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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
500 Fifth Street, NW Washington, DC 20001
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing
Board ofthe National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils ofthe
National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of
Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their
special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This project was supported by Contract No. NAG 9-1451 between the National Academy
of Sciences and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Any opinions,
findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the
authoress and do not necessarily reflect the view of the organizations or agencies that
provided support for this project.
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Library of Congress Control Number 2004102556
Additional copies of this report are available from:
The National Academies Press
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Box 285
Washington, DC 20055
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http://www.nap.edu
Copyright 2004 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
Advisers to the Nation on Science, Engineering, and Medirine
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of
distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the
furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the
authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate
that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr.
Bruce M. Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the
National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is
autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the
National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The
National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting
national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior
achievements of engineers. Dr. Wm. A. Wulf is president of the National Academy of
~ . .
Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences
to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of
policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the
responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be
an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of
medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the Institute
of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in
1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's
purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in
accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the
principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National
Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the
scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both
Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. Wm. A. Wulf are
chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council
w~N.national-academies.org
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SUBCOMMITTEE ON SPACECRAFT EXPOSURE GUTDET,TNES
GAROT,D S. YOST (Chair), University of Utah, Salt Lake City
DONAT,D E. GARDNER (Chair from September 1999 to July 2002), Consultant,
Raleigh, NC
GARY P. CART,SON, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN
DAROT, E. DODD, ManTech Environmental Technology, Inc., Dayton, OH
KEVIN E. DRTSCOT,T,, Procter and Gamble Pharmaceuticals, Mason, OH
ET,ATNE M. FAUSTMAN, University of Washington, Seattle
CHART,ES E. FETGT,EY, University of South Carolina, Columbia
WTT,T,TAM E. HAT,PERTN, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey,
Newark
RAT,PH L. KODET,T,, National Center for Toxicological Research, Jefferson, AR
KENNETH E. THUMMET,, University of Washington, Seattle
JOYCE TSUIT, Exponent Environmental Group, Inc., Bellevue, WA
ROBERT SNYDER (member from September 1999 to November 2001),
Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Piscataway, NJ
BERNARD M. WAGNER (member from September 1999 to July 2001),
Consultant, Short Hills, NJ
BERNARD WEISS, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY
JUDITH T. ZET,TKOFF, New York University School of Medicine, Tuxedo
Staff
SUSAN N.J. MARTET,, Project Director
KET,T,Y CT,ART`, Editor
TAMARA DAWSON, Project Assistant
Sponsor
NATTONAT, AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMTNTSTRATTON
v
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COMMITTEE ON TOXICOLOGY
BAILUS WALKER JR. (Chair), Howard University Medical Center and American
Public Health Association, Washington, DC
MELVIN E. ANDERSON, CIIT-Centers for Health Research, Research Triangle
Park, NC
EDWARD C. BISHOP, Parsons Corporation, Fairfax, VA
GARY P. CARLSON, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN
JANICE E. CHAMBERS, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State
LEONARD CHIAZZE JR., Georgetown University, Washington, DC
JUDITH A. GRAHAM, American Chemistry Council, Arlington, VA
SIDNEY GREEN, Howard University, Washington, DC
MERYL KAROL, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
STEPHEN U. LESTER, Center for Health Environment and Justice, Falls Church,
VA
DAVID H. MOORE, Battelle Memorial Institute, Bet Air, MD
CALVIN C. WILEHITE, Department of Toxic Substances, State of California,
Berkeley
GERALD WOGAN, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
Staff
KULBIR S. BAKSHI, Program Director
ROBERTA M. WEDGE, Program Director for Risk Analysis
SUSAN N.J. MARTEL, Senior Staff Officer
ELLEN K. MANTUS, Senior Staff Officer
KELLY CLARK, Assistant Editor
AIDA NEEL, Senior Project Assistant
TAMARA DAWSON, Project Assistant
Vl
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BOARD ON ENVTRONMENTAL STUDIES AND TOXTCOLOGY!
Members
JONATHAN M. SAMET (Chair9, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
DAVID AEEEN, University of Texas, Austin
THOMAS BURKE, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
JUDITH C. CHOW, Desert Research Institute, Reno, NV
COSTEL D. BENSON, University of Delaware, Newark
E. DONALD ELLIOTT, Yale Law School, New Haven, CT
CHRISTOPHER B. FIEED, Carnegie Institute of Washington, Stanford, CA
WILLIAM H. GLAZE, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton
SHERR} W. GOODMAN, Center for Naval Analyses, Alexandria, VA
DANIEE S. GREENBAUM, Health Effects Institute, Cambridge, MA
ROGENE HENDERSON, Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, NM
CAROL HENRY, American Chemistry Council, Arlington, VA
ROBERT HUGGETT, Michigan State University, East Lansing
BARRY L. JOHNSON Emory University, Atlanta, GA
JAMES H. JOHNSON, Howard University, Washington, DC
JUDITH L. MEYER, University of Georgia, Athens
PATRICK Y. O'BRIEN, ChevronTexaco Energy Technology Co., Richmond, CA
DOROTHY E. PATTON, International Life Sciences Institute, Washington, DC
STEWARD T.A. PICKETT, Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY
ARMISTEAD G. RUSSELL, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta
LOUISE M. RYAN, Harvard University, Boston, MA
KIRK SMITH, University of California, Berkeley
LISA SPEER, Natural Resources Defense Council, New York, NY
G. DAVID TIEMAN, University of Minnesota, St. Paul
CHRIS G. WHIPPLE, Environ Incorporated, Emeryville, CA
LAUREN A. ZEISE, California Environmental Protection Agency, Oakland
Senior Staff
JAMES J. REISA, Director
DAVID J. POEICANSKY, Associate Director
RAYMOND A. WASSEL, Senior Program Director for Environmental Sciences and
~ . .
~ engineering
KUEBIR BAKSHI, Program Director for Toxicology
ROBERTA M. WEDGE, Program Director for Risk Analysis
K. JOHN HOLMES, Senior Staff Officer
SUSAN N.J. MARTEE, Senior Staff Officer
SUZANNE VAN DRUNICK, Senior Staff Officer
EIEEEN N. ABT, Senior Staff Officer
EEEEN K. MANTUS, Senior Staff Officer
RUTH E. CROSSGROVE, Managing Editor
This study was planned, overseen, and supported by the Board on Environmental
Studies and Toxicology.
. .
v''
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OTHER REPORTS OF THE
BOARD ON ENVTRONMENTAL STUDIES AND TOXTCOLOGY
Air Quality Management in the United States (2004)
Endangered and Threatened Fishes in the Klamath River Basin: Causes of
Decline and Strategies for Recovery (2004)
Cumulative Environmental Effects of Alaska North Slope Oil and Gas
Development (2003)
Estimating the Public Health Benefits of Proposed Air Pollution Regulations
(2002)
Biosolids Applied to Land: Advancing Standards and Practices (2002)
The Airliner Cabin Environment and Health of Passengers and Crew (2002)
Arsenic in Drinking Water: 2001 Update (2001 ~
Evaluating Vehicle Emissions Inspection and Maintenance Programs (2001)
Compensating for Wetland Losses Under the Clean Water Act (2001)
A Risk-Management Strategy for PCB-Contaminated Sediments (2001)
Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals (3 volumes,
2000-2003)
Toxicological Effects of Methylmercury (2000)
Strengthening Science at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2000)
Scientific Frontiers in Developmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment (2000)
Ecological Indicators for the Nation (2000)
Waste Incineration and Public Health (1999)
Hormonally Active Agents in the Environment (1999)
Research Priorities for Airborne Particulate Matter (4 volumes, 1998-2003)
Arsenic in Drinking Water (1999)
The National Research Council's Committee on Toxicology: The First 50 Years
(1997)
Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet (1996)
Upstream: Salmon and Society in the Pacific Northwest (1996)
Science and the Endangered Species Act (1995)
Wetlands: Characteristics and Boundaries (1995)
Biologic Markers (5 volumes, 1989- 1995)
Review of EPA's Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (3
volumes, 1994-1995)
Science and Judgment in Risk Assessment (1994)
Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children (1993)
Dolphins and the Tuna Industry (1992)
Science and the National Parks (1992)
Human Exposure Assessment for Airborne Pollutants (1991)
Rethinking the Ozone Problem in Urban and Regional Air Pollution (1991)
Decline of the Sea Turtles (1990)
Copies of these reports may be orderedirom the National Academies Press
(800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313
www.nap.edu
. . .
v'''
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OTHER REPORTS OF THE COMMITTEE ON TOXTCOLOGY
Standing Operating Procedures for Developing Acute Exposure Guideline
Levels for Hazardous Chemicals (2001)
Evaluating Chemical and Other Agent Exposures for Reproductive and
Developmental Toxicity (2001)
Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Contaminants, Volume
1 (2000), Volume 2 (2002), Volume 3 (2003)
Review of the US Navy's Human Health Risk Assessment of the Naval Air
Facility at Atsugi, Japan (2000)
Methods for Developing Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines (2000)
Review of the U.S. Navy Environmental Health Center's Health-Hazard
Assessment Process (2000)
Review of the U.S. Navy's Exposure Standard for Manufactured Vitreous Fibers
(2000)
Re-Evaluation of Drinking-Water Guidelines for Diisopropyl
Methylphosphonate (2000)
Submarine Exposure Guidance Levels for Selected Hydrofluorocarbons: HFC-
236fa, HFC-23, and HFC-404a (2000)
Review of the U.S. Army's Health Risk Assessments for Oral Exposure to Six
Chemical-Warfare Agents (1999)
Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants, Volume 1~1997), Volume 2
(1999), Volume 3 (1999)
Assessment of Exposure-Response Functions for Rocket-Emission Toxicants
(1998)
Toxicity of Alternatives to Chlorofluorocarbons: HFC-134a and HCFC-123
(1996)
Permissible Exposure Levels for Selected Military Fuel Vapors (1996)
Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne
Contaminants, Volume 1 (1994), Volume 2 (1996), Volume 3 (1996),
Volume 4 (2000)
IX
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Preface
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) maintains an
active interest in the environmental conditions associated with living and
working in spacecraft and identifying hazards that might adversely affect
the health and well-being of crew members. Despite major engineering
advances in controlling the spacecraft environment, some water and air
contamination appears to be inevitable. Several hundred chemical species
are likely to be found in the closed environment ofthe spacecraft, and as the
frequency, complexity, and duration of human space flight increase, identi-
fying and understanding significant health hazards will become more com-
plicated and more critical for the success of the missions.
NASA asked the National Research Council (NRC) Committee on
Toxicology to develop guidelines, similar to those developed by the NRC
in 1992 for airborne substances, for examining the likelihood of adverse
effects from water contaminants on the health and performance of space-
craft crews. In 2000, the NRC report Methods for Deve1/toping Spacecraft
Water Exposure Guicle1/tines was published, and NASA now uses those
methods for developing spacecraft water exposure guidelines (SWEGs) for
individual water contaminants. NASA is responsible for selecting the water
contaminants for which SWEGs will be established. To ensure that the
SWEGs are developed in accordance with the NRC guidelines, NASA
requested that the NRC subcommittee independently review the draft
SWEG documents. In its evaluations, the subcommittee reviews the docu-
ments as many times as necessary until it is satisfied that the SWEGs are
scientifically justified. This report is the first volume in the series Space-
craft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants. It presents the
Xl
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. .
x!!
Preface
SWEGs that have been established for chloroform, dichioromethane, di-n-
buty! phthalate, di(2-ethy~hexyI) phthalate, 2-mercaptobenzothiazole,
nickel, phenol, N-phenyI-beta-naphthylamine, and silver.
This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for
their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with proce-
dures approved by the NRC's Report Review Committee. The purpose of
this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will
assist the institution in making its published report as sound as possible and
to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evi-
dence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and
draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity ofthe delibera-
tive process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their review of
this report: Joseph F. Borzelleca, Virginia Commonwealth University; Roy
DeHart, Vanderbilt University; David Gaylor, Gaylor & Associates; F.
William Sunderman Jr., University of Connecticut; Mark Utell, University
of Rochester School of Medicine.
Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive
comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions
or recommendations, nor did they see the final draft of the report before its
release. The review of this report was overseen by George M. Rusch,
Honeywell Corporation. Appointed by the NRC, he was responsible for
making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried
out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review com-
ments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content ofthis
report rests entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.
Special thanks are extended to John James (NASA); Raghupathy
Ramanathan, Hector Garcia, and Chiu-Wing Lam (all from Wyle Laborato-
ries); and Jean Hampton (University of Texas) for preparing and revising
the SWEG documents.
We are grateful for the assistance of the NRC staff in supporting this
project and preparing the report. Staff members who contributed to this
effort are James J. Reisa, director of the Board on Environmental Studies
and Toxicology; Kulbir Bakshi, program director for the Committee on
Toxicology; and Kelly Clark, editor. We especially wish to recognize the
contributions of project director Susan Martel end project assistants Tamara
Dawson and Jessica Brock (through March 2002~.
Finally, we would like to thank all the members ofthe subcommittee for
their dedicated efforts throughout the development ofthis report. Inpartic-
ular, we would like to recognize the longstanding contributions and leader-
ship of Donald Gardner, who chaired the subcommittee from September
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Preface
. . .
x'''
1999 to July 2002, and who also chaired the previous Subcommittee on
Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for almost a decade.
Garold S. Yost, Ph.D.
Chair, Subcommittee on Spacecraft Water
Exposure Guidelines
Bailus Walker Jr., Ph.D., M.P.H.
Chair, Committee on Toxicology
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Contents
Introduction
Appendixes. Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines
2
3 Di-n-butyl Phthalate 88
4 Di(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate 121
2-Mercaptobenzothiazole 169
Chloroform ll
Dichloromethane
5
6 Nickel ~v_
7 Phenol 248
~ N-Phenyl-beta-naphthylamine.
9 Silver........................................
....290
..... 324
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Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines
for Selected Contaminants
Volume ~
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