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Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

Index

A

Acetaminophen, 428

Acid-base balance, 8, 136, 186-187, 189-190, 194, 221, 224-225, 228, 229, 240

Addison’s disease, 243

Adenosine triphosphate, 426

Adequate Intakes (AIs). See also individual nutrients

applicable population, 22

criteria used to derive, 6-7, 10, 12, 22, 28-29

defined, 3, 22, 26-27, 471

derivation of, 28-29, 30, 43-46, 140, 452, 454, 456-457

extrapolation between other age groups, 27

indicators used to set, 3-4, 28-29

for labeling, 456

RDA compared, 23, 27

uncertainty in, 27

uses, 18-19, 27, 144, 452, 453-456, 462-463

Adipose tissue, water content of, 75

Adolescents, ages 9 through 18 years

ages 9 through 13 years, 31-32, 143, 306

ages 14 through 18 years, 31-32, 143-144, 152, 239, 306, 382-383, 540-545

AIs, 27, 142-143, 232-234, 306-307, 316

blood pressure, 232-233

cystic fibrosis, 137, 138

energy intakes, 306

lactation, 153, 316, 383

physical activity, 540-545

potassium, 232-234, 239, 240, 249, 252

pregnancy, 152, 239, 316, 382-383

sodium and chloride, 306-307, 316, 382-383, 385-387

ULs, 373, 376-381, 385-387

water, 90, 142-144, 152, 153, 155-157, 159-160, 540-545

weights and heights, reference, 482, 483

Adrenal insufficiency, 253

Adults, ages 19 through 50 years

active, 154-155

ages 19 through 30 years, 32, 145, 148, 528-533, 540-545

ages 31 through 50 years, 32, 145, 148, 528-533, 540-545

AIs, 32, 144-147, 234-235, 307-310

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

blood pressure, 234

Body Mass Index, 483

bone mass, peak, 32

bone mineral density, 234

cardiovascular disease, 234

dietary intakes, 86, 307-308, 309, 320

energy metabolism, 32, 386

extrapolation of data to infants and children, 45, 233, 386

extrapolation of data to older adults, 45

heat stress, 307

insulin resistance, 307

kidney stones, 234

lactation, 153, 316

lipid levels, 308

physical activity, 103, 154-155, 308, 540-545

potassium, 32, 191, 225, 226, 228, 234-235, 245, 249, 323, 530-531

pregnancy, 152, 316

pulmonary function, 225

renal function, 148

sodium and chloride, 11, 32, 148, 234, 270, 271, 276, 281-282, 307-310, 316, 320, 322, 323, 373, 376-381, 382-383, 532-533

special considerations, 144, 154-155, 308

stroke, 234

sulfate, 428, 433-436, 440-441

supplements, 249

thermoregulation, 83

ULs, 249, 373, 386-381

urine osmolalities, 82

water, 5-6, 75, 82, 83, 86, 87-88, 90, 92-93, 103, 144-147, 148, 153, 154-155, 157-158, 159-160, 161, 528-529, 540-545

weights and heights, reference, 482

Adults, ages 51 through 70+ years

ages 51 through 70 years, 32-33, 150, 528-533, 540-545

ages 71 years and older, 32-33, 150, 528-533, 540-545

AIs, 45-46, 147-150, 236-237, 310-313

alcohol, 148

bioavailability of nutrients, 32

blood pressure, 46, 237, 311-312, 380

cognitive function and motor control, 105-108

dehydration, 148, 149

derivation of DRIs for, 32

diuretics, 299

energy expenditure, 33

energy intakes, 312

extrapolation of data from younger adults, 45-46, 237, 312

hyperinsulinemia, 236-237

hyperkalemia, 188, 237

hypernatremia, 149

hypertension, 283

hyponatremia, 299

physical activity, 540-545

plasma renin activity, 283, 311

potassium, 46, 188, 213, 236-237, 323, 530-531

renal function, 32, 99, 147-149, 236, 310-312

reserve capacity and functioning, 32

salt sensitivity, 311

sodium and chloride, 11-12, 45-46, 148, 270, 271, 280-281, 283, 299, 301, 310-313, 323, 381-382, 380, 381-382, 532-533

stroke, 150, 213

supplements

thirst, 149-150

ULs, 381-382

urine osmolalities, 82, 147, 149

water, 82, 92-93, 99, 147-150, 159-160, 161, 310, 528-529, 540-545

Adverse effects, 50-51, 66, 70, 471

African Americans

blood pressure, 187, 202-203, 212, 230-231, 234, 380, 387, 393

hydration of fat-free mass, 76-77

hypertension, 195-196, 218, 334-335, 340-341, 346, 347

left ventricular hypertrophy, 366

plasma renin activity, 283, 284-287

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

potassium, 9, 187, 195-196, 202-203, 212, 234, 245, 247, 334-335, 508-509

pubertal development, 32

salt sensitivity, 195-196, 230-231, 387

sodium, 202-203, 212, 334-335, 340-341, 346, 347, 514-515

water consumption, 141

Age. See also Adolescents;

Adults;

Children;

Infants;

Life-stage groups;

Toddlers

and hydration of fat-free mass, 76-77

Alcohol, 7, 123, 134-135, 148, 323, 329, 354-355, 458

Aldosterone, 189, 194, 238-239, 243, 277, 281, 291, 311, 314, 315, 393

Aldosteronism, 238-239, 314, 393

Alpha-adrenergic agonists, 243, 381

Altitude exposure, 80, 132-133

American Academy of Pediatrics, 30, 43, 44

American Water Works Association, 442

Amiloride, 227, 243

Amino acids, sulfur-containing, 187, 189, 244, 425, 427, 429, 434-435

5-Aminosalicylic acid, 440

Analgesics, 139

Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor drug therapy, 188, 241-242, 243, 283

Angiotensin gene, 394

Angiotensin II, 111, 273, 274, 281, 311, 315

receptor blocker, 392

Animal studies

cardiovascular disease, 357-358

of dehydration, 79, 111, 120-121

extrapolation of data from, 53, 65, 68, 564, 565

potassium, 213, 236

pregnant animals, 437-438

relevance of, 38, 61-62, 63-64

sodium and chloride, 301, 302-303, 357-358, 373

sulfate, 437-438

young animals, 438

Antibiotics, 139

Anticholinergic drugs, 139

Antidepressants, 139

Arginine vasopressin, 92, 94, 104, 111, 134, 135, 139, 140, 148, 149, 151, 152, 163, 315

Asians

sodium intake, 358

water requirements, 90

Asthma, 372, 377

Atherosclerosis, 386

Athletes. See also Physical exercise and activity

body weight changes, 102

carbohydrate loading, 102

dehydration, 121, 125

potassium balance, 226-227

rapid weight loss, 121, 125

sodium balance, 317

sweating rates, 127, 226

total body water, 78

urine color chart, 99

water consumption, 127, 162, 163

Atrial natriuretic peptide, 139, 148, 273, 315

B

Bacteria, sulfate-reducing, 439

Balance studies

chloride, 280

defined, 39

potassium, 191-192, 193

pregnant women, 314

sodium and chloride, 275-281, 301-302, 314

water, 86-89, 93, 140, 142

Bartter’s syndrome, 239, 303

Beta-adrenergic blockade, 236, 237, 243

Bicarbonate, 190, 194.

See also Potassium bicarbonate

precursors, 8, 186, 188, 240-241, 242, 244

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

Bioavailability of nutrients

defined, 60

factors affecting, 60-61

from infant formula, 30

nutrient-nutrient interactions and, 60

and risk assessment, 60-61, 66

sulfate, 431

from supplements, 22, 60-61

Bioelectric impedance analysis, 91-92, 151

Biomarkers of disease, 39

Biotin, 426

Bladder cancer, 124-125

Bladder lesions, 164

Blood clots, 126

Blood lipid concentrations, 12, 270, 283, 292, 294-295, 308

Blood pressure. See also Hypertension

calcium and, 388, 389, 390

and cardiovascular disease, 272, 323-325, 366, 377, 378, 379, 380, 385, 387

DASH diet and, 292, 295, 308, 309, 334-335, 346, 347, 348-349, 355, 369, 379, 390, 391, 472, 553-555

diabetes mellitus and, 16, 271, 272, 391-392

elevation in, 286-291

as endpoint, 376-377

epidemiological studies, 197-200, 323-324, 326-329

fruit and vegetable intakes and, 200-201

gender and, 348, 386, 390-391

genetic factors, 16, 271, 393-394

hydration status and, 118-120

interaction of dietary factors and, 388-390

intervention studies, 200-212, 325, 329-351, 546-557

intrinsic variability in, 287-290

longitudinal studies, 385-386

magnesium and, 388, 389, 390

measurement precision, 289, 328, 385

observational studies, 197-200, 326-329

plasma renin activity, 283

potassium and, 8, 9, 38, 186, 187, 194, 195-212, 213, 218, 228, 229, 230-231, 232-233, 234, 235, 237, 239, 241, 298, 330-345, 347, 388, 390

prehypertension category, 378

pressor response, 289

race/ethnicity and, 348, 380, 387, 388

and renal disease, 16, 271, 272, 325-326, 380, 392

salt resistant, 287, 292, 388

salt sensitive, 8, 9, 16, 38, 186, 187, 194, 195-197, 228, 230-231, 234, 235, 271, 287, 311, 380, 381-382, 387-388, 389, 391, 392, 393, 475

sodium bicarbonate and, 275

sodium chloride and, 15-16, 195-197, 202-212, 228, 230-231, 270-271, 273, 275, 281-291, 300, 311-312, 323-357, 376-379, 382-394, 395, 546-557

weight and, 390, 394

Blood urea nitrogen (BUN), 98-99

BUN:creatinine ratio, 99

Body Mass Index, 34, 59, 348, 364, 482, 483

Body water. See also Hydration status;

Water consumption

adolescents, 90

adults (19-50 years), 75, 82, 83, 86-87, 90, 92-93

by age and gender group, 77-78

assessment of changes, 90-99;

see also Hydration status

balance, 92, 93, 100, 140, 142, 154, 367

bioelectric impedance analysis, 91-92, 151

children, 75, 90, 142

determinants, 79-86

distribution, 78

exchange, 78-79

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

fat-free mass, 75-77, 142, 457

function, 4, 37, 73, 74

hydrogen isotope activity, 89, 91, 142, 151

infants, 75, 90, 140-141

insensible and sweat losses, 83-85, 105, 127, 140, 154, 155-156, 163

metabolic production, 81, 83, 85-86, 102, 140-141

older adults (51+ years), 92-93

pregnancy, 151

respiratory losses, 80-81, 102, 132-133

total, 77-79, 90-99, 142, 163

turnover rates, 78, 89-90, 91, 140, 141, 142, 154

urinary and gastrointestinal losses, 81-83, 102, 105, 135-136, 140

weight and, 77, 78, 86-87

Bone catabolism, 38, 274

Bone mass, peak, 32

Bone mineral density

calcium and, 190, 372, 374-375, 377

fluid intakes and, 126-127

hypercalciuria and, 372, 374-375

potassium and, 8, 38, 186, 187, 189, 190, 194, 219-222, 228, 231, 233, 234, 235, 240

sodium chloride and, 190, 372, 374-375, 377, 395

Breastfeeding. See also Human milk;

Lactation

recommendations, 29-30, 43, 384

and water intakes from weaning foods, 526

Bronchitis, 372

C

Caffeine, 7, 133-134, 226, 458

Calcium, 33

and blood pressure, 388, 389, 390

and bone mineral density, 190, 372, 374-375, 377

dietary intakes, 309

in drinking water, 127

epidemiological studies, 374-377

gender differences, 369

high-protein diet and, 369

intervention studies, 370-371

and kidney stones, 122, 123, 223, 372, 374-377

potassium and, 189, 190, 194, 218, 219, 221, 222, 224, 228, 229, 230, 240

sodium chloride and, 222, 299, 369-372, 374-375, 377, 388, 389

supplements, 299, 389

urinary excretion, 240, 377

urolithiasis, 221-222

Calcium for Prevention of Preeclampsia trial, 245, 322-323

Canada

dietary intake data, 48, 187, 245, 320, 394-395, 527-533

flavor preference in beverages, 103-104

hypertension prevalence, 351

potassium intakes, 187, 245

reference nutrient values, 1, 449, 478

sulfate standard for drinking water, 442

water intakes, 6, 74, 160, 528-529

weights and heights, reference, 482-483

Canadian National Institute of Nutrition, 478

Canadian Paediatric Society, 29-30, 43, 44

Carbamazepine, 299

Carbohydrate, 135, 309.

See Low-carbohydrate, high-protein diets

CARDIA Study, 200-201

Cardiac arrhythmias, 8, 38, 125-126, 186, 194, 227, 242, 248-249

CARDIAC Study, 360-361

Cardiovascular disease

animal studies, 357-358

children, 385

diabetes and, 300

epidemiological studies, 358-365, 368

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

gender differences, 366

high blood pressure and, 272, 323-325, 357-365, 366, 377, 378, 379, 385, 387;

see also Hypertension

intervention studies, 364, 367, 368-369

left ventricular hypertrophy, 283, 323, 358, 365-369, 377

mortality, 324, 365

potassium and, 8, 186, 195, 213-219, 241, 323

prevention, 213-219

sodium chloride and, 12, 270, 283, 323-325, 357-365, 377, 378, 379, 385, 387, 395

Cardiovascular function

arterial pH, 190, 221

cold beverages and, 125-126

heat stress and, 120

hydration status and, 110, 118-120, 125-126

long airline flights, 126

physical exercise and, 119-120

Caucasians

blood pressure, 195-196, 202-203, 230-231

hydration of fat-free mass, 76-77

potassium, 506-507

pubertal development, 31

salt sensitivity, 195-196, 230-231

sodium, 512-513

water consumption, 141

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 433, 440

Central nervous system function, 110

Cerebroside sulfate, 13

Children, ages 4 through 8 years, 31.

See also Life-stage groups;

Toddlers

active, 155

AIs, 24, 27, 45, 142-143, 232-233, 306-307

blood pressure, 232-233

dehydration, 110

energy intakes, 306, 386

extrapolation of data from adults to, 24, 27, 33, 45, 306, 386

flavor preferences, 103-104

hypercalciuria, 223

hypertension, 386

hyponatremia, 164

physical activity, 45, 103, 110, 538-539

potassium, 45, 223, 225, 232-233, 234, 237, 249, 252, 323

pulmonary function, 225

sodium and chloride, 45, 103-104, 278-281, 306-307, 323, 385-387

sweating, 155-156

UL derivation for, 45, 249, 252, 385-387

water, 45, 75, 87, 90, 103-104, 142-143, 155-157, 159-160, 164, 538-539

weights and heights, reference, 33, 482, 483

Chloride. See also Sodium and chloride

AIs, 12-13, 270, 305, 307, 310, 313, 316

balance studies, 280

bicarbonate ratio, 228

deficiency, 280

infants, 280, 303

serum, 562-563

ULs, 382, 383, 385, 387

Chlorpropamide, 299, 300

Chondroitin sulfate, 13, 429, 431, 439

Chorthalidone, 227, 241

Chronic diseases

dehydration and, 122-127, 136-138

preventive effects of potassium, 194, 213-219

Citrate excretion, 188, 224-225

Climate

cold, 81, 83, 89, 102, 132-133

and exercise-related dehydration, 108-110, 111

hot, 81, 82, 83-84, 102, 104, 110, 111, 115, 117, 127, 128-129, 154, 155, 157, 164, 297-298

and hydration, 81, 82, 132-133, 154

and potassium, 225-227

and sodium, 275-276

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

and sweating rate, 102

and thirst, 104

and urine output, 82, 83

and water consumption, 6, 74, 88, 89, 90, 132-133, 157, 164

Cognitive function, 32, 105-108, 139, 150

Colon cancer, 124

Congestive heart failure, 227, 241, 242, 253, 365

Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals, 47-48, 141, 157, 158, 231, 232, 233, 304, 306, 312, 320, 461, 471-472, 518-526

Coronary heart disease, 213, 216-217, 218, 283, 323, 325, 357-365, 377

Creatinine, 242, 358

Critical endpoint

blood pressure as, 376-377

defined, 66

sodium and chloride, 376-377

Cyclo-oxygenase-2 inhibitors and, 242, 243

Cysteine, 27, 13, 424, 425, 426, 427, 429, 432, 439

Cystic fibrosis, 137-138, 163, 300, 303

Cystine, 439

D

D-penicillamine, 430

DASH diet, 292, 295, 308, 309, 334-335, 346, 347, 348-349, 355, 369, 379, 390, 391, 472, 553-555

DASH-Sodium Trial, 308, 346, 347-348, 350, 391, 461, 472, 553-555

DASH trial, 231, 289-290, 472

Data and database issues

availability of data, 2-3, 24, 27, 28, 29, 31, 298, 376, 451

critical data set, 65

for dose-response assessment, 65-66, 373, 376

for hazard identification, 61-62, 63-64

human studies, 2-3, 65

quality and completeness of, 3, 4, 13, 27, 41-43, 47, 51, 56, 63-64, 66, 123, 235, 307, 382, 424, 430, 441, 467

selection for dose-response assessment, 65-66, 373, 376

sodium and chloride, 373, 376

sulfate, 3, 4, 27

uncertainties in, 53, 56, 57

Death

hydration status and, 120-121, 161

hyperkalemia and, 242

Dehydration

altitude exposure and, 132

animal studies, 79, 111, 120-121

and blood clots, 126

and cardiac arrhythmias, 125-126

and cardiovascular function, 110, 118-120, 125-126

and central nervous system function, 110

children, 110

and chronic diseases, 122-127, 136-138

cognitive performance and motor control, 105-108

and death, 120-121

defined, 472

diuretic-induced, 97, 139-140

and gastric emptying rate, 131-132

and heat strain tolerance, 97, 111, 114-115, 131-132

indicators of, 92-94, 99, 100-101

infants, 384

and metabolic functions, 110

misdiagnosis as hyponatremia, 163

and mitral valve prolapse, 126

and muscular strength, 110, 116-117

and osteoporosis, 126-127

partitioning of water loss, 79

and physical work, 97, 108-110, 112-113, 114, 116-117, 163

plasma volume, 97

and renal function, 98, 99, 139, 148, 152

and thermoregulation, 79, 110, 111

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

and urinary tract infections, 121-122

and urine output, 82, 83

Depletion-repletion studies

defined, 39

Desoxycorticosterone, 238, 315

Diabetes insipidus, 140, 152

Diabetes mellitus. See also Insulin

and blood pressure, 16, 271, 272, 391-392

and cardiovascular disease, 300, 380

and dehydration, 136-137, 139

and hyperkalemia, 241, 242, 243, 252-253

and hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronism, 301

sodium and chloride and, 16, 300-301, 380, 391-392

urine osmolality and, 100, 136

Diarrhea, 78, 94, 303, 424, 427, 433-438, 440, 441

Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension. See DASH diet

Dietary intakes. See also Water consumption

adjustment of, 47, 48, 450, 453

assessment of, 79, 326, 450-455

and bioavailability

breast-fed infants, 30, 141-142, 526

calcium, 309

Canadian, 48, 527-533

day-to-day variations in, 326, 451, 453

energy, 45, 46, 452

food composition databases, 46, 47, 48, 79, 450, 453

form of, 58, 60

gender differences, 7, 504-507, 512-517, 530-531

potassium, 9, 10, 44, 48, 187, 192, 193, 194, 197, 202, 204, 206, 208, 210, 232, 234, 242, 245-247, 309, 504-507, 516-517, 526, 530-531

race/ethnicity and, 506-509, 512-515

self-reported, 40, 47, 48, 145, 224, 320, 326, 451

sodium chloride, 44, 46, 48, 203, 212, 272, 276, 277, 281, 282, 285, 287, 304, 320-323, 330, 332, 334, 336, 338, 340, 342, 344, 347, 394-395-396, 455, 510-513, 516-517, 526, 532-533

sources of data, 47-48

sulfate, 427, 428, 433, 434-435

uses of data, 450-455

Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs)

applicable population, 22

assessment applications, 17-19, 450-455

categories, 21, 22-29;

see also Adequate Intakes;

Estimated Average Requirements;

Recommended Dietary Allowance;

Tolerable Upper Intake Levels

criteria for, 2-4, 6-7, 10, 12, 21, 28-29

defined, 3, 21-22, 35

extrapolation from other age groups, 33

framework, 450, 478-480

group applications, 18-19, 26, 453-455, 456

individual applications, 17-19, 451-452, 455-456

origin, 477-478

parameters for, 29-34;

see also Life-stage groups;

Reference weights and heights

planning applications, 455-456

rationale for, 449

sources of data, 2-3, 450-451;

see also Methodological considerations

uses, 17-19, 449-463

WHO/FAO/WHO approach compared, 22

Dimercaptopropanol, 430

Diuretics and diuresis

alcohol, 7, 134-135

caffeine, 7, 133-134

and dehydration, 97, 139-140

and hypochloremia, 299

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

and hyponatremia, 281, 299

medications, 97, 139, 382

osmotic, 136

plasma volume changes, 97

and potassium, 188, 194-195, 227, 239, 241, 242, 243, 249, 252-253

and sodium chloride, 281, 283, 299, 311, 382

and water intake, 7, 139-140

Dopamine, 381

Dose-response assessment

adolescents, 385-387

adults, 249, 373, 376-381, 440-441

animal data, 61-62, 63

children, 249, 252, 385-387

components and process, 54, 55, 62, 378

critical endpoint, 65-66, 376-377

data quality and completeness, 3

data selection, 65-66, 373, 376

defined, 472

derivation of UL, 65, 68-69, 380-381

infants, 249, 252, 384-385, 441

lactation, 252-253, 382-383

LOAEL/NOAEL identification, 66, 377-379

older adults, 381-382

potassium, 212, 249-254

pregnancy, 252, 382-383

sodium and chloride, 15-16, 345-346, 373-387, 394, 546-557

special considerations, 68, 69, 442

sulfate, 438, 440-442

uncertainty assessment, 66-68, 379-380

water, 154-165

Drinking water

bottled water, 318, 440

calcium in, 127

intakes by gender and life-stage, 73, 86, 158, 161, 498-501, 520-523

sulfate in, 13, 425, 430, 432, 433-435, 436-437, 438, 440, 442-443

taste, 102-104

temperature, 102-104, 135-126

E

Electrolyte balance, 272

Electrolyte-carbohydrate beverages, 126, 226

End-stage renal disease, 139, 253, 325-326, 377, 442, 459

Endothelial relaxing factor, 274

Energy metabolism, 24, 32, 33, 45, 46, 85-86, 131, 132, 233, 270, 315, 386, 461, 485-493

Environmental factors

water consumption, 4, 74, 88, 89, 90, 127-133, 144

Epidemiological studies. See also Observational studies

analytic studies, 40

blood pressure, 197-200, 323-324, 326-329

bone demineralization prevention, 219, 220-221

calcium, 374-377

cardiovascular disease, 358-365, 368

kidney stone prevention, 222-224

meta-analyses, 323-324

potassium, 197-200, 212, 214-217, 219, 220-221, 222-224, 225, 234

sodium and chloride, 283, 323-324, 326-329, 358, 359, 368, 374-377, 378, 381

Estimated Average Requirements (EARs)

coefficient of variation, 24

country comparisons

defined, 3, 23-24, 451, 472

derivation of, 3, 24-26, 144, 480-481

method used to set, 24-26, 42, 453

and RDA, 23, 24-26

research recommendations, 466-467

standard deviation, 24, 480

uses, 18-19, 24-26, 42, 451-452, 4 62

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

Exercise. See Physical exercise and activity

Exposure

acceptable or tolerable, 53

duration of, 63, 66

route of, 63, 65, 66

Exposure assessment

process, 54, 55, 63

and UL derivation, 57, 70

water overconsumption, 165

F

Factorial approach, 25, 480-481

Fainting, 118-119

Fat-free mass, 75-77, 142, 457

Fatigue, 106

Fecal

potassium losses, 189, 191

sodium losses, 277

water losses, 135-136, 140

Fetal sulfate requirements, 429-430

Fever, 78, 111, 120-121.

See also Temperature, core body;

Thermoregulation

Fiber, dietary, 135-136, 191, 201, 231, 309

Fire fighters, 154, 317

Food additives, 319

Food and Agriculture Organization, 22, 51, 56

Food sources

determination of, 48, 22

potassium, 8-9, 186, 187, 188, 192, 200-204, 212, 242, 244-245, 249

sodium and chloride, 304, 318-320

sulfate, 4, 13, 27, 37, 424, 425, 426, 428, 430-433

water, 5, 502-503, 524-525

Formulas, infant

bioavailability of nutrients from, 30, 43, 455

sodium and chloride, 280, 303, 305-306

sulfate, 301, 302, 303, 305-306, 432

Fortified foods, 28, 51, 58, 59.

See also Formula, infant

Framingham Heart Study, 365-566

Furosemide, 241, 299, 311

G

Gallstones, 124

Gastric cancer, 372-373, 377, 395

Gastric emptying rate, 131-132

Gastrointestinal

potassium-related discomfort, 247-249, 252

water losses, 81-83

Gender differences. See also Men;

Women

blood pressure, 348, 386, 390-391

body water, 77-78

calcium, 369

cardiovascular disease, 366

physical activity, 538-545

potassium, 10, 192, 504-509, 516-517, 530-531

puberty onset, 32

serum osmolality, 534-536

sodium and chloride, 312, 322, 348, 369, 390-391, 510-513, 516-517, 532-533, 560-563

water consumption, 7, 87, 88, 90, 91, 93, 127, 143-144, 145, 147, 150, 154, 155, 159-160, 161, 494-503, 518-525, 528-529, 534-545

Genetic factors, salt-sensitive blood pressure, 16, 271, 393-394

Genetic markers of disease, 39

Gentamycin, 439, 440

Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium, 78

Gitelman’s syndrome, 393

Glomerular filtration rate, 148, 149, 152, 241, 253, 315

Glomerulonephritis, 139

Glucosamine sulfate, 428-429, 431

Glucose excretion, 100

Glucose intolerance, 8, 186, 194, 292, 296-297;

see also Diabetes mellitus

Glutathione, 426, 429, 430

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

Glycogen, skeletal muscle, 78, 102

Glycosaminoglycans, 430

Glycosuria, 136, 300

Growth

sodium chloride and, 301-303

sulfate and, 427-428, 429-430

velocity, 29, 31, 32

H

Hazard identification

animal data, 61-62, 63

causality, 63, 70

components of, 54, 55, 62

data sources, 61-62

defined, 473

evaluation process, 62-63

human studies, 61

pharmacokinetic and metabolic data, 63-64, 69

potassium, 247-249

sodium and chloride, 323-373

sulfate, 433-440

water, 162-164

Health Canada, 1, 21, 320, 473, 478

Health Professionals Follow-up Study, 198-199, 214-215, 218, 223, 327

Heat acclimatization, 92, 97, 98, 109, 114, 115, 127, 129-130, 226, 276, 277, 296-297, 308

Heat balance, 133

Heat exhaustion, 115

Heat strain tolerance, 89, 97, 111, 114-117, 127-132, 485-493

Heat stress, 78, 83, 90, 105, 110, 118, 120-121, 131, 133, 157, 308

and potassium, 225-227

Heat stroke, 121

Heliobacter pylori infection, 373

Hematuria, 280

Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, 274

Heparin, 242, 243, 431

High-density lipoprotein cholesterol, 283, 292, 294-295

Honolulu Heart Study, 213-215, 216

Human feeding studies, 38-39

Human milk

potassium, 231-232, 239-240

sodium and chloride, 304, 305, 384

sulfate, 432

volume of intake, 30, 43, 141, 231

water content, 153

Hydration status. See also Dehydration;

Hyperhydration

and blood pressure, 118-120

blood urea nitrogen and, 98-99

and body weight changes, 101-102, 110, 151

and cardiovascular disease, 367

fluid consumption and, 86, 92, 94-95, 102

and health and performance, 105-127

heat acclimatization and, 92, 97, 98

indicators, 4, 5, 73, 77, 90-91, 122, 142, 144

lactation and, 153

methods for estimating, 90-127

plasma osmolality, 4, 92-94, 100, 102, 104, 115, 139, 151-152

plasma sodium concentration and, 95-97

plasma volume changes and, 37, 97-98, 102, 104-105, 119, 132, 150, 151

pregnancy and, 151-152

saliva specific gravity and, 100-101

serum osmolality, 4, 5, 94-95, 135, 137, 142-143, 148, 534-536

sodium and chloride and, 94, 95-97, 296, 301, 310

thirst and, 86, 102-105, 149-150, 151

total body water changes, 90-99

urine indicators, 82-83, 92, 99-101, 105, 148

and water consumption, 86, 94-95

Hydrochlorothiazide, 241

Hydrogen, 273

Hydrogen isotope activity, 89, 91, 142, 151

Hydroxyapatite, 190

Hyperaldosteronism, 280

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

Hypercalciuria, 194, 222, 223, 369

Hypercapnia, 80

Hyperchloremia, 302

Hypercitraturia, 224-225

Hyperglycemia, 136, 194, 300

Hyperhydration

defined, 473

detection methods, 92

and heat strain, 115-117

and performance, 117-118

and plasma volume, 97

and sweating, 116

and urine output, 83, 152

Hyperinsulinemia, 194, 236-237

Hyperkalemia, 14, 15, 38, 188, 192, 195, 237, 241-242, 243, 248-249, 253, 458, 473

Hypernatremia, 14, 149, 315, 384, 473

Hyperosmolality, 115, 148, 149

Hypersulfatemia, 442

Hypertension, 391.

See also Blood pressure;

Cardiovascular disease

caffeine and, 134

children, 386

defined, 473

and diuretics, 227, 241

drug therapy thresholds, 325

guidelines for prevention and management, 378

interactions of electrolytes and, 229

intervention studies, 284-287

plasma renin activity, 284-287

prevalence, 354

prevention of, 197, 201, 203, 208-211, 351-357, 378

and renal disease, 325-326, 392

sodium chloride and, 136, 195, 197, 201, 203, 208-211, 271, 282, 283, 301, 351-357, 380, 382, 391, 455

Hypertension Prevention Trial, 336-337, 355, 356-357

Hyperthermia, 111

Hyperthyroidism, 442

Hypoaldosteronism, 243, 301

Hypocalciuria, 222, 229, 230

Hypochloremia, 280, 299

Hypocitraturia, 224-225

Hypohydration, 79, 473

Hypoinsulinemia, 243

Hypokalemia, 8, 38, 186, 192, 194-195, 227, 228, 238, 239, 241, 249, 280, 473

Hyponatremia, 74, 161-164, 281, 299, 300, 301, 315, 473

Hyporeninemia, 243

Hypotension, 136, 300

Hypovolemia, 98, 105, 115, 119

Hypoxia, 80, 83, 132

I

Indicators of nutrient adequacy. See also specific indicators, nutrients, and life stages

methodological considerations, 31, 42

risk reduction-based, 28-29

Infants, ages 0-12 months. See also Formulas, infant;

Human milk

ages 0 through 6 months, 29, 30, 43-44, 90, 141, 142, 159, 231, 232, 304, 305

ages 7 through 12 months, 29, 30-31, 44, 90, 141-142, 159, 231-232, 304, 305, 526

AIs, 27, 29, 30, 43-44, 140-142, 231-232, 303-305, 455

Bartter’s syndrome, 303

blood pressure, 239, 384-385

bottle-fed, 90

chloride deficiency, 280

cystic fibrosis, 303

dehydration, 384

diarrhea, 437

dietary intakes 30, 31, 43, 141-142, 304, 526

extrapolation of data from adults to, 44, 45

extrapolation of data from younger to older infants, 44-45

growth, 29, 44, 87, 301-303, 481

hematuria, 280

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

hyperaldosterone, 280

hyperchloremia, 302, 303

hypoaldosteronism, 301

hypokalemia, 280

hyponatremia, 162, 384

ileostomies, 301-302

low birth weight, 141, 301

metabolic acidosis, 280, 302

methodological considerations, 43-45

milk consumption, 27, 141-142, 384

newborn, 59, 75, 90

plasma renin, 280

potassium, 44, 231-232, 239, 249, 252, 526

preterm, 301

pyloric stenosis, 303

recommended food sources, 29-30, 43, 44, 384

reference weight

renal disorders, 303

sodium and chloride, 44, 301-306, 384-385, 526

solid foods 30, 31, 44, 141, 231, 301, 304, 526

special considerations, 140-141

sulfate, 433, 436-437, 441

ULs, 249, 252

water, 75, 87, 90, 140-142, 159, 162, 384, 526

weight gain, 301

Insensible water losses, 83-85, 140

Institute of Medicine, 43, 44

Insulin

potassium and, 188, 194, 236-237, 243

resistance, 12, 38, 270, 275, 283, 292-293, 300

sodium chloride and, 12, 270, 275, 283, 292-293, 300

and water intake, 139

Interactions of dietary factors

and bioavailability, 60

and blood pressure, 388-390

potassium, 191, 195-197, 201, 203, 208-211, 218, 222, 224-225, 228-230

sodium chloride, 195-197, 222, 224-225, 273, 298-299, 323, 388-390

water, 133-136, 144-145

International Atomic Energy Agency, 22, 51

Intersalt study, 136, 197, 198-201, 327, 328, 350, 360-361, 373, 390

Intervention studies

blood pressure, 200-212, 325, 329-351, 546-557

bone demineralization prevention, 219, 221-222

calcium, 370-371

cardiovascular diseases, 364, 367, 368-369

design features, 556-557

meta-analyses, 201-204, 205-206, 212, 282, 283, 325, 350-353

plasma renin activity, 284-287

potassium, 200-212, 219, 221-222

sodium and chloride, 202-203, 282, 283, 329-351, 364, 367, 368-371, 546-557

Iodine, 317-318

Iron, 30, 440, 480, 481

J

Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure, 378

K

Kallikrein-kinin system, 273, 274

Ketoaciduria, 136

Ketosis, 135, 240

Kidney stones, 38.

See also Renal function

calcium and, 122, 123, 223, 372, 374-377

interactions of electrolytes and, 229

meat intake and, 224

potassium and, 8, 38, 186, 187, 189, 194, 222-225, 228, 229, 230, 231, 233, 234, 235, 240, 372

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

sodium chloride and, 223-224, 372, 374-377

water consumption and, 122-123

L

Lactation. See also Breastfeeding;

Human milk

adolescents, 153, 316, 383

AIs, 153, 239-240, 316

calcium, 33

derivation of DRIs for, 33, 46

hydration status, 153

potassium, 46, 239-240, 252-253

renal function, 153

sodium and chloride, 46, 304, 305, 316, 382-383

sulfate, 438

ULs, 252-253

water, 46, 153, 161

Lanthionine, 430

Left ventricle hypertrophy, 283, 358, 365-369, 377, 395

Leukemia, 243

Life-stage groups. See also Adolescents;

Adults;

Children;

Infants;

Toddlers

body water by, 77-78

categories, 29-33

chloride, 12-13

intakes by, 5, 10, 494-517

potassium, 10, 231-247, 249, 252-253, 504-509, 516-517

serum osmolality by, 94, 95, 534-536

sodium and chloride, 12-13, 301-318, 373, 376-387, 510-513, 516-517, 560-563

sulfate, 430, 433-437

and toxicological sensitivities, 59

water, 5, 6-7, 77, 140-157, 159-160, 161, 494-503, 518-525, 528-529, 534-536

weights and heights, reference, 482

Lithium, 140

Liver function, 59, 121

Low-carbohydrate, high-protein diets, 135, 240-241, 369

Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, 292, 294-295

Lowest-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level (LOAEL)

defined, 56-57, 473

identification of, 66, 69-70

intake data and, 72

sodium and chloride, 377-379, 380

and UL derivation, 57, 68, 69

Lupus erythematosus, 252

M

Macronutrients, 85, 135-136, 144-145.

See also Carbohydrate;

Protein, dietary

Magnesium, 78, 201, 231, 309, 388, 389, 436

Magnesium sulfate (Epsom salts), 426-427, 436, 438-439

Memory, 106-107

Men

athletes, 127

gastric cancer, 373

heat capacity, 83

hydration of fat-free mass, 76-77

performance effects of dehydration, 105-107

plasma osmolality, 93

sodium, 322

urine osmolalities, 82

water intakes, 103

water requirements, 87, 88, 90, 91, 93, 127

Metabolic acidosis, 194, 221, 228, 229, 240, 243, 274, 280, 303, 318, 438-439

Metabolic water production, 85-86, 140

Metabolic weight ratio method, 44-45

Metabolism

acid-base balance, 189-190, 224-225, 274

hydration status and, 110

potassium, 188-189

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

pregnancy and, 33, 59

sodium and chloride, 272-274

sulfate, 426-427

water production and losses, 81, 83, 85-86, 102, 140-141

Methionine, 13, 27, 424, 425, 426, 427, 429, 430, 432

Methodological issues. See also Data and database issues;

Indicators of nutrient adequacy

AI derivation for infants, 43-45

in balance studies, 39, 151

in blood pressure studies, 289, 328, 385

body weight measurement, 101-102

confounding and bias, 40, 101-102, 105, 201, 326, 328, 367, 378

data sources, 2-3, 38-43, 53, 326

in dietary intake estimates, 40, 47, 134, 145, 224, 245, 326, 358, 359, 394, 450-451, 467

epidemiological evidence, 39-40

extrapolation from animal studies, 38, 53, 61-62, 63-64, 65, 68, 69, 564, 565, 566

extrapolation from other age groups, 24, 31, 33, 42, 44-46, 69, 233, 237

factorial approach, 25, 480-481

generalizability of studies, 39, 41, 66-67

human feeding studies, 38-39, 556-557

in hydration studies, 101-102, 116, 151

interactions of dietary factors, 201

intervention studies, 329, 344-345, 367, 556-557

Monte Carlo approach, 25-26, 481

in nutrient intake estimates, 40, 46-47

observational studies, 38, 39-40, 61, 326-329, 378

pregnant and lactating women, 46, 151

randomized clinical trials, 40-41

in risk assessment, 53, 61-62, 63-64, 67, 564-567

serum and plasma osmolality determinations, 95

supplementation trials, 41

weighing the evidence, 41-42, 61

Methylsulfonylmethane, 431

Methylxanthines, 133

Military personnel

heat exhaustion, 115, 121

sodium requirements, 485-493

water balance, 81, 84-85, 128, 129, 130, 163, 485-493

Mineralocorticoid receptor-mediated exchange, 273

Mineralocorticoids, 189, 194, 238

Mitral valve prolapse, 126

Monte Carlo simulation, 25-26

Mood, 106

Motor control, 105-108

Mountain sickness, 132

Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial, 364

Muscle catabolism, 38, 162, 274

Muscle weakness, 8, 110, 116-117, 186, 194, 236

Myocardial infarction, 283, 358, 359, 365

N

N-acetyl-L-cycteine, 430

National Food Consumption Survey, 86, 157, 158, 474

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey I, Epidemiological Follow-up Study, 359, 364

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey II, 45

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III, 4-5, 34, 46, 47, 48, 94, 95, 142, 143, 144, 145, 153, 154, 158, 160, 161, 196, 200-201, 216-217, 218, 245, 247, 320, 322, 372, 394, 432, 481, 494-517, 534-545, 558-563

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

Nephrosclerosis, 326

Net endogenous acid production, 219

No-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level (NOAEL)

defined, 56, 474

identification of, 66, 69-70

intake data and, 72

and UL derivation, 57, 68, 69, 379

uncertainty factor, 57, 67, 68

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents, 242, 243

Nurses’ Health Study, 198-199, 214-215, 218, 223, 224

Nutrient intakes. See also Dietary intakes

assessment of, 17-19, 70, 450-453

biomarker measures, 40

calculation of, 46-47

chronic intakes above the UL, 70-71

methodological considerations, 40, 47

Nutrient-nutrient interactions. See also Interactions of dietary factors

adverse, 51

Nutrition Canada Survey, 482, 483

O

Obesity and overweight, 40, 240, 364, 365, 366, 390, 391-392, 450, 482

Observational studies. See also Epidemiological studies

blood pressure, 197-200, 326-329

methodological issues, 39-40, 326-329

relevance, 39, 61

sodium and chloride, 326-329

Oncotic pressure, 79

Orthostatic tolerance, 119

Osmoreceptors, 104, 148

Osteoarthritis, 429, 431

Osteoporosis, 126-127, 189, 229, 377

Oxalate, 122

P

Phosphate balance, 188, 219, 221

3′-Phosphoadenosine-5′-phosphosulfate, 13, 424, 426, 428, 429, 430, 431

Phosphorus, 122

Physical exercise and activity

aerobic exercise, 108-110

anaerobic exercise, 110, 114

and body weight, 102, 110

cardiovascular responses to, 119-120, 323

children, 45, 110

and core body temperature, 110, 111, 114, 115, 132

cystic fibrosis patients, 300

endurance exercise, 110, 112-113, 115, 118, 162, 163

gastric emptying rate and, 131-132

and heat strain, 6-7, 84, 102, 104, 106, 110, 111, 114-117, 127-132, 163, 164, 293, 296-298

hydration status and, 97, 108-110, 112-113, 114, 116-117, 163

hyperhydration and, 117-118

hypothermia of, 111

leisure time, 154, 155, 537-545

and plasma volume, 97

and potassium, 225-227

and pulmonary function, 372

recommended, 145

and salivary osmolality, 101

and sodium, 115, 277

and sodium chloride, 11, 14, 115, 270, 277, 293, 296-298, 300, 308, 317, 372, 485-493

and sweating rates, 6-7, 154-156

and thirst, 104

and urine output, 83, 163

and water losses and requirements, 4, 6-7, 14, 74, 78, 80, 83, 84, 85-86, 88-89, 127-132, 144, 154-157, 160, 162, 163, 164, 537-545

Physical fitness, 92, 98, 109, 114, 127, 129

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

Plasma

aldosterone, 275, 277, 311, 314

alkalinity, 274

arginine vasopressin, 139, 148, 315

bicarbonate, 190, 194, 221, 224, 238

chloride, 194

cholesterol, 283

osmolality, 4, 92-94, 100, 102, 104, 115, 139, 151-152

potassium concentration, 188, 189, 194, 226, 236, 237, 238, 248

protein, 92, 132

renin activity, 12, 275, 280, 281-287, 291, 311, 314, 315, 359

sodium, 95-97, 164, 194, 281, 315

volume, 37, 97-98, 102, 104-105, 119, 132, 150, 151, 272, 275, 277, 281, 292, 300, 310, 313

Police recruits, 121

Polyuria, 151

Potassium

absorption and metabolism, 188-189

and acid-base balance, 8, 186-187, 189-190, 194, 221, 224-225, 228, 229, 240, 459

adolescents, 232-234, 239, 240, 249, 252

adults (19-50 years), 32, 191, 225, 226, 228, 234-235, 245, 249, 323, 530-531

adverse effects of overconsumption, 14-15, 187-188, 247-254, 459;

see also Hyperkalemia

AIs, 9, 10, 187, 231-240, 379, 454, 456, 458-459

and aldosterone, 189, 194, 238-239, 243

animal studies, 213, 236

assessing and planning intakes, 458-459

balance studies, 191-192, 193

beta-adrenergic blockade, 236, 237, 243

bicarbonate precursors, 8, 186, 188, 240-241, 242, 244, 458

and blood pressure, 8, 9, 186, 187, 194, 195-212, 213, 218, 228, 229, 230-231, 232-233, 234, 235, 237, 239, 241, 298, 330-345, 347, 388-389

and bone mineral density, 8, 38, 186, 187, 189, 190, 194, 219-222, 228, 231, 233, 234, 235, 240

and calcium balance, 189, 190, 194, 218, 219, 221, 222, 224, 228, 229, 230, 240

and cardiac arrhythmias, 8, 14, 38, 186, 194, 227, 242, 248-249

and cardiovascular disease, 8, 186, 195, 213-219, 241, 323, 354

children, 45, 223, 225, 232-233, 234, 237, 249, 252, 323

and chronic disease prevention, 194, 213-219

and coronary heart disease, 213, 216-217, 218, 354

cyclo-oxygenase-2 inhibitors and, 242, 243

DASH diet, 348-349, 355

deficiency, 192-193, 195, 222, 224, 227, 228, 233;

see also Hypokalemia

dietary fiber and, 191, 201

diuretics and, 188, 194-195, 227, 239, 241, 242, 243, 249, 252-253, 458

dose-response assessment, 212, 249-254

epidemiological studies, 197-200, 212, 214-217, 219, 220-221, 222-224, 225, 234

factors affecting requirements, 225-231, 458-459

fecal losses, 189, 191

fetal accretion, 237-238

food sources of, 8-9, 186, 187, 188, 192, 200-204, 212, 242, 244-245, 249, 459

forms of, 188, 191, 203, 228, 231, 235, 247, 249

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

function, 8, 37-38, 186, 188

gastrointestinal discomfort, 14, 247-249, 252

gender differences, 192, 504-509, 516-517, 530-531, 558-559

and glucose intolerance, 8, 186, 194

hazard identification, 247-249

heat exposure and, 225-227

heparin and, 242, 243

indicators of adequacy considered for, 8-9, 10, 190-225

infants, 44, 231-232, 239, 249, 252, 526

and insulin, 188, 194, 236-237, 243

intakes, 9, 10, 44, 48, 187, 192, 193, 194, 197, 202, 204, 206, 208, 210, 232, 234, 242, 245-247, 309, 504-507, 516-517, 526, 530-531

interactions with other dietary factors, 191, 195-197, 201, 203, 208-211, 222, 224-225, 228-230

intervention studies, 200-212, 219, 221-222

and kidney stones, 8, 187, 38, 186, 189, 194, 222-225, 228, 229, 230, 231, 233, 234, 235, 240, 372, 459

lactation, 46, 239-240, 252-253

by life-stage group, 10, 231-247, 249, 252-253, 504-509, 516-517, 558-559

low-carbohydrate, high-protein diets, 240-241

mineralocorticoids and, 189, 194, 238

and muscle weakness, 8, 186, 194, 236

nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents and, 242, 243

older and elderly adults (51+ years), 46, 188, 213, 236-237, 323, 530-531

and osteoporosis, 189, 229

and phosphate balance, 219, 221

physical activity and, 225-227

plasma concentrations, 188, 189, 194, 226, 236, 237, 238, 248

pregnancy, 46, 237-239, 245, 247, 252, 253

protein (dietary) interactions, 8, 187, 189, 190, 219, 224

and pulmonary function, 225

race/ethnicity and, 9, 187, 195-197, 202-203, 212, 218, 230-231, 234, 245, 247, 506-509

and renal function, 190, 213, 229, 236, 239, 242, 243, 253, 458

research recommendations, 254, 466, 468

salt sensitivity and, 8, 9, 38, 186, 187, 194, 195-197, 228, 230-231, 234, 235

salt substitutes, 15, 242, 245, 248, 249, 252-253, 254

serum, 8, 186, 192-194, 197, 226-227, 238, 241, 252-253

sickle cell anemia and, 239

sodium chloride and, 190, 191, 195-197, 202-212, 222, 223-225, 228-231, 233, 235, 238, 273, 298-299, 323, 329, 330-345, 347, 354, 372, 379, 388-389, 516-517

special considerations, 188, 237, 240-242, 253-354

and stroke, 8, 186, 194, 213, 214-217, 218, 219, 234

supplements, 15, 187, 188, 195, 196, 200, 201, 204-211, 212, 213, 218, 219, 221, 222, 225, 227, 230, 233, 241, 242, 245, 247, 249, 252, 299, 458

sweat losses, 189, 225-226, 227

ULs, 14-15, 249-253

and urinary citrate, 8, 186, 188, 224-225, 228, 240

urinary excretion, 189, 191, 192, 197, 202-203, 205, 206, 207, 209, 211, 212, 225, 227, 230, 238-239, 241, 247, 248, 249, 250-251, 331, 333, 335, 337, 339, 341, 343, 345, 347

water balance and, 78, 226, 238-239

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

Potassium bicarbonate, 188, 190, 194, 195, 196, 210-211, 213, 219, 221, 222, 224, 228, 230, 234, 298, 459

Potassium chloride, 188, 194, 201, 204-211, 212, 213, 221, 222, 228, 230, 236, 245, 247, 248, 254, 298

Potassium citrate, 188, 203, 210-211, 213, 221-222, 224-225, 234

Potassium sulfate, 426

Pregnancy. See also Lactation

accretion of electrolytes, 237-238, 313-314

adolescents, 152, 239, 383

AIs, 33, 46, 151-152, 237-239, 313-316

alkalemia of gestation, 238

animal studies, 437-438

balance studies, 314

bicarbonaturia, 238

blood pressure, 239, 382, 383

body water, 151-152, 313

diabetes insipidus, 152

energy intake, 315

hydration status, 151-152

hyponatremia, 315

kaliuresis, 238-239

plasma osmolality, 151-152

potassium, 46, 237-239, 245, 247, 252, 253

pre-eclampsia and eclampsia, 239, 245, 253, 382, 438, 439

renal function, 151, 152, 313, 315

renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, 314-315

salt wasting, 314, 382

sickle cell anemia, 239

sodium and chloride, 46, 151, 238, 313-316, 322-323, 382-383

sulfate, 429-430, 437-438, 439

thirst, 151

ULs, 59, 252, 382-383

vomiting, 315

water, 59, 151-152, 161

weight, 151, 313-314

Progesterone, 238, 253, 315

Prostaglandins, 274, 381

Protein, dietary

and acid-base balance, 224

animal sources, 189-190, 224

deficiency, 429

intake, 24, 46, 98, 135, 144-145, 309;

see also Low-carbohydrate, high-protein diets

metabolism, 425, 427

plasma levels, 92

potassium interaction, 8, 187, 189, 190, 219, 224

serum levels, 78, 292

and sulfate, 425, 427, 429, 442

and water consumption, 135

Psychogenic polydipsia, 14, 161, 162-163, 474

Puberty/pubertal development

age at onset, 31, 483

racial/ethnic differences, 31-32

and sweating rate, 156

Pulmonary function, 225, 372, 377

Pyridinoline, 219

R

Race/ethnicity

and blood pressure, 348, 380, 387, 388

and potassium, 9, 187, 195-197, 202-203, 212, 218, 230-231, 234, 245, 247, 506-509

and pubertal development, 31-32

sodium, 16, 283, 348, 380, 512-513

and water consumption, 141

Rancho Bernardo Study, 213, 214-215

Randomized clinical trials, 40-41

Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA)

AIs compared, 27

applicable population, 23

coefficient of variation, 24, 480

criteria used to derive, 22

defined, 3, 22, 23, 451, 474

derivation, 3, 24

EAR and, 23, 24-26, 480

method used to set, 24-26

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

replacement with DRIs, 1, 449

uses, 18-19, 23, 27, 451-452, 462-463

Recommended Nutrient Intakes (RNI), 1, 449, 478

Reference weights and heights

new, 34

use of, 33, 481-483

Renal disease, 16, 139, 241, 243, 253, 271, 272, 310, 323, 325-326, 377, 380, 392

Renal failure, 121, 162, 442

Renal function. See also Kidney stones

BUN and, 98

concentrating ability, 147-148, 151

and dehydration, 98, 99, 139, 148, 152

diluting ability, 149, 151

incomplete syndrome of renal tubular acidosis, 229, 239, 243

lactation, 153

magnesium and, 436

in older adults, 32, 59, 147-149, 310-312

potassium and, 190, 213, 229, 236, 239, 242, 243, 253

pregnancy, 151

sodium chloride and, 148, 281, 303, 310-312, 313, 315

water consumption and, 74, 139, 147-149, 162, 163

weight and, 390

Renin activity, 281-287

Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, 94, 105, 273, 287, 291, 311, 314-315, 367, 381, 390, 391-392, 393

Requirement, defined, 21-22

Research recommendations, 19-20

approach to setting, 465-466

chronic disease relationships to intakes, 467-468

dietary intake assessment, 467

major knowledge gaps and, 466-467

potassium, 254, 466, 468

priorities, 468-470

sodium and chloride, 272, 395-397, 466, 467-468

sulfate, 443, 468

water, 165-166, 468

Respiratory water losses, 80-81, 102, 132-133

Rhabdomyolysis, 121, 162, 243, 474

Risk assessment models. See also UL modeling

application to nutrients, 28, 57-61

basic concepts, 52-53

bioavailability considerations, 60-61

defined, 52, 474

EPA guidelines, 566

and food safety, 28, 52-57

nutrient interactions, 60, 62

process, 54-55

sensitivity of individuals, 59-60, 64-65

thresholds, 55-57

uncertainties, 52, 53, 564-567

Risk characterization

components of, 54, 55

defined, 52-53, 474

sodium and chloride, 394

sulfate, 442-443

water, 165

Risk management, 53, 55, 71, 475, 566, 567

Rotterdam Study, 200-201

S

S-methylmethionine, 431

Saliva specific gravity, 100-101

Salt resistance, 287, 292, 388

Salt sensitivity, 8, 9, 38, 186, 187, 194, 195-197, 228, 230-231, 234, 235, 271, 287, 311, 380, 381-382, 387-388, 389, 391, 392, 393, 475

Salt substitutes, 15, 242, 245, 248, 249, 252-253, 254

Salt wasting, 314, 382, 393

Schizophrenia, 162

Scottish Heart Health Study, 200-201, 216-217, 218, 327, 362-363, 364

Sensitive subpopulations. See Special considerations

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

Serum

aldosterone, 315

arginine vasopressin, 148

bicarbonate, 240

creatinine, 242

glucose, 293

insulin, 293

osmolality, 4, 5, 94-95, 135, 137, 148, 150, 534-536

osteocalcin, 221, 240, 369

potassium, 8, 186, 192-194, 197, 226-227, 238, 241, 252-253, 558-559

protein, 79

sodium and chloride, 137, 163-164, 281, 315, 560-563

Sickle cell anemia, 239

Skin

blood flow, 114

burns, 78,

Sodium, forms of, 9, 274-275, 318, 319

Sodium and chloride. See also Salt sensitivity

adolescents, 306-307, 316, 382-383, 385-387

adults (19-50 years), 11, 32, 148, 234, 270, 271, 276, 281-282, 307-310, 316, 320, 322, 323, 373, 376-381, 382-383, 532-533

adverse effects of overconsumption, 13, 15-16, 45, 270-271, 320, 323-395

AIs, 11, 12-13, 45-46, 235, 270, 303-307, 308, 310, 312, 316, 320, 379, 454, 455, 456, 459-461

and aldosterone, 277, 291, 311, 314, 315, 393

animal studies, 301, 302-303, 357-358, 373

assessing and planning intakes, 459-461

balance studies, 275-281, 301-302, 314

and blood pressure, 15-16, 195-197, 202-212, 228, 230-231, 270-271, 273, 275, 281-291, 300, 311-312, 323-357, 376-379, 382-394, 395, 460, 546-557

and bone mineral density, 190, 372, 374-375, 377, 395

and calcium excretion, 222, 299, 369-372, 374-375, 377, 388, 389

and cardiovascular disease, 12, 270, 283, 323-325, 357-365, 377, 378, 379, 385, 387, 395, 460

children, 45, 278-281, 306-307, 323, 385-387

and coronary heart disease, 283, 357-365, 377

critical endpoint, 376-377

and cystic fibrosis, 137-138, 300

data selection, 373, 376

dermal and sweat losses, 11, 137, 163, 164, 273, 275, 276-281, 293, 296-298, 300, 308, 312, 315, 317, 485-493

and diabetes, 16, 300-301, 380, 391-392

diuretics and, 281, 283, 299, 311, 382, 461

dose-response assessment, 15-16, 345-346, 373-387, 394, 546-557

epidemiological studies, 283, 323-324, 326-329, 358, 359, 368, 374-377, 378, 381

factors affecting requirements, 293, 296-301

factors affecting ULs, 387-394

food sources, 304, 318-320

function, 11, 38, 269, 272, 459

and gastric cancer, 372-373, 377, 395

gender differences, 312, 322, 348, 369, 390-391, 510-513, 516-517, 532-533, 560-563

genetic factors, 16, 393-394

and glucose intolerance, 292, 296-297;

see also Diabetes mellitus

and growth, 301-303

hazard identification, 323-373

and hydration status, 94, 95-97, 296, 301, 310

hyperchloremia, 302

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

and hypertension, 136, 195, 197, 201, 203, 208-211, 271, 282, 283, 301, 351-357, 380, 382, 391, 455

and hypoaldosteronism, 301

hypochloremia, 280, 299

hyponatremia, 281, 299, 300, 301, 315, 461

indicators considered for setting requirements, 9, 11-13, 275-293, 303-305, 306-312, 313-316, 466

in infant formula, 301, 302, 303, 305-306, 432

infants, 44, 301-306, 384-385, 526

and insulin resistance, 12, 270, 275, 283, 292-293, 300

intakes, 44, 46, 203, 212, 272, 276, 277, 281, 282, 285, 287, 304, 320-323, 330, 332, 334, 336, 338, 340, 342, 344, 347, 394-396, 455, 510-513, 516-517, 526, 532-533

interactions with other dietary factors, 195-197, 222, 224-225, 273, 298-299, 323, 388-390

intervention studies, 202-203, 282, 283, 329-351, 364, 367, 368-371, 546-557

and iodine intake, 317-318

and kidney stones, 223-224, 372, 374-377

lactation, 46, 304, 305, 316, 382-383

and left ventricle hypertrophy, 283, 358, 365-369, 377, 395

by life-stage group, 12-13, 301-318, 373, 376-387, 510-513, 516-517, 560-563

and lipid levels, 12, 270, 283, 292, 294-295, 308

LOAEL/NOAEL, 377-379, 380

and magnesium, 388, 389

meta-analyses of studies, 292, 323-324, 350-351, 378, 391

metabolism, 272-274

older and elderly adults (51+ years), 11-12, 45-46, 148, 270, 271, 280-281, 283, 299, 301, 310-313, 323, 380, 381-382, 532-533

physical activity and, 11, 115, 270, 277, 293, 296-298, 300, 308, 317, 372, 460, 485-493

plasma concentration, 95-97, 164, 194, 281, 315

and plasma volume, 277, 292, 300, 310, 313

potassium and, 190, 191, 195-197, 202-212, 222, 223-225, 228-231, 233, 235, 238, 273, 298-299, 323, 329, 330-345, 347, 354, 372, 379, 388-389, 516-517

predictions of requirements, 485-493

pregnancy, 46, 151, 238, 313-316, 322-323, 382-383

and pulmonary function, 372, 377

race/ethnicity, 16, 283, 348, 380, 512-513

and renal disease, 16, 325-326, 377, 380, 392

and renal function, 148, 281, 303, 310-312, 313, 315

and renin activity, 12, 275, 280, 281-287, 291, 314, 315, 359

and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, 287, 291, 311, 314-315, 381, 393

research recommendations, 272, 395-397, 466, 467-468

risk characterization, 394

serum concentration, 95-97, 137, 163-164, 281, 315, 560-563

special considerations, 317-318

and stroke, 283, 357-365, 377

supplements, 301, 302, 338-339, 455

temperature and, 293-298, 308, 317, 485-493

and thirst, 103, 104, 149

transport defects, 148

ULs, 13, 15-16, 45, 270-271, 320, 323-395, 456

uncertainty assessment, 379-380

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

urinary excretion, 197, 203, 205, 206, 207, 209, 211, 212, 276, 277, 282, 285, 287, 295, 298-299, 302, 310, 314, 320, 322, 326, 328, 331, 333, 335, 337, 339, 341, 343, 345, 347, 349, 351, 358-359, 366, 368, 372

and water, 4, 74, 78-79, 115, 136, 148, 151, 162, 163-164, 281, 485-493

and weight, 301, 313, 314, 390

Sodium bicarbonate, 78, 274-275, 302, 318, 319, 369

Sodium citrate, 275, 318, 369

Sodium sulfate, 426, 436

Special considerations

adults, 154-155

children, 155

chronic diseases, 253-254

diuretics, 241

high-temperature environments, 154, 317

hyperkalemia predisposition, 241-242

hyperthyroidism, 442

identification of, 64-65, 69

infants, 140-141

iodine intake, 317-318

low-carbohydrate, high-protein diets, 240-241

physical activity, 154-155, 156, 317

potassium, 188, 237, 240-242, 253-254

problem pregnancy, 253

renal failure, 253, 442

sodium and chloride, 317-318

sulfate, 442

water, 154-157

Spirolactones, 227

Stroke, 8, 150, 186, 194, 213, 214-217, 218, 219, 234, 283, 323, 324, 325, 354, 357-365, 377

Sulfate

and acetaminophen, 428, 429

adults, 428, 433-436, 440-441

animal studies, 437-438

bioavailable, 431

data quality and completeness, 3, 4, 13, 27, 424, 430, 441

deficiency, 427-429

and diarrhea, 424, 427, 433-438, 440, 441

dose-response assessment, 438, 440-442

in drinking water, 13, 425, 430, 432, 433-435, 436-437, 438, 440, 442-443

factors affecting requirements, 429-430

fetal requirements, 429-430

function, 13, 37, 424, 425-426

and growth, 427-428, 429-430

hazard identification, 433-440

and hyperthyroidism, 442

indicators considered for estimating requirements, 429

infants, 433, 436-437, 441

intake, 427, 428, 433, 434-435

lactation, 438

by life-stage group, 430, 433-437

and metabolic acidosis, 438-439

metabolism, 425-427

and osteoarthritis, 429, 431

pregnancy, 429-430, 437-438, 439

and renal failure, 442

research recommendations, 443, 467, 468

risk characterization, 442-443

sources, 4, 13, 27, 37, 424, 425, 426, 428, 430-433

special considerations, 442

supplements, 438, 439

and ulcerative colitis, 424, 439-440, 441

ULs, 16, 424, 433-443

Supplements, dietary

bioavailability considerations, 22, 60-61

calcium, 299, 389

clinical trials, 41

data sources on intakes, 453

doses, 28, 51-52, 58

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

potassium, 187, 188, 195, 196, 200, 201, 204-211, 212, 213, 218, 219, 221, 222, 225, 227, 230, 233, 241, 242, 245, 247, 249, 252, 299

sodium, 301, 302, 338-339, 455

sulfate, 438, 439

ULs and, 28, 51, 58, 59, 60-61

usefulness of, 28

Sweat/sweating

and body temperature, 114

body water losses, 83-85, 105, 127, 154, 155-156, 163, 485-493

and body weight changes, 101

children, 155-156

cystic fibrosis and, 300, 303

electrolyte losses, 45

environmental factors, 127, 128, 132, 154

hyperhydration and, 116

infants, 140

mathematical modeling, 130-131, 485-493

physical activity and, 6-7, 154-156

potassium losses, 189, 225-226, 227

pregnancy and, 315

and sodium chloride, 11, 137, 163, 164, 273, 275, 276-281, 293, 296-298, 300, 308, 312, 315, 317, 485-493

and thirst, 105

and water needs, 6-7, 128, 154, 155, 163

Sympathetic nervous system activity, 273-274, 367, 390

T

Taurine, 430, 431

Temperature. See also Climate

core body, 110, 114, 115, 118, 121;

see also Thermoregulation

and physical activity, 293-298

and sodium chloride, 293-298, 308, 317, 485-493

and water requirements, 80, 81

Theobromine, 133

Theophylline, 133

Thermoregulation, 79, 83-85, 110, 111, 115-117, 133

Thiamin, 426

Thirst

defined, 102

elderly adults, 149-150

hydration status and, 86, 102-105, 149-150, 151

infants, 140

measurement of, 102

osmotic threshold, 149

perceptual factors, 102-104

physiological triggers, 104-105, 137

pregnancy and, 151

sodium chloride and, 103, 104, 149

and water consumption, 7, 74, 102-104

Toddlers, ages 1 through 3 years

AIs, 233, 307

chloride, 387

energy intakes, 306

indicators used to set AIs, 31

potassium, 233

sodium, 306, 307, 387

ULs, 386-387

water, 143, 159

Tolerable, defined, 27-28, 50

Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs). See also UL modeling

applicable population, 50, 59-60

defined, 3, 27-28, 50, 58, 475-476

derivation of, 28, 45, 52-53, 56, 57-59, 65, 68-69, 380-381, 452

for nutrition labels, 456

potassium, 14-15, 249-253

sodium and chloride, 13, 15-16, 323-395, 456

sulfate, 16, 424, 433-443

supplement use and, 28, 51

uses, 18-19, 28, 51, 452-453, 455, 456, 462-463

water, 14

Toxicity, mechanisms of action, 64

Trauma, 78

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

Trials of Hypertension Prevention, 336-337, 349, 355, 356-357, 391, 393, 475

Triamterene, 227, 243

U

UL modeling. See also Dose-response assessment;

Risk assessment models

critical endpoint, 60, 65-66

data selection, 65-66, 373, 376

exposure assessment, 53, 63, 65

hazard identification, 61-65

mathematical models, 52

nutrient intake assessment, 70

risk characterization, 70-72

selection of UL

uncertainty assessment, 66-68, 379-380

Ulcerative colitis, 424, 439-440, 441

Uncertainties

approaches for dealing with, 56, 66-67, 564-567

assessment, 66-68, 379-380

case-by-case judgments, 566, 567

in data, 53, 56, 57

default options, 566, 567

dose-response assessment, 65, 66-68

extrapolation from one age group to another, 233

inferences from experimental

animal studies, 53, 68, 564, 565

range of estimates applied to, 566-567

in risk assessment, 52, 53, 55, 67-68, 564-567

for sodium and chloride, 379-380

Uncertainty factors

defined, 56, 475

selection of, 66

Urea, 135, 151, 427, 429

Uric acid, 122

Urinary tract infections, 121-122.

See also Bladder cancer

Urine/urinary

calcium excretion, 223, 224, 240

citrate excretion, 8, 186, 188, 224-225, 228, 240

color, 99

deoxypyridinoline, 219, 221

and hydration status, 82-83, 92, 99-101, 105, 148

hydroxyproline, 221

n-teleopeptide, 221

net acid excretion, 240

osmolality, 99-100, 121, 136, 139, 147, 149

potassium excretion, 189, 191, 192, 197, 202-203, 205, 206, 207, 209, 211, 212, 225, 227, 230, 238-239, 241, 247, 248, 249, 250-251, 331, 333, 335, 337, 339, 341, 343, 345, 347

pyridinoline, 219, 221

sodium excretion, 197, 203, 205, 206, 207, 209, 211, 212, 276, 277, 282, 285, 287, 295, 298-299, 302, 310, 314, 320, 322, 326, 328, 331, 333, 335, 337, 339, 341, 343, 345, 347, 349, 351, 358-359, 366, 368, 372

specific gravity, 99-100, 101, 133

sulfate, 427

volume, 82, 83, 99, 122, 136, 139

water losses, 81-83, 102, 105, 134, 140

Urolithiasis, 221-222

U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine model, 485-493

U.S. Department of Agriculture, 47, 48, 141

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 47

Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 1

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 433, 440, 442, 566

U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 319

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

V

Vagal system, 105, 124

Vasopressinase, 152

Vegetarians, 354

Vitamin E, 440

Volume receptors, 104-105

Vomiting, 94, 280, 303, 315

W

Water consumption. See also Body water;

Dehydration;

Drinking water;

Hyperhydration;

Hydration status

adolescents, 142-144, 152, 153, 155-157, 159-160, 540-545

adults (19-50 years), 5-6, 87-88, 144-147, 154-155, 157-158, 159-160, 161, 540-545

adverse effects of overconsumption, 14, 74, 154-165

AIs, 4, 5, 6-7, 73, 140-157, 453-454, 456-458

altitude exposure and, 80, 132-133

assessment of intakes, 79

balance studies, 86-89, 93, 140, 142

from beverages, 5, 73, 86, 145, 146-147, 157, 158, 160, 161, 500-501, 522-523

and bladder cancer, 124-125

and bladder lesions from overconsumption, 164

Canadian, 6, 74, 160, 528-529

children, 45, 87, 142-143, 155-157, 159-160, 164, 538-539

in cold climates, 89, 132-133

and colon cancer, 124

cystic fibrosis and, 137-138, 163

diabetes mellitus and, 136-137, 139

diuretics and medication use and, 7, 139-140, 458

dose-response assessment, 154-165

from drinking water, 73, 86, 158, 161, 498-501, 520-523

environmental factors, 4, 74, 88, 89, 90, 127-133, 144

exposure assessment 165

factors affecting, 127-140, 144

flavor preferences and, 103-104

from food, 5, 6, 73-74, 86, 145, 146-147, 152, 158, 160, 161, 457, 502-503, 524-525, 526

and gallstones, 124

gender differences, 87, 88, 90, 91, 93, 127, 154, 155, 159-160, 161, 457, 494-503, 518-525, 528-529, 538-545

hazard identification, 162-164

heat strain and, 89, 127-132

heat stress and, 89, 90, 105, 110, 118, 120-121, 131, 133, 157, 163, 485-493

in hot climates, 6, 74, 88, 164

hydration status and, 86, 92, 94-95, 102

and hyponatremia, 14, 161-164, 281

indicators of adequacy, 4-8, 122

from infant weaning foods, 526

infants, 87, 140-142, 162

intake data, 4-5, 48, 103, 157-161, 498-501, 502-503, 524-525, 526, 534-545

interactions of dietary factors, 133-136, 144-145, 457

and kidney stones, 122-123

lactation, 46, 153, 161

by life-stage group, 5, 6-7, 140-157, 159-160, 161, 494-503, 518-525, 528-529, 534-536

macronutrient intakes and, 135-136, 144-145, 457

methods for estimating, 86-90

older and elderly adults (51+ years), 147-150, 159-160, 161, 540-545

pathophysiological factors, 136-140

physical activity and, 4, 6-7, 14, 74, 80, 88-89, 127-132, 144, 154-157, 160, 162, 163, 164, 457, 485-493, 537-545

potassium excretion, 78, 238-239

pregnancy, 151-152, 161

protein intake and, 135

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

race/ethnicity and, 141

renal disease and, 139

and renal function, 74, 139, 147-149, 162, 163

research recommendations, 165-166, 466, 468

risk characterization, 165

and sodium chloride, 74, 136, 162, 163-164, 281, 485-493

special considerations, 154-157

therapeutic effects of, 122-123

thirst and, 7, 74, 102-104

total intakes, 4, 5, 7, 73, 86, 158, 159, 475, 494-497, 518-519

Weight. See also Obesity and overweight;

Reference weights and heights

adjustment of AIs based on, 233

and blood pressure, 390, 394

body water and, 77, 78, 86-87

and cardiovascular disease, 323, 354

hydration status and, 101-102, 110, 151

and hypertension, 354

measurement confounding, 101-102

pregnancy, 151

rapid loss, 121, 125

sodium chloride and, 301, 313, 314, 390

WHO-Cardiac Study, 327

Wilson’s disease, 430

Women

athletes, 127-128

BMI, 483

blood pressure, 390-391

bone mineral density, 219, 220-221, 222

calcium, 369

heat capacity, 83-84

high-protein diet, 369

hydration of fat-free mass, 76-77

hyponatremia, 162, 164, 299

perimenopausal, 219, 390

plasma osmomality, 93

postmenopausal, 219, 222, 369, 390

potassium, 219, 236

sodium chloride, 322, 369

urinary tract infections, 121-122

water requirements, 88, 90, 91, 93, 121-122, 127-128

World Health Organization, 22, 44, 50-51, 56, 442

Y

Yanomamo Indians (Brazil), 11, 269, 276, 315, 322, 328, 350

Z

Zinc, 30

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

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Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Recommended Intakes for Individuals, Vitamins

Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies

Life Stage Group

Vitamin A (µg/d)a

Vitamin C (mg/d)

Vitamin D (µg/d)b,c

Vitamin E (mg/d)d

Vitamin K (µg/d)

Thiamin (mg/d)

Infants

0–6 mo

400*

40*

5*

4*

2.0*

0.2*

7–12 mo

500*

50*

5*

5*

2.5*

0.3*

Children

1–3 y

300

15

5*

6

30*

0.5

4–8 y

400

25

5*

7

55*

0.6

Males

9–13 y

600

45

5*

11

60*

0.9

14–18 y

900

75

5*

15

75*

1.2

19–30 y

900

90

5*

15

120*

1.2

31–50 y

900

90

5*

15

120*

1.2

51–70 y

900

90

10*

15

120*

1.2

> 70 y

900

90

15*

15

120*

1.2

Females

9–13 y

600

45

5*

11

60*

0.9

14–18 y

700

65

5*

15

75*

1.0

19–30 y

700

75

5*

15

90*

1.1

31–50 y

700

75

5*

15

90*

1.1

51–70 y

700

75

10*

15

90*

1.1

> 70 y

700

75

15*

15

90*

1.1

Pregnancy

14–18 y

750

80

5*

15

75*

1.4

19–30 y

770

85

5*

15

90*

1.4

31–50 y

770

85

5*

15

90*

1.4

Lactation

14–18 y

1,200

115

5*

19

75*

1.4

19–30 y

1,300

120

5*

19

90*

1.4

31–50 y

1,300

120

5*

19

90*

1.4

NOTE: This table (taken from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu) presents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type and Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*). RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to cover needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data or uncertainty in the data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.

a As retinol activity equivalents (RAEs). 1 RAE = 1 µg retinol, 12 µg β-carotene, 24 µg α-carotene, or 24 µg β-cryptoxanthin. The RAE for dietary provitamin A carotenoids is twofold greater than retinol equivalents (RE), whereas the RAE for preformed vitamin A is the same as RE.

b As cholecalciferol. 1 µg cholecalciferol = 40 IU vitamin D.

c In the absence of adequate exposure to sunlight.

d As α-tocopherol. α-Tocopherol includes RRR-α-tocopherol, the only form of α-tocopherol that occurs naturally in foods, and the 2R-stereoisomeric forms of α-tocopherol (RRR-, RSR-, RRS-, and RSS-α-tocopherol) that occur in fortified foods and supplements. It does not include the 2S-stereoisomeric forms of α-tocopherol (SRR-, SSR-, SRS-, and SSS-α-tocopherol), also found in fortified foods and supplements.

e As niacin equivalents (NE). 1 mg of niacin = 60 mg of tryptophan; 0–6 months = preformed niacin (not NE).

f As dietary folate equivalents (DFE). 1 DFE = 1 µg food folate = 0.6 µg of folic acid from fortified food or as a supplement consumed with food = 0.5 µg of a supplement taken on an empty stomach.

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

Riboflavin (mg/d)

Niacin (mg/d)e

Vitamin B6 (mg/d)

Folate (µg/d)f

Vitamin B12 (µg/d)

Pantothenic Acid (mg/d)

Biotin (µg/d)

Choline (mg/d)g

0.3*

2*

0.1*

65*

0.4*

1.7*

5*

125*

0.4*

4*

0.3*

80*

0.5*

1.8*

6*

150*

0.5

6

0.5

150

0.9

2*

8*

200*

0.6

8

0.6

200

1.2

3*

12*

250*

0.9

12

1.0

300

1.8

4*

20*

375*

1.3

16

1.3

400

2.4

5*

25*

550*

1.3

16

1.3

400

2.4

5*

30*

550*

1.3

16

1.3

400

2.4

5*

30*

550*

1.3

16

1.7

400

2.4h

5*

30*

550*

1.3

16

1.7

400

2.4h

5*

30*

550*

0.9

12

1.0

300

1.8

4*

20*

375*

1.0

14

1.2

400i

2.4

5*

25*

400*

1.1

14

1.3

400i

2.4

5*

30*

425*

1.1

14

1.3

400i

2.4

5*

30*

425*

1.1

14

1.5

400

2.4h

5*

30*

425*

1.1

14

1.5

400

2.4h

5*

30*

425*

1.4

18

1.9

600j

2.6

6*

30*

450*

1.4

18

1.9

600j

2.6

6*

30*

450*

1.4

18

1.9

600j

2.6

6*

30*

450*

1.6

17

2.0

500

2.8

7*

35*

550*

1.6

17

2.0

500

2.8

7*

35*

550*

1.6

17

2.0

500

2.8

7*

35*

550*

g Although AIs have been set for choline, there are few data to assess whether a dietary supply of choline is needed at all stages of the life cycle, and it may be that the choline requirement can be met by endogenous synthesis at some of these stages.

h Because 10 to 30 percent of older people may malabsorb food-bound B12, it is advisable for those older than 50 years to meet their RDA mainly by consuming foods fortified with B12 or a supplement containing B12.

i In view of evidence linking folate intake with neural tube defects in the fetus, it is recommended that all women capable of becoming pregnant consume 400 µg from supplements or fortified foods in addition to intake of food folate from a varied diet.

j It is assumed that women will continue consuming 400 µg from supplements or fortified food until their pregnancy is confirmed and they enter prenatal care, which ordinarily occurs after the end of the periconceptional period—the critical time for formation of the neural tube.

SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate (2005). These reports may be accessed via http://www.nap.edu.

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Recommended Intakes for Individuals, Elements

Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies

Life Stage Group

Calcium (mg/d)

Chromium (µg/d)

Copper (µg/d)

Fluoride (mg/d)

Iodine (µg/d)

Iron (mg/d)

Magnesium (mg/d)

Infants

0–6 mo

210*

0.2*

200*

0.01*

110*

0.27*

30*

7–12 mo

270*

5.5*

220*

0.5*

130*

11

75*

Children

1–3 y

500*

11*

340

0.7*

90

7

80

4–8 y

800*

15*

440

1*

90

10

130

Males

9–13 y

1,300*

25*

700

2*

120

8

240

14–18 y

1,300*

35*

890

3*

150

11

410

19–30 y

1,000*

35*

900

4*

150

8

400

31–50 y

1,000*

35*

900

4*

150

8

420

51–70 y

1,200*

30*

900

4*

150

8

420

> 70 y

1,200*

30*

900

4*

150

8

420

Females

9–13 y

1,300*

21*

700

2*

120

8

240

14–18 y

1,300*

24*

890

3*

150

15

360

19–30 y

1,000*

25*

900

3*

150

18

310

31–50 y

1,000*

25*

900

3*

150

18

320

51–70 y

1,200*

20*

900

3*

150

8

320

> 70 y

1,200*

20*

900

3*

150

8

320

Pregnancy

14–18 y

1,300*

29*

1,000

3*

220

27

400

19–30 y

1,000*

30*

1,000

3*

220

27

350

31–50 y

1,000*

30*

1,000

3*

220

27

360

Lactation

14–18 y

1,300*

44*

1,300

3*

290

10

360

19–30 y

1,000*

45*

1,300

3*

290

9

310

31–50 y

1,000*

45*

1,300

3*

290

9

320

NOTE: This table presents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type and Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*). RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to cover needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data or uncertainty in the data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

Manganese (mg/d)

Molybdenum (µg/d)

Phosphorus (mg/d)

Selenium (µg/d)

Zinc (mg/d)

Potassium (g/d)

Sodium (g/d)

Chloride (g/d)

0.003*

2*

100*

15*

2*

0.4*

0.12*

0.18*

0.6*

3*

275*

20*

3

0.7*

0.37*

0.57*

1.2*

17

460

20

3

3.0*

1.0*

1.5*

1.5*

22

500

30

5

3.8*

1.2*

1.9*

1.9*

34

1,250

40

8

4.5*

1.5*

2.3*

2.2*

43

1,250

55

11

4.7*

1.5*

2.3*

2.3*

45

700

55

11

4.7*

1.5*

2.3*

2.3*

45

700

55

11

4.7*

1.5*

2.3*

2.3*

45

700

55

11

4.7*

1.3*

2.0*

2.3*

45

700

55

11

4.7*

1.2*

1.8*

1.6*

34

1,250

40

8

4.5*

1.5*

2.3*

1.6*

43

1,250

55

9

4.7*

1.5*

2.3*

1.8*

45

700

55

8

4.7*

1.5*

2.3*

1.8*

45

700

55

8

4.7*

1.5*

2.3*

1.8*

45

700

55

8

4.7*

1.3*

2.0*

1.8*

45

700

55

8

4.7*

1.2*

1.8*

2.0*

50

1,250

60

12

4.7*

1.5*

2.3*

2.0*

50

700

60

11

4.7*

1.5*

2.3*

2.0*

50

700

60

11

4.7*

1.5*

2.3*

2.6*

50

1,250

70

13

5.1*

1.5*

2.3*

2.6*

50

700

70

12

5.1*

1.5*

2.3*

2.6*

50

700

70

12

5.1*

1.5*

2.3*

SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate (2005). These reports may be accessed via http://www.nap.edu.

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Recommended Intakes for Individuals, Total Water and Macronutrients

Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies

Life Stage Group

Total Watera (L/d)

Carbohydrate (g/d)

Total Fiber (g/d)

Fat (g/d)

Linoleic Acid (g/d)

α-Linolenic Acid (g/d)

Proteinb (g/d)

Infants

0–6 mo

0.7*

60*

ND

31*

4.4*

0.5*

9.1*

7–12 mo

0.8*

95*

ND

30*

4.6*

0.5*

11.0+

Children

1–3 y

1.3*

130

19*

NDc

7*

0.7*

13

4–8 y

1.7*

130

25*

ND

10*

0.9*

19

Males

9–13 y

2.4*

130

31*

ND

12*

1.2*

34

14–18 y

3.3*

130

38*

ND

16*

1.6*

52

19–30 y

3.7*

130

38*

ND

17*

1.6*

56

31–50 y

3.7*

130

38*

ND

17*

1.6*

56

51–70 y

3.7*

130

30*

ND

14*

1.6*

56

> 70 y

3.7*

130

30*

ND

14*

1.6*

56

Females

9–13 y

2.1*

130

26*

ND

10*

1.0*

34

14–18 y

2.3*

130

26*

ND

11*

1.1*

46

19–30 y

2.7*

130

25*

ND

12*

1.1*

46

31–50 y

2.7*

130

25*

ND

12*

1.1*

46

51–70 y

2.7*

130

21*

ND

11*

1.1*

46

> 70 y

2.7*

130

21*

ND

11*

1.1*

46

Pregnancy

14–18 y

3.0*

175

28*

ND

13*

1.4*

71

19–30 y

3.0*

175

28*

ND

13*

1.4*

71

31–50 y

3.0*

175

28*

ND

13*

1.4*

71

Lactation

14–18 y

3.8*

210

29*

ND

13*

1.3*

71

19–30 y

3.8*

210

29*

ND

13*

1.3*

71

31–50 y

3.8*

210

29*

ND

13*

1.3*

71

NOTE: This table presents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type and Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*). RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data or uncertainty in the data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake. The plus (+) symbol indicates a change from the prepublication copy due to a calculation error.

a Total water includes all water contained in food, beverages, and drinking water.

b Based on g protein per kg of body weight for the reference body weight, e.g., for adults 0.8 g/kg body weight for the reference body weight.

c Not determined.

SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (2002/2005); Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate (2005). These reports may be accessed via http://www.nap.edu.

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges

Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies

Macronutrient

Range (percent of energy)

Children, 1–3 y

Children, 4–18 y

Adults

Fat

30–40

25–35

20–35

n-6 Polyunsaturated fatty acidsa (linoleic acid)

5–10

5–10

5–10

n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acidsa (α-linolenic acid)

0.6–1.2

0.6–1.2

0.6–1.2

Carbohydrate

45–65

45–65

45–65

Protein

5–20

10–30

10–35

a Approximately 10 percent of the total can come from longer-chain n-3 or n-6 fatty acids.

SOURCE: Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (2002/2005).

Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Additional Macronutrient Recommendations

Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies

Macronutrient

Recommendation

Dietary cholesterol

As low as possible while consuming a nutritionally adequate diet

Trans fatty acids

As low as possible while consuming a nutritionally adequate diet

Saturated fatty acids

As low as possible while consuming a nutritionally adequate diet

Added sugars

Limit to no more than 25% of total energy

 

SOURCE: Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (2002/2005).

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULa), Vitamins

Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies

Life Stage Group

Vitamin A (µg/d)b

Vitamin C (mg/d)

Vitamin D (µg/d)

Vitamin E (mg/d)c,d

Vitamin K

Thiamin

Infants

0–6 mo

600

NDf

25

ND

ND

ND

7–12 mo

600

ND

25

ND

ND

ND

Children

1–3 y

600

400

50

200

ND

ND

4–8 y

900

650

50

300

ND

ND

Males, Females

9–13 y

1,700

1,200

50

600

ND

ND

14–18 y

2,800

1,800

50

800

ND

ND

19–70 y

3,000

2,000

50

1,000

ND

ND

> 70 y

3,000

2,000

50

1,000

ND

ND

Pregnancy

14–18 y

2,800

1,800

50

800

ND

ND

19–50 y

3,000

2,000

50

1,000

ND

ND

Lactation

14–18 y

2,800

1,800

50

800

ND

ND

19–50 y

3,000

2,000

50

1,000

ND

ND

a UL = The highest level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects to almost all individuals in the general population. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, and supplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, and carotenoids. In the absence of ULs, extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.

b As preformed vitamin A only.

c As α-tocopherol; applies to any form of supplemental α-tocopherol.

d The ULs for vitamin E, niacin, and folate apply to synthetic forms obtained from supplements, fortified foods, or a combination of the two.

e β-Carotene supplements are advised only to serve as a provitamin A source for individuals at risk of vitamin A deficiency.

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

Riboflavin

Niacin (mg/d)d

Vitamin B6 (mg/d)

Folate (µg/d)d

Vitamin B12

Pantothenic Acid

Biotin

Choline (g/d)

Carotenoidse

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

10

30

300

ND

ND

ND

1.0

ND

ND

15

40

400

ND

ND

ND

1.0

ND

ND

20

60

600

ND

ND

ND

2.0

ND

ND

30

80

800

ND

ND

ND

3.0

ND

ND

35

100

1,000

ND

ND

ND

3.5

ND

ND

35

100

1,000

ND

ND

ND

3.5

ND

ND

30

80

800

ND

ND

ND

3.0

ND

ND

35

100

1,000

ND

ND

ND

3.5

ND

ND

30

80

800

ND

ND

ND

3.0

ND

ND

35

100

1,000

ND

ND

ND

3.5

ND

f ND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.

SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001). These reports may be accessed via http://www.nap.edu.

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULa), Elements

Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies

Life Stage Group

Arsenicb

Boron (mg/d)

Calcium (g/d)

Chromium

Copper (µg/d)

Fluoride (mg/d)

Iodine (µg/d)

Iron (mg/d)

Magnesium (mg/d)c

Infants

0–6 mo

NDf

ND

ND

ND

ND

0.7

ND

40

ND

7–12 mo

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

0.9

ND

40

ND

Children

1–3 y

ND

3

2.5

ND

1,000

1.3

200

40

65

4–8 y

ND

6

2.5

ND

3,000

2.2

300

40

110

Males, Females

9–13 y

ND

11

2.5

ND

5,000

10

600

40

350

14–18 y

ND

17

2.5

ND

8,000

10

900

45

350

19–70 y

ND

20

2.5

ND

10,000

10

1,100

45

350

> 70 y

ND

20

2.5

ND

10,000

10

1,100

45

350

Pregnancy

14–18 y

ND

17

2.5

ND

8,000

10

900

45

350

19–50 y

ND

20

2.5

ND

10,000

10

1,100

45

350

Lactation

14–18 y

ND

17

2.5

ND

8,000

10

900

45

350

19–50 y

ND

20

2.5

ND

10,000

10

1,100

45

350

a UL = The highest level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects to almost all individuals in the general population. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, and supplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established for arsenic, chromium, silicon, potassium, and sulfate. In the absence of ULs, extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.

b Although the UL was not determined for arsenic, there is no justification for adding arsenic to food or supplements.

c The ULs for magnesium represent intake from a pharmacological agent only and do not include intake from food and water.

d Although silicon has not been shown to cause adverse effects in humans, there is no justification for adding silicon to supplements.

e Although vanadium in food has not been shown to cause adverse effects in humans, there is no justification for adding vanadium to food and vanadium supplements should be used with caution. The UL is based on adverse effects in laboratory animals and this data could be used to set a UL for adults but not children and adolescents.

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

Manganese (mg/d)

Molybdenum (µg/d)

Nickel (mg/d)

Phosphorus (g/d)

Potassium

Selenium (µg/d)

Silicond

Sulfate

Vanadium (mg/d)e

Zinc (mg/d)

Sodium (g/d)

Chloride (g/d)

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

45

ND

ND

ND

4

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

60

ND

ND

ND

5

ND

ND

2

300

0.2

3.0

ND

90

ND

ND

ND

7

1.5

2.3

3

600

0.3

3.0

ND

150

ND

ND

ND

12

1.9

2.9

6

1,100

0.6

4.0

ND

280

ND

ND

ND

23

2.2

3.4

9

1,700

1.0

4.0

ND

400

ND

ND

ND

34

2.3

3.6

11

2,000

1.0

4.0

ND

400

ND

ND

1.8

40

2.3

3.6

11

2,000

1.0

3.0

ND

400

ND

ND

1.8

40

2.3

3.6

9

1,700

1.0

3.5

ND

400

ND

ND

ND

34

2.3

3.6

11

2,000

1.0

3.5

ND

400

ND

ND

ND

40

2.3

3.6

9

1,700

1.0

4.0

ND

400

ND

ND

ND

34

2.3

3.6

11

2,000

1.0

4.0

ND

400

ND

ND

ND

40

2.3

3.6

f ND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.

SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate (2005). These reports may be accessed via http://www.nap.edu.

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Estimated Average Requirements for Groups

Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies

Life Stage Group

CHO (g/d)

Protein (g/kg/d)

Vit A (µg/d)a

Vit C (mg/d)

Vit E (mg/d)b

Thiamin (mg/d)

Riboflavin (mg/d)

Niacin (mg/d)c

Vit B6 (mg/d)

Infants

7–12 mo

 

1.0

 

Children

1–3 y

100

0.87

210

13

5

0.4

0.4

5

0.4

4–8 y

100

0.76

275

22

6

0.5

0.5

6

0.5

Males

9–13 y

100

0.76

445

39

9

0.7

0.8

9

0.8

14–18 y

100

0.73

630

63

12

1.0

1.1

12

1.1

19–30 y

100

0.66

625

75

12

1.0

1.1

12

1.1

31–50 y

100

0.66

625

75

12

1.0

1.1

12

1.1

51–70 y

100

0.66

625

75

12

1.0

1.1

12

1.4

> 70 y

100

0.66

625

75

12

1.0

1.1

12

1.4

Females

9–13 y

100

0.76

420

39

9

0.7

0.8

9

0.8

14–18 y

100

0.71

485

56

12

0.9

0.9

11

1.0

19–30 y

100

0.66

500

60

12

0.9

0.9

11

1.1

31–50 y

100

0.66

500

60

12

0.9

0.9

11

1.1

51–70 y

100

0.66

500

60

12

0.9

0.9

11

1.3

> 70 y

100

0.66

500

60

12

0.9

0.9

11

1.3

Pregnancy

14–18 y

135

0.88

530

66

12

1.2

1.2

14

1.6

19–30 y

135

0.88

550

70

12

1.2

1.2

14

1.6

31–50 y

135

0.88

550

70

12

1.2

1.2

14

1.6

Lactation

14–18 y

160

1.05

885

96

16

1.2

1.3

13

1.7

19–30 y

160

1.05

900

100

16

1.2

1.3

13

1.7

31–50 y

160

1.05

900

100

16

1.2

1.3

13

1.7

NOTE: This table presents Estimated Average Requirements (EARs), which serve two purposes: for assessing adequacy of population intakes and as the basis for calculating Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for individuals. EARs have not been established for vitamin D, vitamin K, pantothenic acid, biotin, choline, calcium, chromium, fluoride, mangan ese, or other nutrients not yet evaluated via the DRI process.

a As retinol activity equivalents (RAEs). 1 RAE = 1 µg retinol, 12 µg β-carotene, 24 µg α-carotene, or 24 µg β-cryptoxanthin. The RAE for dietary provitamin A carotenoids is twofold greater than retinol equivalents (RE), whereas the RAE for preformed vitamin A is the same as RE.

b As α-tocopherol. α-Tocopherol includes RRR-α-tocopherol, the only form of α-tocopherol that occurs naturally in foods, and the 2R-stereoisomeric forms of α-tocopherol (RRR-, RSR-, RRS-, and RSS-α-tocopherol) that occur in fortified foods and supplements. It does not include the 2S-stereoisomeric forms of α-tocopherol (SRR-, SSR-, SRS-, and SSS-α-tocopherol), also found in fortified foods and supplements.

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

Folate (µg/d)a

Vit B12 (µg/d)

Copper (µg/d)

Iodine (µg/d)

Iron (mg/d)

Magnesium (mg/d)

Molybdenum (µg/d)

Phosphorus (mg/d)

Selenium (µg/d)

Zinc (mg/d)

 

6.9

 

2.5

120

0.7

260

65

3.0

65

13

380

17

2.5

160

1.0

340

65

4.1

110

17

405

23

4.0

250

1.5

540

73

5.9

200

26

1,055

35

7.0

330

2.0

685

95

7.7

340

33

1,055

45

8.5

320

2.0

700

95

6

330

34

580

45

9.4

320

2.0

700

95

6

350

34

580

45

9.4

320

2.0

700

95

6

350

34

580

45

9.4

320

2.0

700

95

6

350

34

580

45

9.4

250

1.5

540

73

5.7

200

26

1,055

35

7.0

330

2.0

685

95

7.9

300

33

1,055

45

7.3

320

2.0

700

95

8.1

255

34

580

45

6.8

320

2.0

700

95

8.1

265

34

580

45

6.8

320

2.0

700

95

5

265

34

580

45

6.8

320

2.0

700

95

5

265

34

580

45

6.8

520

2.2

785

160

23

335

40

1,055

49

10.5

520

2.2

800

160

22

290

40

580

49

9.5

520

2.2

800

160

22

300

40

580

49

9.5

450

2.4

985

209

7

300

35

1,055

59

10.9

450

2.4

1,000

209

6.5

255

36

580

59

10.4

450

2.4

1,000

209

6.5

265

36

580

59

10.4

c As niacin equivalents (NE). 1 mg of niacin = 60 mg of tryptophan.

d As dietary folate equivalents (DFE). 1 DFE = 1 µg food folate = 0.6 µg of folic acid from fortified food or as a supplement consumed with food = 0.5 µg of a supplement taken on an empty stomach.

SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001), and Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (2002/2005). These reports may be accessed via www.nap.edu.

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×

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×
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×
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×
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Page 583
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
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Page 584
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×
Page 585
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 586
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 587
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 588
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 589
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
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Page 590
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×
Page 591
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 592
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 593
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 594
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 595
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 596
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 597
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 598
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 599
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 600
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 601
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 602
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 603
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 604
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 605
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 606
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 607
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 608
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 609
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 610
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 611
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 612
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 613
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 614
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 615
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 616
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10925.
×
Page 617
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×
Page 618
Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate Get This Book
×

Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) are quantitative estimates of nutrient intakes to be used for planning and assessing diets for healthy people. This new report, the sixth in a series of reports presenting dietary reference values for the intakes of nutrients by Americans and Canadians, establishes nutrient recommendations on water, potassium, and salt for health maintenance and the reduction of chronic disease risk. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate discusses in detail the role of water, potassium, salt, chloride, and sulfate in human physiology and health. The major findings in this book include the establishment of Adequate Intakes for total water (drinking water, beverages, and food), potassium, sodium, and chloride and the establishment of Tolerable Upper Intake levels for sodium and chloride. The book makes research recommendations for information needed to advance the understanding of human requirements for water and electrolytes, as well as adverse effects associated with the intake of excessive amounts of water, sodium, chloride, potassium, and sulfate. This book will be an invaluable reference for nutritionists, nutrition researchers, and food manufacturers.

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