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2
Damp Buildings
Almost all buildings experience excessive moisture, leaks, or flooding at
some point. If dampness-related problems are to be prevented, it is essential
to understand their causes. From a technologic viewpoint, one must under-
stand the sources and transport of moisture in buildings, which depend on
the design, operation, maintenance, and use of buildings in relation to exter-
nal environmental conditions such as climate, soil properties, and topogra-
phy. From a societal viewpoint, it is necessary to understand how construc-
tion, operation, and maintenance practices may lead to dampness problems.
The interactions among moisture, materials, and environmental conditions in
and outside a building determine whether the building may become a source
of potentially harmful dampness-related microbial and chemical exposures.
Therefore, an understanding of the relationship of building moisture to mi-
crobial growth and chemical emissions is also critical.
This chapter addresses those issues to the extent that present scientific
knowledge allows. It starts with a description of how and where buildings
become wet; reviews the signs of dampness, how dampness is measured,
and what is known about its prevalence and characteristics, such as sever-
ity, location, and duration; discusses the risk factors for moisture problems;
reviews how dampness influences indoor microbial growth and chemical
emissions; catalogs the various agents that may be present in damp environ-
ments; and addresses the influence of building materials on microbial growth
and emissions.
The chapter does not review effects of building dampness that are
unrelated to indoor air quality or health. However, dampness problems
29
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30 DAMP INDOOR SPACES AND HEALTH
often cause building materials to decay or corrode, to become structurally
weakened or lose their thermal capacity, and thus to reduce their useful life.
Dampness also causes building materials and furnishings to develop an
unacceptable appearance. The societal cost of such structural and visual
effects of dampness may be high.
As discussed below, there is no single, generally accepted term for
referring to "dampness" or "damp indoor spaces." This chapter and the
remainder of the report adopts the terminology of the research being cited
or uses the default term "dampness."
MOISTURE DEFINITIONS1
Studies use various qualitative terms to denote the presence of excess
moisture in buildings. These include dampness, condensation, building damp-
ness, visible dampness, damp patches, damp spots, water collection, water
ponding, and moisture problem. Dampness--however it is expressed--is used
to signify a wide array of signs of moisture damage of variable spatial extent
and severity. It may represent visual observations of current or prior moisture
(such as water stains or condensation on windows), observed microbial
growth, measurement of high moisture content of building materials, mea-
surement of high relative humidity in the indoor air, moldy or musty odors,
and other signs that can be associated with excess moisture in a building.
Some studies make separate observations of dampness and mold, and both
observed dampness and visible mold have been weakly associated with mea-
sured concentrations of fungi (Verhoeff et al., 1992). Chapter 3 discusses the
various signs and measurements of dampness, moisture, or mold that have
been used in studies and lists several examples.
Numerous technical terms are also used to describe characteristics of
moisture and moisture physics, including absorption, adsorption, desorp-
tion, diffusion, capillary action, capillary height, convection, dew point,
partial pressure, and water vapor permeability. A complete discussion of all
the terms is beyond the scope of this study, but some that are used in the
report are defined below.
The amount of water present in a substance is expressed in relation to
its volume (kg/m3), or to its oven-dry weight (kg/kg). The former is referred
to as moisture content (MC), and the latter as percentage moisture content
(%-MC). MC is directly proportional to %-MC and to the density of the
substance (Björkholtz, 1987).
1Material in this section and later in the chapter has been adapted or excerpted from a
dissertation by Dr. Ulla Haverinen-Shaughnessy (Haverinen, 2002) that was written under the
supervision of one of the committee members. It is used here with the permission of the author.
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DAMP BUILDINGS 31
Relative humidity (RH) is the existing water vapor pressure of the air,
expressed as a percentage of the saturated water vapor pressure at the same
temperature. RH reflects both the amount of water vapor in air and the air
temperature. For example, if the temperature of a parcel of air is decreased
but no water is removed, the RH will increase. If the air is cooled suffi-
ciently, a portion of the gaseous water vapor in the air will condense,
producing liquid water. The highest temperature that will result in conden-
sation is called the "dewpoint temperature." "Humidity ratio" is another
technical term used to characterize the moisture content of air. The humid-
ity ratio of a parcel of air equals the mass or weight of water vapor in the
parcel divided by the mass or weight of dry (moisture-free) air in the parcel.
Humidity ratio, unlike RH, is independent of air temperature. The indoor
outdoor humidity ratio can be used to estimate the rate of interior water
vapor generation, or more qualitatively to indicate if a building has sources.
Water generation rate can be computed from a moisture mass balance
equation; however, the rate of outdoor air ventilation must be known. If
the building has a dehumidifier or an air conditioner that dehumidifies, the
rate of water removal via this device must be factored. Sorption and desorp-
tion of water and from indoor surfaces also complicates the estimation of
the internal water vapor generation rate. Monthly mean water activity level
has been proposed as a metric for evaluating whether mold growth will
occur on surfaces of newly-designed buildings (TenWolde and Rose, 1994)
but there is reason to be skeptical about its practicality because the level
varies throughout a building and is not easily measured at all relevant
locations (for example, in wall cavities).
The temperature of air and materials in a building varies spatially;
therefore, RH also varies spatially. In the winter for example, the tempera-
ture of the interior surface of a window or wall will normally be less that
the temperature of air in the center of a room. Air in contact with the
window or wall will cool to below the central room temperature, increasing
the local relative humidity. If the surface has a temperature below the
dewpoint temperature of adjacent air, water vapor will condense on the
surface, producing liquid water.
Without a source to moisten building material continuously, the MC of
the material depends on temperature and the RH of the surrounding air.
The RH of the atmosphere in equilibrium with a material that has a par-
ticular MC is known as the equilibrium relative humidity (ERH) (Oliver,
1997). Different materials have different distributions of pore size and
degrees of hygroscopicity so materials that have the same ERH may have
different MC. For example, at an ERH of 80%, the MC for mineral wool is
about 0.3 kg/m3, for concrete can be 80 kg/m3, and for wood is about 90
kg/m3 (Nevander and Elmarsson, 1994).
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32 DAMP INDOOR SPACES AND HEALTH
MOISTURE DYNAMICS IN BUILDINGS--
HOW BUILDINGS GET WET
Water exists in three states: solid (ice), liquid, and gas (water vapor).
The molecules in liquid water and water vapor move freely; molecules in ice
are bound into a crystal matrix and are unable to move except to vibrate.
Liquid water is a cohesive fluid; when it interacts with other materials, it is
affected by forces that originate in the new material. If a drop attaches to a
surface that has a strong affinity for water, like wood, it will spread out
across the surface. The attraction may be great enough that water will run
along the bottom of a horizontal material--a roof truss, for example--until
it comes to an air gap or a downward projection where gravity pulls it away
from the surface and it falls.
Many building materials are porous, and the size of the pores affects
their permeability. If the pores are small enough to keep both liquid water
clusters and water vapor molecules from passing, the material is imperme-
able; metal foils are examples of such materials. Materials with slightly
larger pores (building papers like Tyvek and builders felt) will shed liquid
water but be relatively permeable to water vapor. If the material has pores
that are large enough for tiny clusters of liquid water to enter, it will be
permeable to both liquid water and water vapor. As a result of intermolecu-
lar forces, liquid water is drawn into the pores of such materials by capil-
lary suction. Water drawn in that way is said to be absorbed by the porous
material. Water migration through porous materials is a complex interac-
tion of forces. Water molecules clinging to the surface of a solid material
are bound to that surface by intermolecular forces. They cannot move
about as freely as liquid water molecules or water vapor molecules and are
in what is sometimes referred to as the adsorbed state. Water must accumu-
late on surfaces to a depth of four or five molecules before it begins to move
freely as a liquid (Straube, 2001). Adsorbed water cannot be removed by
drainage. In the adsorbed state, water molecules are less available for chemi-
cal and biologic purposes than they are in a nonadsorbed state.
It does not take a great deal of moisture to cause problems with sensi-
tive materials like paper or composite wooden materials. Moisture sources
in buildings include rainwater, groundwater, plumbing, construction mois-
ture, water use, condensation, and indoor and outdoor humidity (Lstiburek,
2001; Straube, 2002). The first three are sources of liquid-water problems,
construction moisture may result in both liquid-water and water-vapor
problems, and condensation associated with humidity involves water vapor
as well as liquid water. Moisture problems begin when materials stay wet
long enough for microbial growth, physical deterioration, or chemical reac-
tions to occur. Those may happen because of continual wetting or intermit-
tent wetting that happens often enough to keep materials from drying. As
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DAMP BUILDINGS 33
discussed below, the important moisture-related variables in determining
whether fungal growth occurs are those which affect the rate of wetting and
the rate of drying (Lstiburek, 2002a).
The most damaging water leaks are those which are large enough to
flood a building or small enough not to attract notice but large enough to
wet or humidify a cavity space or material for a long time. Thus, the "best"
leak is one that is large enough to be noticed right away but small enough
that the wetting does not promote microbial growth or affect materials.
Both floods and slow leaks can result in large areas of fungal growth.
Condensation sometimes occurs over a large area and can also result in
extensive mold growth.
Rainwater and Groundwater
Placing a building on a site does not change how much rain falls each
year--it changes the path that rainwater takes on its journey through the
hydrologic cycle. When building designs work properly, rainwater is col-
lected and redirected so that it does not intrude into the buildings them-
selves. When collection and redirection fail, rainwater wets buildings. Build-
ings have been protected from rainwater for centuries by using gravity, air
gaps, and moisture-insensitive materials to direct and drain water away
from other materials that can be damaged by water through corrosion,
microbial contamination, or chemical reaction (Lstiburek, 2001). Weak-
ness in rainwater protection can be found in the detailing of the roof, walls,
windows, doors, decks, foundation, and site. Rainwater leaks may take a
long time to become noticeable because the water often leaks into cavities
that are filled with porous insulation. Insulation may retain the water,
keeping materials wet longer than would empty cavities.
Many roofing materials are impermeable to liquid water and can be
repeatedly wetted and dried without damage. Wooden shingles and thatched
roofs are exceptions. They drain the bulk of rainwater away from the
interior but also absorb some of it. An air gap beneath then forms a mois-
ture or water break and allows drying of the shingle or thatch by evapora-
tion from inner and outer surfaces. Roof leaks typically occur at joints and
penetrations; parapet walls, curbs for roof-mounted equipment and sky-
lights, intersections between roofs and walls, and roof drains are common
leakage sites. These leaks are often the result of failures in design or of
installation of flashings and moisture or water breaks.
In climates that receive substantial snowfall, water can intrude through
roofs as the result of melting snow. Ice dams occur when there is snow on
a roof and roof temperatures reach 33°F (1°C) or higher at times when the
outdoor air temperature is below freezing. Snow on the warm part of the
roof melts and then follows the drainage path until it reaches roofing that is
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34 DAMP INDOOR SPACES AND HEALTH
chilled below freezing by outdoor air. The water then freezes on this part of
the roof and causes ice dams and icicles. Aggravating conditions for ice
dams include sources of heat that warm snow-covered sheathing (air leaks
and conductive heat loss from the building, recessed lighting fixtures in
insulated ceilings, and uninsulated chimneys passing through attics) and
valley roofs, which may collect water from a large surface area and drain it
to one small location. Several design approaches are available for prevent-
ing ice dams:
· Air-seal and heavily insulate the top of the building so that escaping
heat does not reach the roofing.
· Ventilate the roof sheathing from underneath with outdoor air. (In
combination with the air sealing and insulation, this keeps roofing cold, so
melting does not occur or is minimized to rates that do not result in ice
problems).
· Avoid heat sources in the vented attic or vent bays (for example, do
not use recessed lights in insulated ceilings).
Rainwater protection in walls is accomplished largely with three basic
methods: massive moisture storage, drained cladding, and face-sealed clad-
ding (Lstiburek, 2001; Straube and Burnett, 1997). Historically, walls ca-
pable of massive moisture storage have been built of thick masonry materi-
als (such as stone in older churches). Exterior detailing channels rainwater
away from entry through such walls. The walls are also able to store a large
amount of water in the adsorbed state, and their storage capacity is suffi-
cient to accommodate rainwater wetting and drying cycles without causing
problems.2 Rainwater intrusion problems occur in these walls when a path-
way wicks water from the exterior to the interior, where moisture-sensitive
materials are. Wooden structural members in masonry pockets, interior-
finish walls made of wood or paper products, and furnishings composed of
fabrics, adhesive, or composites are typical materials that may be affected
by rainwater transported through walls by bridging or capillary suction.
Cladding (a protective, insulating, or decorative covering) with air gaps
and a drain plane is another historical answer to rainwater intrusion. A
drained-cladding wall has an exterior finish that intercepts most of the
rainwater that strikes it but is backed by an air gap and water-resistant
drainage material to keep any water that gets past the cladding from enter-
ing the wall beneath. Wooden clapboard, wooden shingles, board and bat,
brick or block veneer, and traditional stucco are examples of cladding used
in some climates in the United States that has historically been backed by an
2Condensation is not typically a problem, because, unlike many composite structures, such
walls have relatively even distribution of water-vapor permeability.
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DAMP BUILDINGS 35
air gap and drainage layer. Asphalt-impregnated felt paper, rosin paper,
and high-permeability spun-plastic wraps are examples of materials that
are used as the drainage layer. Foam board and foil-faced composite sheath-
ing have also been used as drain planes beneath cladding (Lstiburek, 2000).
The most frequent problems in these walls occur when moisture-sensitive
sheathings--such as oriented strand board (OSB), plywood, and low-
density fiberboards--are not protected by a drainage layer.
Face-sealed walls are made of materials that are impermeable to water
and are sealed at the joints with caulking or gaskets (Straube, 2001). Struc-
tural glazing, metal-clad wooden or foam panels, and corrugated metal
siding are examples of face-sealed cladding. The intention is to seal the
joints between the panels well enough to prevent rainwater entry. Rainwa-
ter intrusion occurs when the seals fail. Seals on some face-sealed walls need
to be renewed every 45 years.
The unavoidable weakness in rainwater protection for any wall is at the
penetrations--windows, doors, light fixtures, the roofs of lower portions of
the structure, decks, balconies, and porches. Rainwater leaks through poorly
detailed, designed or installed flashing are most common. Common errors
include failure to provide detailed instructions for flashing in construction
documents, providing two-dimensional details for situations that require
three-dimensional flashing, installing head flashings on top of building pa-
per rather than installed underneath, and ignoring leaks in the window
itself. Wall drain papers for windows must be installed in the same way that
a raincoat is worn: over, not tucked into rain pants. Pan flashing beneath
windows can prevent leaks, even of poorly installed windows, from wetting
the wall below (Lstiburek, 2000).
Foundations are typically protected from moisture problems by being
constructed of materials that are resistant to water problems (stone, con-
crete, and masonry) and having rainwater diverted away from them
(Lstiburek, 2000, 2001). (In some old buildings, foundation structures could
be constructed of wooden piers, which might have to be kept wet.) Exces-
sive moisture in foundations is often the result of poorly managed rainwa-
ter, but it may also result from groundwater intrusion, plumbing leaks,
ventilation with hot humid air, or water in building materials (such as
concrete) or in exposed soil (for example, saturated ground in a crawl space
foundation). Rainwater is diverted by sloping the finish grade away from
the building; rainwater and groundwater are diverted with subsoil drain-
age. Drainage systems use stone pebbles, perforated drain pipe, sand and
gravel, or proprietary drainage mats. Stone pebbles and perforated pipe are
typically enclosed in a filter fabric to prevent clogging by fine soil particles.
Below-grade foundations are coated with dampproofing to provide a capil-
lary break. Water problems occur if rainwater collected on the roof is
drained to the soil next to the foundation. This may happen if the site is
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36 DAMP INDOOR SPACES AND HEALTH
inadvertently contoured to collect rainwater and drain it into the building
or if paving does so. Other problematic scenarios include a drainage pipe
that is missing, is installed improperly, or does not drain to daylight or a
sump pump; a drainage system that fills with silt carried by water percolat-
ing through the soil and that then clogs; and a failure to install a capillary
break, which would keep water from being wicked through concrete prod-
ucts to the interior.
Foundations may be slab on grade (or near grade), full basements,
crawl spaces, piers, or a combination of these types. A slab-on-grade foun-
dation consists of a concrete slab that constitutes the first floor of the
building. The perimeter of the slab may be thickened and reinforced, or it
may be bound by a perimeter wall that extends some distance into the soil.
The most common water problems with slab-on-grade foundations are
caused when rainwater from the roof or site wets the foundation and the
water is wicked up through concrete to wall or flooring materials. If air
ducts are placed in or beneath the slab, these may flood with poorly man-
aged rainwater.
A basement is made by excavating a large, pond-like hole in the ground
and constructing walls and a floor in the bottom of the hole. A basement
floor slab is wholly or partially below grade. Some basement floors are at
grade on one side and below grade on another. A drainage system is placed
on the bottom of the hole around the perimeter of the walls, and a capillary
break in the form of stone pebbles or polyethylene film is placed beneath
the floor. Walls are coated with some form of dampproofing to make a
capillary break. Free-draining material is placed against the walls to divert
water from the foundation into footing drains. Many potential causes of
dampness problems in full basements result from vagaries of weather and
defects in design, construction, and maintenance. Rainwater from the roof
or site can easily saturate the soil near the foundation and make it more
likely for liquid water to seep or run into the basement. A more subtle
problem occurs when water wicking through the walls or slab evaporates
into the basement, leaving the walls dry but over-humidifying the space.
Placing framing, insulation, paneling, or gypsum board against a basement
wall creates a microclimate between finished wall and basement wall. In
fact, if the outdoor-air dewpoint is higher than the temperature in this
space, ventilating air will add moisture to the cavity, not dry it and this can
result in conditions favorable for microbial growth. A solution to this
problem is to insulate the foundation wall on the outside. If the foundation
is insulated on the inside, a material with high insulating value and low
water-vapor permeability should be used; this will keep the warm humid
basement air away from earth-chilled walls. Plastic foam insulation meets
this criterion. If the water vapor permeability of the insulation is low
enough, it will reduce drying from the foundation wall into the basement.
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DAMP BUILDINGS 37
Placing insulation beneath the floor slab can prevent basement floors from
"sweating" during hot humid weather because it thermally isolates the
concrete slab from the cool earth below.
A crawl space is constructed in the same way as a basement foundation
except that it is shorter and often the floor is not covered by a concrete slab.
Many crawl spaces have air vents through the walls intended to provide
passive ventilation. Because crawl spaces are not intended for occupancy,
drainage detailing around them is often lacking or poorly implemented.
Rainwater intrusion is common. In addition, the floor is often exposed soil,
which creates the potential for evaporation into the crawl space. Vents
placed too close to the ground sometimes become rainwater intakes. When
the outdoor-air dewpoint is higher than the temperature of the soil and
foundation surfaces, ventilating air wets the crawl space rather than drying
it (Kurnitski, 2000).
Pier foundations (concrete or crushed-stone footings for posts that con-
stitute the major structural support for a building) are the most resistant to
rainwater problems. Piers extend from the ground to above the surface of
the soil to support the lower structure of a building. The most common
water problem for this type of foundation occurs if a depression in the
ground beneath the structure collects water and exposes the underside of
the building to prolonged high humidity.
Plumbing and Wet Rooms
Most water intentionally brought into buildings is used for drinking,
cooking, or cleaning. The bulk of this water passes harmlessly through
drains to public or private treatment and is then released to the hydrologic
cycle from which it was diverted. The pathway followed by such water
consists of pipes, tubs, sinks, showers, dish and clothes washers, driers, and
ventilating air. Most of the materials used in the pathway are moisture-
insensitive--able to withstand dampness without decomposing, dissolving,
corroding, hydrolyzing, or supporting microbial growth. Moisture prob-
lems occur when water leaks from pipes or from sinks, tub or shower
enclosures, washing machines, ice machines, or other fixtures and appli-
ances that have water hookups.
Pipes leak when joints are incorrectly made or fail, water freezes in
them, the pipe material corrodes or decomposes, or a screw or nail is driven
through them. Joints may not be correctly soldered, gasketed, cemented, or
doped. Water lines lose integrity when they are exposed to acidic or caustic
water or--in the case of rubber or plastic lines to washing machines--the
polymers break down from oxidation or ultraviolet (UV) light exposure.
Corrosive water may lead to mold growth if a large number of small leaks
result. Pipes in exterior walls or unheated crawl spaces or attics may freeze
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38 DAMP INDOOR SPACES AND HEALTH
and crack during subfreezing weather. A screw or nail driven through a
pipe may not leak for some time, because the fastener seals the hole it made;
after thermal expansion and contraction and corrosion work for some time,
the pipe may begin to leak.
Drains and water traps are vulnerable to leaks. Overflows and careless
installation and renovation practices also contribute to problems with fix-
tures and appliances that use water. The materials that surround tubs and
showers--typically ceramic tiles and fiberglass panels--receive regular wet-
tings. They must be constructed, sealed, and maintained to protect the wall
and floor materials beneath them. As with rainwater protection, most prob-
lems occur at the joints. Grout between ceramic tiles often does not ad-
equately serve as a capillary break and water wicks through to the base.
In ceramic tile surrounds with paper-covered gypsum board as the base,
mold growth may occur beneath the grout and on the backside of the
gypsum board where water wicks through the paper facing the wall cavity.
Depending on the detailing, water may also be wicked through the gaps
where fiberglass panels overlap and meet tubs or shower pans. The shower
pan in stand-alone showers is another weak spot. Essentially, these are
basins that must hold a small depth of water. Leaks are most common at
the drain penetration. Pans that are constructed on site have more joints to
leak than prefabricated pans that are molded into a single piece. Poorly
designed, incorrectly installed, and carelessly used shower curtains and
doors are another source of problems. Tub surrounds and shower enclo-
sures can be constructed of materials that are poor substrates for fungal
growth; for example, fiber-cement board, rather than paper-covered gyp-
sum board, can be used as the base for ceramic tile. Such steps reduce, but
do not eliminate, the possibility of microbial contamination.
Construction Moisture
In newly constructed buildings, a large amount of water vapor can be
released by wet building materials such as recently cast concrete, and wet
wooden products (Christian, 1994). Manufactured products that were origi-
nally dry can become extensively wetted by exposure to rain during trans-
portation, storage, and building construction. Case studies have attributed
microbial contamination to the use of wet building materials or to wetting
during building construction (Hung and Terra, 1996; Salo, 1999). Large
areas of mold growth may occur when a floor enclosing an earth-floored
crawl space is installed because the soil may be a reservoir of rainwater; the
humidity in such a crawl space quickly becomes high when the floor deck is
applied over moist earth. Floor decks made from OSB or plywood are
vulnerable to mold growth during extended periods (23 days for OSB, 42
days for plywood) of RH greater than 95% (Doll, 2002).
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DAMP BUILDINGS 39
Condensation and High Humidity
Condensation necessarily involves water-vapor transport. The two im-
portant variables for condensation are chilled surfaces and sources of water
vapor. Materials chilled below the indoor or outdoor air temperature accu-
mulate water molecules in the adsorbed state and are at risk for condensa-
tion; those chilled below the local dew point will begin to accumulate liquid
water. Porous materials can hold more water vapor than impermeable ones
before liquid water appears. The combination of high RH in indoor or
outdoor air and cooled building materials increases the risk of dampness
problems and microbial growth. Even without condensation, the local RH
of air at the surface of cool material can be very high, leading to high mois-
ture content in the material.
Figure 2-1 illustrates how much air needs to be cooled before the
difference between the air temperature and dewpoint temperature equals
zero and condensation occurs. Regardless of the initial air temperature,
when the relative humidity is very high only a few degrees of cooling will
result in condensation. For example, if the bulk of the air in a room has a
RH of 80%, condensation will occur on a surface that is only about 7oF
(4oC) cooler than the bulk room air temperature. Therefore, whenever cool
90
80
70
60
Tair-Tdewpoint (°F)
90°F
50 70°F
50°F
40
30
20
10
0
5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Relative Humidity (%)
FIGURE 2-1 The difference between air and dewpoint temperatures needed for
condensation to occur, expressed as a function of relative humidity, for three in-
door air temperatures.
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DAMP BUILDINGS 79
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