-response assessment, 65-66, 373, 376
sodium and chloride, 373, 376
sulfate, 3, 4, 27
uncertainties in, 53, 56, 57
Death
hydration status and, 120-121, 161
hyperkalemia and, 242
Dehydration
altitude exposure and, 132
animal studies, 79, 111, 120-121
and blood clots, 126
and cardiac arrhythmias, 125-126
and cardiovascular function, 110, 118-120, 125-126
and central nervous system function, 110
children, 110
and chronic diseases, 122-127, 136-138
cognitive performance and motor control, 105-108
and death, 120-121
defined, 472
diuretic-induced, 97, 139-140
and gastric emptying rate, 131-132
and heat strain tolerance, 97, 111, 114-115, 131-132
indicators of, 92-94, 99, 100-101
infants, 384
and metabolic functions, 110
misdiagnosis as hyponatremia, 163
and mitral valve prolapse, 126
and muscular strength, 110, 116-117
and osteoporosis, 126-127
partitioning of water loss, 79
and physical work, 97, 108-110, 112-113, 114, 116-117, 163
plasma volume, 97
and renal function, 98, 99, 139, 148, 152
and thermoregulation, 79, 110, 111
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Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate
and urinary tract infections, 121-122
and urine output, 82, 83
Depletion-repletion studies
defined, 39
Desoxycorticosterone, 238, 315
Diabetes insipidus, 140, 152
Diabetes mellitus. See also Insulin
and blood pressure, 16, 271, 272, 391-392
and cardiovascular disease, 300, 380
and dehydration, 136-137, 139
and hyperkalemia, 241, 242, 243, 252-253
and hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronism, 301
sodium and chloride and, 16, 300-301, 380, 391-392
urine osmolality and, 100, 136
Diarrhea, 78, 94, 303, 424, 427, 433-438, 440, 441
Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension. See DASH diet
Dietary intakes. See also Water consumption
adjustment of, 47, 48, 450, 453
assessment of, 79, 326, 450-455
and bioavailability
breast-fed infants, 30, 141-142, 526
calcium, 309
Canadian, 48, 527-533
day-to-day variations in, 326, 451, 453
energy, 45, 46, 452
food composition databases, 46, 47, 48, 79, 450, 453
form of, 58, 60
gender differences, 7, 504-507, 512-517, 530-531
potassium, 9, 10, 44, 48, 187, 192, 193, 194, 197, 202, 204, 206, 208, 210, 232, 234, 242, 245-247, 309, 504-507, 516-517, 526, 530-531
race/ethnicity and, 506-509, 512-515
self-reported, 40, 47, 48, 145, 224, 320, 326, 451
sodium chloride, 44, 46, 48, 203, 212, 272, 276, 277, 281, 282, 285, 287, 304, 320-323, 330, 332, 334, 336, 338, 340, 342, 344, 347, 394-395-396, 455, 510-513, 516-517, 526, 532-533
sources of data, 47-48
sulfate, 427, 428, 433, 434-435
uses of data, 450-455
Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs)
applicable population, 22
assessment applications, 17-19, 450-455
categories, 21, 22-29;
see also Adequate Intakes;
Estimated Average Requirements;
Recommended Dietary Allowance;
Tolerable Upper Intake Levels
criteria for, 2-4, 6-7, 10, 12, 21, 28-29
defined, 3, 21-22, 35
extrapolation from other age groups, 33
framework, 450, 478-480
group applications, 18-19, 26, 453-455, 456
individual applications, 17-19, 451-452, 455-456
origin, 477-478
parameters for, 29-34;
see also Life-stage groups;
Reference weights and heights
planning applications, 455-456
rationale for, 449
sources of data, 2-3, 450-451;
see also Methodological considerations
uses, 17-19, 449-463
WHO/FAO/WHO approach compared, 22
Dimercaptopropanol, 430
Diuretics and diuresis
alcohol, 7, 134-135
caffeine, 7, 133-134
and dehydration, 97, 139-140
and hypochloremia, 299
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Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate
and hyponatremia, 281, 299
medications, 97, 139, 382
osmotic, 136
plasma volume changes, 97
and potassium, 188, 194-195, 227, 239, 241, 242, 243, 249, 252-253
and sodium chloride, 281, 283, 299, 311, 382
and water intake, 7, 139-140
Dopamine, 381
Dose-response assessment
adolescents, 385-387
adults, 249, 373, 376-381, 440-441
animal data, 61-62, 63
children, 249, 252, 385-387
components and process, 54, 55, 62, 378
critical endpoint, 65-66, 376-377
data quality and completeness, 3
data selection, 65-66, 373, 376
defined, 472
derivation of UL, 65, 68-69, 380-381
infants, 249, 252, 384-385, 441
lactation, 252-253, 382-383
LOAEL/NOAEL identification, 66, 377-379
older adults, 381-382
potassium, 212, 249-254
pregnancy, 252, 382-383
sodium and chloride, 15-16, 345-346, 373-387, 394, 546-557
special considerations, 68, 69, 442
sulfate, 438, 440-442
uncertainty assessment, 66-68, 379-380
water, 154-165
Drinking water
bottled water, 318, 440
calcium in, 127
intakes by gender and life-stage, 73, 86, 158, 161, 498-501, 520-523
sulfate in, 13, 425, 430, 432, 433-435, 436-437, 438, 440, 442-443
taste, 102-104
temperature, 102-104, 135-126
E
Electrolyte balance, 272
Electrolyte-carbohydrate beverages, 126, 226
End-stage renal disease, 139, 253, 325-326, 377, 442, 459
Endothelial relaxing factor, 274
Energy metabolism, 24, 32, 33, 45, 46, 85-86, 131, 132, 233, 270, 315, 386, 461, 485-493
Environmental factors
water consumption, 4, 74, 88, 89, 90, 127-133, 144
Epidemiological studies. See also Observational studies
analytic studies, 40
blood pressure, 197-200, 323-324, 326-329
bone demineralization prevention, 219, 220-221
calcium, 374-377
cardiovascular disease, 358-365, 368
kidney stone prevention, 222-224
meta-analyses, 323-324
potassium, 197-200, 212, 214-217, 219, 220-221, 222-224, 225, 234
sodium and chloride, 283, 323-324, 326-329, 358, 359, 368, 374-377, 378, 381
Estimated Average Requirements (EARs)
coefficient of variation, 24
country comparisons
defined, 3, 23-24, 451, 472
derivation of, 3, 24-26, 144, 480-481
method used to set, 24-26, 42, 453
and RDA, 23, 24-26
research recommendations, 466-467
standard deviation, 24, 480
uses, 18-19, 24-26, 42, 451-452, 4 62
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Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate
Exercise. See Physical exercise and activity
Exposure
acceptable or tolerable, 53
duration of, 63, 66
route of, 63, 65, 66
Exposure assessment
process, 54, 55, 63
and UL derivation, 57, 70
water overconsumption, 165
F
Factorial approach, 25, 480-481
Fainting, 118-119
Fat-free mass, 75-77, 142, 457
Fatigue, 106
Fecal
potassium losses, 189, 191
sodium losses, 277
water losses, 135-136, 140
Fetal sulfate requirements, 429-430
Fever, 78, 111, 120-121.
See also Temperature, core body;
Thermoregulation
Fiber, dietary, 135-136, 191, 201, 231, 309
Fire fighters, 154, 317
Food additives, 319
Food and Agriculture Organization, 22, 51, 56
Food sources
determination of, 48, 22
potassium, 8-9, 186, 187, 188, 192, 200-204, 212, 242, 244-245, 249
sodium and chloride, 304, 318-320
sulfate, 4, 13, 27, 37, 424, 425, 426, 428, 430-433
water, 5, 502-503, 524-525
Formulas, infant
bioavailability of nutrients from, 30, 43, 455
sodium and chloride, 280, 303, 305-306
sulfate, 301, 302, 303, 305-306, 432
Fortified foods, 28, 51, 58, 59.
See also Formula, infant
Framingham Heart Study, 365-566
Furosemide, 241, 299, 311
G
Gallstones, 124
Gastric cancer, 372-373, 377, 395
Gastric emptying rate, 131-132
Gastrointestinal
potassium-related discomfort, 247-249, 252
water losses, 81-83
Gender differences. See also Men;
Women
blood pressure, 348, 386, 390-391
body water, 77-78
calcium, 369
cardiovascular disease, 366
physical activity, 538-545
potassium, 10, 192, 504-509, 516-517, 530-531
puberty onset, 32
serum osmolality, 534-536
sodium and chloride, 312, 322, 348, 369, 390-391, 510-513, 516-517, 532-533, 560-563
water consumption, 7, 87, 88, 90, 91, 93, 127, 143-144, 145, 147, 150, 154, 155, 159-160, 161, 494-503, 518-525, 528-529, 534-545
Genetic factors, salt-sensitive blood pressure, 16, 271, 393-394
Genetic markers of disease, 39
Gentamycin, 439, 440
Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium, 78
Gitelman’s syndrome, 393
Glomerular filtration rate, 148, 149, 152, 241, 253, 315
Glomerulonephritis, 139
Glucosamine sulfate, 428-429, 431
Glucose excretion, 100
Glucose intolerance, 8, 186, 194, 292, 296-297;
see also Diabetes mellitus
Glutathione, 426, 429, 430
OCR for page 587
Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate
Glycogen, skeletal muscle, 78, 102
Glycosaminoglycans, 430
Glycosuria, 136, 300
Growth
sodium chloride and, 301-303
sulfate and, 427-428, 429-430
velocity, 29, 31, 32
H
Hazard identification
animal data, 61-62, 63
causality, 63, 70
components of, 54, 55, 62
data sources, 61-62
defined, 473
evaluation process, 62-63
human studies, 61
pharmacokinetic and metabolic data, 63-64, 69
potassium, 247-249
sodium and chloride, 323-373
sulfate, 433-440
water, 162-164
Health Canada, 1, 21, 320, 473, 478
Health Professionals Follow-up Study, 198-199, 214-215, 218, 223, 327
Heat acclimatization, 92, 97, 98, 109, 114, 115, 127, 129-130, 226, 276, 277, 296-297, 308
Heat balance, 133
Heat exhaustion, 115
Heat strain tolerance, 89, 97, 111, 114-117, 127-132, 485-493
Heat stress, 78, 83, 90, 105, 110, 118, 120-121, 131, 133, 157, 308
and potassium, 225-227
Heat stroke, 121
Heliobacter pylori infection, 373
Hematuria, 280
Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, 274
Heparin, 242, 243, 431
High-density lipoprotein cholesterol, 283, 292, 294-295
Honolulu Heart Study, 213-215, 216
Human feeding studies, 38-39
Human milk
potassium, 231-232, 239-240
sodium and chloride, 304, 305, 384
sulfate, 432
volume of intake, 30, 43, 141, 231
water content, 153
Hydration status. See also Dehydration;
Hyperhydration
and blood pressure, 118-120
blood urea nitrogen and, 98-99
and body weight changes, 101-102, 110, 151
and cardiovascular disease, 367
fluid consumption and, 86, 92, 94-95, 102
and health and performance, 105-127
heat acclimatization and, 92, 97, 98
indicators, 4, 5, 73, 77, 90-91, 122, 142, 144
lactation and, 153
methods for estimating, 90-127
plasma osmolality, 4, 92-94, 100, 102, 104, 115, 139, 151-152
plasma sodium concentration and, 95-97
plasma volume changes and, 37, 97-98, 102, 104-105, 119, 132, 150, 151
pregnancy and, 151-152
saliva specific gravity and, 100-101
serum osmolality, 4, 5, 94-95, 135, 137, 142-143, 148, 534-536
sodium and chloride and, 94, 95-97, 296, 301, 310
thirst and, 86, 102-105, 149-150, 151
total body water changes, 90-99
urine indicators, 82-83, 92, 99-101, 105, 148
and water consumption, 86, 94-95
Hydrochlorothiazide, 241
Hydrogen, 273
Hydrogen isotope activity, 89, 91, 142, 151
Hydroxyapatite, 190
Hyperaldosteronism, 280
OCR for page 608
Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate
Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Recommended Intakes for Individuals, Elements
Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies
Life Stage Group
Calcium (mg/d)
Chromium (µg/d)
Copper (µg/d)
Fluoride (mg/d)
Iodine (µg/d)
Iron (mg/d)
Magnesium (mg/d)
Infants
0–6 mo
210*
0.2*
200*
0.01*
110*
0.27*
30*
7–12 mo
270*
5.5*
220*
0.5*
130*
11
75*
Children
1–3 y
500*
11*
340
0.7*
90
7
80
4–8 y
800*
15*
440
1*
90
10
130
Males
9–13 y
1,300*
25*
700
2*
120
8
240
14–18 y
1,300*
35*
890
3*
150
11
410
19–30 y
1,000*
35*
900
4*
150
8
400
31–50 y
1,000*
35*
900
4*
150
8
420
51–70 y
1,200*
30*
900
4*
150
8
420
> 70 y
1,200*
30*
900
4*
150
8
420
Females
9–13 y
1,300*
21*
700
2*
120
8
240
14–18 y
1,300*
24*
890
3*
150
15
360
19–30 y
1,000*
25*
900
3*
150
18
310
31–50 y
1,000*
25*
900
3*
150
18
320
51–70 y
1,200*
20*
900
3*
150
8
320
> 70 y
1,200*
20*
900
3*
150
8
320
Pregnancy
14–18 y
1,300*
29*
1,000
3*
220
27
400
19–30 y
1,000*
30*
1,000
3*
220
27
350
31–50 y
1,000*
30*
1,000
3*
220
27
360
Lactation
14–18 y
1,300*
44*
1,300
3*
290
10
360
19–30 y
1,000*
45*
1,300
3*
290
9
310
31–50 y
1,000*
45*
1,300
3*
290
9
320
NOTE: This table presents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type and Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*). RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to cover needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data or uncertainty in the data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.
OCR for page 609
Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate
Manganese (mg/d)
Molybdenum (µg/d)
Phosphorus (mg/d)
Selenium (µg/d)
Zinc (mg/d)
Potassium (g/d)
Sodium (g/d)
Chloride (g/d)
0.003*
2*
100*
15*
2*
0.4*
0.12*
0.18*
0.6*
3*
275*
20*
3
0.7*
0.37*
0.57*
1.2*
17
460
20
3
3.0*
1.0*
1.5*
1.5*
22
500
30
5
3.8*
1.2*
1.9*
1.9*
34
1,250
40
8
4.5*
1.5*
2.3*
2.2*
43
1,250
55
11
4.7*
1.5*
2.3*
2.3*
45
700
55
11
4.7*
1.5*
2.3*
2.3*
45
700
55
11
4.7*
1.5*
2.3*
2.3*
45
700
55
11
4.7*
1.3*
2.0*
2.3*
45
700
55
11
4.7*
1.2*
1.8*
1.6*
34
1,250
40
8
4.5*
1.5*
2.3*
1.6*
43
1,250
55
9
4.7*
1.5*
2.3*
1.8*
45
700
55
8
4.7*
1.5*
2.3*
1.8*
45
700
55
8
4.7*
1.5*
2.3*
1.8*
45
700
55
8
4.7*
1.3*
2.0*
1.8*
45
700
55
8
4.7*
1.2*
1.8*
2.0*
50
1,250
60
12
4.7*
1.5*
2.3*
2.0*
50
700
60
11
4.7*
1.5*
2.3*
2.0*
50
700
60
11
4.7*
1.5*
2.3*
2.6*
50
1,250
70
13
5.1*
1.5*
2.3*
2.6*
50
700
70
12
5.1*
1.5*
2.3*
2.6*
50
700
70
12
5.1*
1.5*
2.3*
SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate (2005). These reports may be accessed via http://www.nap.edu.
OCR for page 610
Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate
Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Recommended Intakes for Individuals, Total Water and Macronutrients
Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies
Life Stage Group
Total Watera (L/d)
Carbohydrate (g/d)
Total Fiber (g/d)
Fat (g/d)
Linoleic Acid (g/d)
α-Linolenic Acid (g/d)
Proteinb (g/d)
Infants
0–6 mo
0.7*
60*
ND
31*
4.4*
0.5*
9.1*
7–12 mo
0.8*
95*
ND
30*
4.6*
0.5*
11.0+
Children
1–3 y
1.3*
130
19*
NDc
7*
0.7*
13
4–8 y
1.7*
130
25*
ND
10*
0.9*
19
Males
9–13 y
2.4*
130
31*
ND
12*
1.2*
34
14–18 y
3.3*
130
38*
ND
16*
1.6*
52
19–30 y
3.7*
130
38*
ND
17*
1.6*
56
31–50 y
3.7*
130
38*
ND
17*
1.6*
56
51–70 y
3.7*
130
30*
ND
14*
1.6*
56
> 70 y
3.7*
130
30*
ND
14*
1.6*
56
Females
9–13 y
2.1*
130
26*
ND
10*
1.0*
34
14–18 y
2.3*
130
26*
ND
11*
1.1*
46
19–30 y
2.7*
130
25*
ND
12*
1.1*
46
31–50 y
2.7*
130
25*
ND
12*
1.1*
46
51–70 y
2.7*
130
21*
ND
11*
1.1*
46
> 70 y
2.7*
130
21*
ND
11*
1.1*
46
Pregnancy
14–18 y
3.0*
175
28*
ND
13*
1.4*
71
19–30 y
3.0*
175
28*
ND
13*
1.4*
71
31–50 y
3.0*
175
28*
ND
13*
1.4*
71
Lactation
14–18 y
3.8*
210
29*
ND
13*
1.3*
71
19–30 y
3.8*
210
29*
ND
13*
1.3*
71
31–50 y
3.8*
210
29*
ND
13*
1.3*
71
NOTE: This table presents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type and Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*). RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data or uncertainty in the data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake. The plus (+) symbol indicates a change from the prepublication copy due to a calculation error.
a Total water includes all water contained in food, beverages, and drinking water.
b Based on g protein per kg of body weight for the reference body weight, e.g., for adults 0.8 g/kg body weight for the reference body weight.
c Not determined.
SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (2002/2005); Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate (2005). These reports may be accessed via http://www.nap.edu.
OCR for page 611
Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate
Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges
Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies
Macronutrient
Range (percent of energy)
Children, 1–3 y
Children, 4–18 y
Adults
Fat
30–40
25–35
20–35
n-6 Polyunsaturated fatty acidsa (linoleic acid)
5–10
5–10
5–10
n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acidsa (α-linolenic acid)
0.6–1.2
0.6–1.2
0.6–1.2
Carbohydrate
45–65
45–65
45–65
Protein
5–20
10–30
10–35
a Approximately 10 percent of the total can come from longer-chain n-3 or n-6 fatty acids.
SOURCE: Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (2002/2005).
Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Additional Macronutrient Recommendations
Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies
Macronutrient
Recommendation
Dietary cholesterol
As low as possible while consuming a nutritionally adequate diet
Trans fatty acids
As low as possible while consuming a nutritionally adequate diet
Saturated fatty acids
As low as possible while consuming a nutritionally adequate diet
Added sugars
Limit to no more than 25% of total energy
SOURCE: Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (2002/2005).
OCR for page 612
Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate
Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULa), Vitamins
Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies
Life Stage Group
Vitamin A (µg/d)b
Vitamin C (mg/d)
Vitamin D (µg/d)
Vitamin E (mg/d)c,d
Vitamin K
Thiamin
Infants
0–6 mo
600
NDf
25
ND
ND
ND
7–12 mo
600
ND
25
ND
ND
ND
Children
1–3 y
600
400
50
200
ND
ND
4–8 y
900
650
50
300
ND
ND
Males, Females
9–13 y
1,700
1,200
50
600
ND
ND
14–18 y
2,800
1,800
50
800
ND
ND
19–70 y
3,000
2,000
50
1,000
ND
ND
> 70 y
3,000
2,000
50
1,000
ND
ND
Pregnancy
14–18 y
2,800
1,800
50
800
ND
ND
19–50 y
3,000
2,000
50
1,000
ND
ND
Lactation
14–18 y
2,800
1,800
50
800
ND
ND
19–50 y
3,000
2,000
50
1,000
ND
ND
a UL = The highest level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects to almost all individuals in the general population. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, and supplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, and carotenoids. In the absence of ULs, extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.
b As preformed vitamin A only.
c As α-tocopherol; applies to any form of supplemental α-tocopherol.
d The ULs for vitamin E, niacin, and folate apply to synthetic forms obtained from supplements, fortified foods, or a combination of the two.
e β-Carotene supplements are advised only to serve as a provitamin A source for individuals at risk of vitamin A deficiency.
OCR for page 613
Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate
Riboflavin
Niacin (mg/d)d
Vitamin B6 (mg/d)
Folate (µg/d)d
Vitamin B12
Pantothenic Acid
Biotin
Choline (g/d)
Carotenoidse
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
10
30
300
ND
ND
ND
1.0
ND
ND
15
40
400
ND
ND
ND
1.0
ND
ND
20
60
600
ND
ND
ND
2.0
ND
ND
30
80
800
ND
ND
ND
3.0
ND
ND
35
100
1,000
ND
ND
ND
3.5
ND
ND
35
100
1,000
ND
ND
ND
3.5
ND
ND
30
80
800
ND
ND
ND
3.0
ND
ND
35
100
1,000
ND
ND
ND
3.5
ND
ND
30
80
800
ND
ND
ND
3.0
ND
ND
35
100
1,000
ND
ND
ND
3.5
ND
f ND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.
SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001). These reports may be accessed via http://www.nap.edu.
OCR for page 614
Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate
Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULa), Elements
Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies
Life Stage Group
Arsenicb
Boron (mg/d)
Calcium (g/d)
Chromium
Copper (µg/d)
Fluoride (mg/d)
Iodine (µg/d)
Iron (mg/d)
Magnesium (mg/d)c
Infants
0–6 mo
NDf
ND
ND
ND
ND
0.7
ND
40
ND
7–12 mo
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
0.9
ND
40
ND
Children
1–3 y
ND
3
2.5
ND
1,000
1.3
200
40
65
4–8 y
ND
6
2.5
ND
3,000
2.2
300
40
110
Males, Females
9–13 y
ND
11
2.5
ND
5,000
10
600
40
350
14–18 y
ND
17
2.5
ND
8,000
10
900
45
350
19–70 y
ND
20
2.5
ND
10,000
10
1,100
45
350
> 70 y
ND
20
2.5
ND
10,000
10
1,100
45
350
Pregnancy
14–18 y
ND
17
2.5
ND
8,000
10
900
45
350
19–50 y
ND
20
2.5
ND
10,000
10
1,100
45
350
Lactation
14–18 y
ND
17
2.5
ND
8,000
10
900
45
350
19–50 y
ND
20
2.5
ND
10,000
10
1,100
45
350
a UL = The highest level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects to almost all individuals in the general population. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, and supplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established for arsenic, chromium, silicon, potassium, and sulfate. In the absence of ULs, extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.
b Although the UL was not determined for arsenic, there is no justification for adding arsenic to food or supplements.
c The ULs for magnesium represent intake from a pharmacological agent only and do not include intake from food and water.
d Although silicon has not been shown to cause adverse effects in humans, there is no justification for adding silicon to supplements.
e Although vanadium in food has not been shown to cause adverse effects in humans, there is no justification for adding vanadium to food and vanadium supplements should be used with caution. The UL is based on adverse effects in laboratory animals and this data could be used to set a UL for adults but not children and adolescents.
OCR for page 615
Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate
Manganese (mg/d)
Molybdenum (µg/d)
Nickel (mg/d)
Phosphorus (g/d)
Potassium
Selenium (µg/d)
Silicond
Sulfate
Vanadium (mg/d)e
Zinc (mg/d)
Sodium (g/d)
Chloride (g/d)
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
45
ND
ND
ND
4
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
60
ND
ND
ND
5
ND
ND
2
300
0.2
3.0
ND
90
ND
ND
ND
7
1.5
2.3
3
600
0.3
3.0
ND
150
ND
ND
ND
12
1.9
2.9
6
1,100
0.6
4.0
ND
280
ND
ND
ND
23
2.2
3.4
9
1,700
1.0
4.0
ND
400
ND
ND
ND
34
2.3
3.6
11
2,000
1.0
4.0
ND
400
ND
ND
1.8
40
2.3
3.6
11
2,000
1.0
3.0
ND
400
ND
ND
1.8
40
2.3
3.6
9
1,700
1.0
3.5
ND
400
ND
ND
ND
34
2.3
3.6
11
2,000
1.0
3.5
ND
400
ND
ND
ND
40
2.3
3.6
9
1,700
1.0
4.0
ND
400
ND
ND
ND
34
2.3
3.6
11
2,000
1.0
4.0
ND
400
ND
ND
ND
40
2.3
3.6
f ND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.
SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate (2005). These reports may be accessed via http://www.nap.edu.
OCR for page 616
Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate
Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Estimated Average Requirements for Groups
Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies
Life Stage Group
CHO (g/d)
Protein (g/kg/d)
Vit A (µg/d)a
Vit C (mg/d)
Vit E (mg/d)b
Thiamin (mg/d)
Riboflavin (mg/d)
Niacin (mg/d)c
Vit B6 (mg/d)
Infants
7–12 mo
1.0
Children
1–3 y
100
0.87
210
13
5
0.4
0.4
5
0.4
4–8 y
100
0.76
275
22
6
0.5
0.5
6
0.5
Males
9–13 y
100
0.76
445
39
9
0.7
0.8
9
0.8
14–18 y
100
0.73
630
63
12
1.0
1.1
12
1.1
19–30 y
100
0.66
625
75
12
1.0
1.1
12
1.1
31–50 y
100
0.66
625
75
12
1.0
1.1
12
1.1
51–70 y
100
0.66
625
75
12
1.0
1.1
12
1.4
> 70 y
100
0.66
625
75
12
1.0
1.1
12
1.4
Females
9–13 y
100
0.76
420
39
9
0.7
0.8
9
0.8
14–18 y
100
0.71
485
56
12
0.9
0.9
11
1.0
19–30 y
100
0.66
500
60
12
0.9
0.9
11
1.1
31–50 y
100
0.66
500
60
12
0.9
0.9
11
1.1
51–70 y
100
0.66
500
60
12
0.9
0.9
11
1.3
> 70 y
100
0.66
500
60
12
0.9
0.9
11
1.3
Pregnancy
14–18 y
135
0.88
530
66
12
1.2
1.2
14
1.6
19–30 y
135
0.88
550
70
12
1.2
1.2
14
1.6
31–50 y
135
0.88
550
70
12
1.2
1.2
14
1.6
Lactation
14–18 y
160
1.05
885
96
16
1.2
1.3
13
1.7
19–30 y
160
1.05
900
100
16
1.2
1.3
13
1.7
31–50 y
160
1.05
900
100
16
1.2
1.3
13
1.7
NOTE: This table presents Estimated Average Requirements (EARs), which serve two purposes: for assessing adequacy of population intakes and as the basis for calculating Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for individuals. EARs have not been established for vitamin D, vitamin K, pantothenic acid, biotin, choline, calcium, chromium, fluoride, mangan ese, or other nutrients not yet evaluated via the DRI process.
a As retinol activity equivalents (RAEs). 1 RAE = 1 µg retinol, 12 µg β-carotene, 24 µg α-carotene, or 24 µg β-cryptoxanthin. The RAE for dietary provitamin A carotenoids is twofold greater than retinol equivalents (RE), whereas the RAE for preformed vitamin A is the same as RE.
b As α-tocopherol. α-Tocopherol includes RRR-α-tocopherol, the only form of α-tocopherol that occurs naturally in foods, and the 2R-stereoisomeric forms of α-tocopherol (RRR-, RSR-, RRS-, and RSS-α-tocopherol) that occur in fortified foods and supplements. It does not include the 2S-stereoisomeric forms of α-tocopherol (SRR-, SSR-, SRS-, and SSS-α-tocopherol), also found in fortified foods and supplements.
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Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate
Folate (µg/d)a
Vit B12 (µg/d)
Copper (µg/d)
Iodine (µg/d)
Iron (mg/d)
Magnesium (mg/d)
Molybdenum (µg/d)
Phosphorus (mg/d)
Selenium (µg/d)
Zinc (mg/d)
6.9
2.5
120
0.7
260
65
3.0
65
13
380
17
2.5
160
1.0
340
65
4.1
110
17
405
23
4.0
250
1.5
540
73
5.9
200
26
1,055
35
7.0
330
2.0
685
95
7.7
340
33
1,055
45
8.5
320
2.0
700
95
6
330
34
580
45
9.4
320
2.0
700
95
6
350
34
580
45
9.4
320
2.0
700
95
6
350
34
580
45
9.4
320
2.0
700
95
6
350
34
580
45
9.4
250
1.5
540
73
5.7
200
26
1,055
35
7.0
330
2.0
685
95
7.9
300
33
1,055
45
7.3
320
2.0
700
95
8.1
255
34
580
45
6.8
320
2.0
700
95
8.1
265
34
580
45
6.8
320
2.0
700
95
5
265
34
580
45
6.8
320
2.0
700
95
5
265
34
580
45
6.8
520
2.2
785
160
23
335
40
1,055
49
10.5
520
2.2
800
160
22
290
40
580
49
9.5
520
2.2
800
160
22
300
40
580
49
9.5
450
2.4
985
209
7
300
35
1,055
59
10.9
450
2.4
1,000
209
6.5
255
36
580
59
10.4
450
2.4
1,000
209
6.5
265
36
580
59
10.4
c As niacin equivalents (NE). 1 mg of niacin = 60 mg of tryptophan.
d As dietary folate equivalents (DFE). 1 DFE = 1 µg food folate = 0.6 µg of folic acid from fortified food or as a supplement consumed with food = 0.5 µg of a supplement taken on an empty stomach.
SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001), and Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (2002/2005). These reports may be accessed via www.nap.edu.
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
reference intakes
