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Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2004. Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11017.
×

Index

A

Abuja, Nigeria

drugs purchased in, 317

summit, 49, 50, 52, 76, 198, 318

ACAME, 119

Accra, Ghana, 228, 230

ACT. See Artemisinin combination therapy

ACTMalaria. See Asian Collaborative Training Network for Malaria

Adangbe people, 209

Adaptable Program Loans and Credits. See World Bank

Adults, malaria in, 154–155

Afghanistan, 210, 232

Africa, malaria in, 24, 25, 168–177

African Demographic Surveillance Systems (DSS), 172

African Development Bank, 49, 105

African Development Fund, 105

African Summit on HIV/AIDS, 52

Algeria, 128

Amazon Malaria Initiative (AMI), 237

American Civil War, 126

Amodiaquine, 219, 253, 254, 291, 308

Amoy, 129

Anemia, 149, 150–151, 205, 292

Angola, 98, 229

Animals, 210, 267, 269–270

Annan, Kofi, 52

Anopheles albimanus, 141

Anopheles arabiensis, 210

Anopheles culicifacies, 210

Anopheles funestus, 172, 202, 207, 209

Anopheles gambiae, 141, 198, 202, 211, 212

Anopheles mosquitoes, 126, 128–129, 140–144

Anopheles stephensi, 210, 212

Antifolate drugs, 253, 259–260, 291–292, 309

Antimalarial drugs

affordability issues, 61–62

availability, 42–45

cost and effectiveness, 61, 66–67

counterfeit and poor quality, 317

drug classes, 253–259

drug flows, 34–42

drug policy, 235

effective use of, 312–315

epidemics and, 233

global costs, 64–65

global subsidy, case for, 79–82, 84–96, 100

labeling and instructions, 317–318

milestones in, 130–131

pricing of, 34

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2004. Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11017.
×

procuring, international system for, 112–121

production costs, 62–64, 63

R&D, 10, 74–75, 301–311

reduction in malaria transmission, 212–213

resistance, 172, 270–272, 276–281

safe and user-friendly, 315–316

tiered pricing, 65

treatment, 67–74, 252–253

APLs. See World Bank, Adaptable Program Loans and Credits

Apovia, 224

Artecef, 306

Arteether, 261, 306

Artemether-lumefantrine.

See also Coartem

malaria control, 214–215

toxicity of, 266–267, 268

treatment of malaria, 254, 257

Artemisia annua, x, 6, 12, 62, 81

Artemisinin combination therapy (ACT)

affordability issues, 61–62

availability, 42

clinical experience with, 263

cost-effectiveness, 66–67, 70–71

delaying emergence of resistance, xi, 4–5

discoveries in, 133–134

economic considerations, 5–6

effectiveness, 19, 69

effects, 70

evidence base for, 264–265

as first-line treatment, 3, 79, 80

global costs, 64–65

global subsidy for, 6–10, 82–83, 86–110, 121, 169, 315

monotherapies, 94, 115

negative impact of—use, 84–85

priming market for, 6

production costs, 62–64

purchase of, 52

resistance to, 2, 68, 81

role in malaria control, 22–23, 214–215

stimulating—market, 81

therapeutic advantages, x, 1

treatment models, 67–74

Artemisinins, 261–262

basic properties, 255

botanical properties, 262

clinical experience with, 263

compounds, 253, 293–294

mechanisms of action, 262–263

resistance to, 275–276

safety during pregnancy, 268–269

toxicity of, 266

Artemisone, 308

Artemotil, 306

Artesunate

artemisinins, 261–262

described, 265–266

drug class, 253

first-line drug, 43

national drug policy on, 235

public sector drug flows, 38

R&D, 307–309

social marketing, 41

treatment of malaria, 254, 257

wholesale prices, 63

Aristophanes, 125

Aristotle, 125

Aryl aminoalcohol compounds, 253

Asia, malaria in, 24–25

Asian Collaborative Training Network for Malaria (ACTMalaria), 237

Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry, 47–48, 303

Atabrine (quinacrine, mepacrine), 131

Ataxia, 153

Atovaquone plus proguanil, 253, 255, 258, 294, 306.

See also Malarone

Australia, 99

Austria, 105

Azithromycin, 306, 309, 310

B

Bacillus sphaericus (Bsph), 211

Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis (Bti), 211

Bagamoyo District, Tanzania, 59, 175, 176, 209

Bamako, Mali, 43

Bandafassi, Senegal, 175

Bastianelli, Giovanni, 129

Bayer, 308

Bayer Dye Works, 131

Bednets, xii, 2, 11, 27.

See also Insecticide-treated nets

Behavioral deficits, 153

Belgium, 105, 224

Benin, 98

Bhutan, 236

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2004. Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11017.
×

Bignami, Amico, 129

Billiton Corporation, 182

Biologic management, 211

Biotech Australia Pty, 224

Blantyre coma scale, 152

Bleeding, abnormal, 149

Blindness, 153

Blister packaging, 316

Blood schizont, 138

Bolivia, 236, 271

Bolton, Dr., 179

BOMA. See Burden of Malaria in Africa

Botswana, 24, 98

Brain damage, 153

Brazil, 211, 229, 280, 308

Brazzaville, Congo, 177

Brisbane, Australia, 224

British Indian Medical Service, 128

British Medical Association, 129

British Medical Journal, 129

British Petroleum, 229

Bruce-Chwatt, Leonard, 169

Brundtland, Gro Harlem, 49

Bsph. See Bacillus sphaericus

Bti. See Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis

Burden of Malaria in Africa (BOMA), 169, 170, 172–173

Burkina Faso, West Africa

drug packaging, 316

genetic control, 212

ITN use, 203–205

microeconomic studies, 187

per capita health expenditures, 98

productivity costs of morbidity, 188–189

vaccines, 223

tax revenues, 97

Burma

ACT use, 213

chloroquine resistance, 276

counterfeit drugs, 317

drug packaging, 316

malaria transmission, 263

observations in pregnant women, 268

RDTs, 222

Burundi, 96, 98, 235, 236

C

Calabar Hospital, 177

Calcutta, India, 129

California Gold Rush, 127

Cambodia

ACT as first-line therapy, 236

availability of antimalarials, 43

Central Medical Stores, 39

chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum, 132

drug financing, 45

drug pricing, 43, 44

economic and health indicators, 35

fake antimalarials, 33

health education messages, 320

illegal drug flows, 42, 93, 317

low-income country, 101

malaria in, 34

migration, 232

Ministry of Health Procurement, 45

Phnom Penh, 42

piperaquine, 294

private sector drug flows, 41

public sector drug flows, 38–39, 39

RDTs, 222

Cambodian National Malaria Center (CNM), 38

Cambodian Pharmaceutical Enterprise, 38

Cameroon

chloroquine resistance, 280

malaria control, 229

microeconomic studies, 184

per capita health expenditures, 98

pyronaridine, 294

tax revenues, 97

Canada, 105, 197

Cape Verde, 98

Carbamates, 200, 201

Carbon taxes, 100

Caventou, Jean Biename, 130

Cerebral malaria, 152–151

Celli, Angelo, 129

Central African Republic, 98

Centralized procurement system, 9–10, 13

Ceylon, 130

Chad, 98, 187, 229

Chalcones, 309

CHAZ. See Churches Health Association of Zambia

Chemoprevention, 212–219

Chemoprophylaxis

children, 216–217

obstacles to targeted—, 217–218

pregnant women, 217, 302

recommendations for use, 50

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2004. Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11017.
×

Children

chemoprophylaxis in, 216–217

intermittent preventive therapy. See Intermittent preventive therapy, children

malaria in, 148–150

mortality, 174, 176, 198, 203–204

severe malaria, 154–155

China

ACT as first-line therapy, 236

artemisinin use, 133, 262, 266, 268

ITN programs, 203

major initiatives, 46

middle-income country, 101

piperaquine, 294

Plasmodium vivax, 157

pyronaridine, 294

R&D, 74, 307–308

spread of malaria, 126, 197

Chinese Medical Journal, 133

Chloroproguanil, 253, 291, 303

Chloroquine

availability, 42

basic properties, 255

change to other treatments, 72–74

description, 291

discoveries in, 131–132

familiarity of, x, 1

plus primaquine, 216

pregnancy, 217

price of, x, 61

R&D, 306, 307

resistance, 1, 3, 19, 22, 32, 74, 80, 172, 256–257, 260–261, 273, 275–276

-resistant P. falciparum (CRPF), 131

treatment of uncomplicated malaria, 254

Chronic neurologic impairment, 153

Churches Health Association of Zambia (CHAZ), 40–41, 45

Cinchona cultivation, 130

Climate change and epidemic malaria, 231

Clindamycin, 253, 293

CNM. See Cambodian National Malaria Center

Coartem.

See also Artemether-lumefantrine

adoption, 235

expense of companion drug, 62

first-line drug, 42, 264–265

R&D, 303

toxicity, 266

Coformulation, 61n. 1

Cognitive deficits, 153

Colombia, 132, 227, 231

Combination therapy. See Artemisinin combination therapy

Commission on Macroeconomics and Health, 66, 75–77, 84

Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), 42

Comoros, 98, 236

Competition in retail drug market, 94

Congo, 97, 98, 103, 177, 187

Conly, G.N., 185, 186

Consciousness, impaired, 149, 150

Convulsions, 150, 152

Coordinated Informed Buying, 119

Copenhagen, Denmark, 120, 224

Cote d’Ivoire, 98

Cotrimoxazole, 291

CRHCS. See East and Southern Africa Commonwealth Regional Health Community Secretariat

Cropper, M.L., 191

“Cross border” traders, 42

CRPF. See Chloroquine, -resistant P. falciparum

Curtis, C. F., 212

D

Dakar, Senegal, 41, 48, 210

DALY. See Disability adjusted life-year

Dapsone, 291, 303, 307

Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 211, 317

DDT, 198–203, 207, 211

DEET. See N,N-diethyl-m toluamide

Deforestation and malaria, 126

Deltamethrin, 201

Democratic Republic of the Congo. See Congo

Demographic effects, 181

Denmark, 41, 105, 120, 126, 224

DHA. See Dihydroartemisinin

DHFR. See Dihydrofolate reductase-thymidilate synthase

DHPS. See Dihydropteroate synthase Diagnosis, 32, 219–223

N,N-Diethyl-m toluamide (DEET), 211

Dihydroartemisinin (DHA), 253, 261–262, 307

Dihydrofolate reductase-thymidilate synthase (DHFR), 259, 279–280

Dihydropteroate synthase (DHPS), 259, 280

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2004. Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11017.
×

Dionisi, Antonio, 129

“Dipstick” diagnostic test, 41, 43, 84–85

Disability adjusted life-year (DALY), 66–67, 66n. 6, 70

Disease Control Priorities Project, 170

DNA for diagnosis, 223

DNDi. See Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative

Doxycycline, 306

Drug administration, mass, 213, 216

Drug classes, 253–254

pharmacodynamics, 258

pharmacokinetics, 254–255, 258

Drug financing, 43–45

Drug flows, 34–35, 93

illegal, 41–42, 317

private sector, 40–41

public sector, 35–39

Drug ineffectiveness, 32–33, 276–281

Drug market, competition and regulation, 94

Drug policies and malaria control, 233–238

Drug pressure, 72

Drug pricing, 43, 114

Drug procurement

bulk, 120

centralized procurement organizations, 113–114, 117–118

distribution, 114–115

forecasting demand, 114

intellectual property issues, 117

market stimulation, 116

minimizing ACT monotherapy, 115

monitoring and evaluation, 117

prices and competition, 114

quality assurance, 116

strategies, 118

technical assistance, 116–117

Drug resistance.

See also specific drugs

antifolate drugs, 259–260

antimalarial drugs, 261, 276–281

artemisinins, 275

chloroquine, 260–261

development of artemisinins, 3

drug pressure, 72

effects, 172

epidemics and—, 19–20, 61

global subsidy and—, 80–81

need for combination therapy, 4–5, 73–74

patterns of, 175

Plasmodium falciparum, 198, 273–275

—strains, 73

Drugs. See Antimalarial drugs;

specific drugs

Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi), 303, 308

DSS. See African Demographic Surveillance Systems;

Rufiji Demographic Surveillance Site

Duffy blood group antigen, 157

Dutch East Indies, 130

E

EANMAT. See East African Network for Monitoring Antimalarial Treatments

Early treatment failures (ETF), 279

East Africa, 172

East African Network for Monitoring Antimalarial Treatments (EANMAT), 237

East and Southern Africa Commonwealth Regional Health Community Secretariat (CRHCS), 119

East Timor, 232

Economic considerations, 177–179

artemisinins and ACT, 5–6

cost of artemisinin treatments, 1

effects at macroeconomic level, 180–181

estimates of costs, 180

health policy and, ix

hindering economic development, 90–91, 181–182, 187–194

overcoming barriers, 313–315

priming market for ACT, 6

studies, microeconomic, 183–184

Education

family decision makers and traditional healers, 321–323

health—messages, 320

health professionals, 322

school-based, 323–324

training shopkeepers, 320–321

Egypt, 202, 229

EIR. See Entomologic inoculation rate

El Niño Southern Oscillation, 231

Emergency Multisector Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Project, 103

EMVI. See European Malaria Vaccine Initiative

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2004. Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11017.
×

Entomologic inoculation rate (EIR), 144, 198

Environmental strategies, xii, 2, 11, 211

EPI. See Expanded Programme on Immunization

Epidemic malaria, 230–231

Epilepsy, 153

Equatorial Guinea, 98

Eritrea, 98

ETF. See Early treatment failures

Ethiopia

home treatment, 319

malaria early warning systems, 233

microeconomic studies, 185

migration, 232

per capita health expenditures, 98

productivity costs of morbidity, 188–189

Tigray study, 191–194

European and Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership, 310

European Commission, 47, 301

European Malaria Vaccine Initiative (EMVI), 47

European Union, 41, 105

Expanded Programme on Immunization (EPI), 226

Exxon-Mobil, 229, 304

F

Falciparum malaria infections, x, 1, 126, 147–148

Family decision makers, educating, 321–323

Fansidar, 291, 292, 306

Far Manginhos, 308

FDA. See United States, Food and Drug Administration

Feachem, Richard, 49

Field’s stain, 220

Finland, 105

Fluorescent microscopy, 221

Food and Drug Administration. See United States, Food and Drug Administration

Foreign direct investment, 181–182

Formosa, 129

Fosmidomycin, 308

France, 41, 46, 99, 105, 211

Franco-Prussian War, 127

Frerichs, Friedrich Theodor, 128

Fumigants, 211

Funding.

See also Global subsidy

available, defined, 106–107

external, 3, 104–107

government expenditures, 185

household expenditures, 184–185, 193

international, 2

potentially available, defined, 106–107

projected financing for global control, 76–78

G

G6PD deficiency. See Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency

Gabon, 98, 219, 264

Gambia

ACT, evidence base, 264

aromatic smoke, 211

chemoprophylaxis, 216, 217

chloroquine resistance, 280

home treatment, 319

ITN use, 198, 203, 204, 205, 229

per capita health expenditures, 98

productivity costs of morbidity, 188–189

study of pregnant women, 269

tax revenues, 97

vaccines, 224, 225

Gametocytes, 139

Garki, Nigeria, 207, 208

Garnham, P. C. C., 129–130

Gates Foundation, Bill & Melinda

bilateral donor, 105

boost in funding from, 46

contributions to R&D, 75–76, 304

grant to MVI, 47

study cosponsor, 20

GAVI. See Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization

GDF. See World Health Organization, Global Drug Facility

Ge Hang, 133

Genetic control, 212

Genetic diversity, 137

Germany, 99, 105, 197, 308

Ghana

artesunate, 265

Accra, 228, 230

child mortality, 203–205

chloroquine treatment, 32

drug packaging, 316

educating family decision makers, 321

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2004. Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11017.
×

educating health professionals, 321

IPTi trials, 219

ITN use, 209

Navrongo, 228

overcoming economic barriers to treatment, 313

per capita health expenditures, 98

productivity costs of morbidity, 188–189

Giemsa’s stain, 220

GlaxoSmithKline (GSK)

chlorproguanil-dapsone, 303

chlorproguanil-dapsone-artesunate, 307

malaria vaccines, 224

quinoline antimalarial, 308

tafenoquine, 310

WRAIR malaria drug development collaborator, 306

Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization (GAVI), 47, 76, 112, 120

Global Drug Facility. See World Health Organization

Global Forum for Health Research, 303, 304

Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria

bilateral donor, 105, 118, 234

Country Coordinating Mechanisms, 104

endorsement of combination therapy, 5

funding source, 8, 75, 76, 77, 80, 101, 102, 104

major initiatives, 46, 51–52

Global subsidy, 6–8, 79–80

benefits of, 95–96

broad, 86, 88–89

case for, 80–81, 82–84

centralized procurement system, 9–10, 13, 121

country-specific vs.—, 102–104

difficulties, 84–86

funding, 8, 9, 75–76, 86, 88–89, 96–97, 98–102, 104–107, 169

goals, 82, 86–87, 92–94, 95

level required, 109–110

R&D, 74–75

rationale for, 107–109, 315

recommendations, 12–13

sources of, 110

targeted, 86, 87, 90–91

types of, 88–91

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency, 147

Golgi, Camillo, 128

Goodman, C., 94

Grassi, Giovanni Battista, 129, 202

Greece, 126

GSK. See GlaxoSmithKline

Guinea, 98, 103

Guinea Bissau, 98, 319

Guinea Population and Reproductive Health Program, 103

Guyana, 236, 276

H

Haldane, J.B.S., 146

Halfan, 306

Halofantrine

absorption and elimination, 255, 358

aryl aminoalcohol compounds, 253

described, 293

R&D, 306

resistance, 261

Handbook of Prescriptions for Emergency Treatments (Ge Hang), 133

Health burden of malaria, 168

cases, 169–172, 171

death, 169, 170

drug resistance, 172

hospital-based studies, 176–177

population-based studies, 175

trends, 172–175

Health care facilities

conditions of, 33

evidence, 176–177

Senegal, 36

supply of antimalarials, 32

treatment of severe malaria, 254

Zambia, 44–45

Health care spending, 96–97

Health education, 320

Health professionals, educating, 322

Hemiplegia, 153

Hemoglobin C, 147

Hemoglobin E, 147

Hemoglobin S gene, 127

Hempel, J., 179

Herodotus, 202

Higher Impact Adjustment Lending, 103

Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC), 107

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2004. Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11017.
×

Hippocrates, 125

Historical estimates of costs, 179

HIV/AIDS

combining drugs for treatment, 4

costs for treatment, 9

external support for control, 75

funding sources for treatment, 105

global market for drugs, 86

informed buying of drugs, 119–120

malaria and, 156–157

price discrimination for drugs, 65

HMS. See Hyperreactive malarial splenomegaly

Ho Chi Minh, 133

Hoffman-La Roche, 132, 306

Holleykin, 307–308

Homer, 125

Hospital-based evidence. See Health care facilities, evidence

Host genetics, 146–147

House siting and construction, 210

Household

expenditures on prevention, 184, 193

expenditures on treatment, 184–185, 193

living standards, 182–183

Human capital, 187, 190, 181

Humanitarian rationale, 80

Hyperlactatemia, 149

Hyperparasitemia, 149, 278

Hyperreactive malarial splenomegaly (HMS), 158

Hypoglycemia, 149, 150, 154, 269

I

IDA. See World Bank, International Development Association

IFPMA. See International Federation of Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Associations

I.G. Farben, 131

Illegal drug flows, 41–42

Illiad, The (Homer), 125

IMCI. See Integrated management of childhood illness

Imidazolinedione derivatives, 309

Immunity, 146, 272

In vitro testing, 278

In vivo testing, 273, 274, 276–279

India

Bsph toxin, 211

Calcutta, 129

chloroquine resistance, 276

cinchona plantations, 130

control programs, 234

DDT use, 198

mosquito nets, 203

pharmaceuticals from, 36

R&D, 308

spread of malaria, 126, 197

user fees, 100

Indonesia, 157, 254, 276

Indoor residential spraying. See Insecticide spraying, indoor residential

Infants, intermittent preventive therapy. See Intermittent preventive therapy, infants

INNs. See International Nonproprietary Names

Insecticide spraying

barriers to use, 207, 209

indoor residential (IRS), 11, 144, 199, 206–207

Insecticides, 200–202

Insecticide-treated nets (ITNs).

See also Bednets

Abuja Summit target, 50

barriers to use, 207, 209

efficiency, 204, 199

history of, 202–203

individual and community effects of, 203–209

social marketing of, 56

Institut Pasteur, 224

Institute of Lausanne, 224

Institute of Medicine (IOM)

Committee on the Economics of Antimalarial Drugs, 19, 51, 113

Insurance programs, 100

Integrated management of childhood illness (IMCI), 56, 77, 220, 324

Intellectual property issues, 117

Intermittent preventive therapy (IPT)

children (IPTc), 219

infants (IPTi), 219, 324

pregnant women (IPTp), 56, 77, 218–219

SP and, 22

strategy, 324

TEHIP study, 56–60

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2004. Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11017.
×

International Development Association. See World Bank

International Dispensary Association, 40

International Federation of Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Associations (IFPMA), 47, 303

International Finance Corporation, 12

International funding, 2

International Nonproprietary Names (INNs), 40

International organizations and health

programs, 46–52, 85.

See also specific organizations

IOM. See Institute of Medicine

IPT. See Intermittent preventive therapy

IPTc. See Intermittent preventive therapy, children

IPTi. See Intermittent preventive therapy, infants

IPTp. See Intermittent preventive therapy, pregnant women

Ireland, 105

Irian Jaya, 231

IRS. See Insecticide spraying, indoor residential

Italy, 105, 126, 131, 213

Iteso, 323

ITNs. See Insecticide-treated nets

J

Jacobus Pharmaceuticals, 309

Japan, 105

Jaundice, 149

Java, 130, 131

Jomaa Pharmaceuticals, 308

K

Kafue, Zambia, 44

Karen, Thailand, 227

Kdr. See Knock-down resistance

Kenya

ACT, evidence base, 264

Anopheles gambiae, 202

antimalarial drug resistance, 271

azithromycin clinical trials, 310

childhood mortality, 173

chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum, 132, 235

climate change, 231

drug policy, 235

health care spending, 97, 98

home treatment, 318

hospital-based studies, 177

IPTi trials, 219

Kisumu, 207

malaria early warning system, 233

malaria treatment survey, 33

migration, 232

Ministry of Health, 235, 320

pharmaceuticals from, 36

productivity costs, 188–189

school-based education, 232

total direct and indirect costs, 187

training, 320-321

trials, 203–206, 209, 224

urban malaria, 230

Kenya Medical Research Institute, 224, 235

Kilombero, Tanzania, 94

Kinshasa, Congo, 177

Kisumu, Kenya, 207

Knock-down resistance (kdr), 202

Koch, Robert, 213

Konkola Copper Mines, 229

Korea, 157, 307

KwaZulu Natal, South Africa

ACT as first-line therapy, 229, 236

DDT house spraying, 207

drug policy, 235

epidemic, 172

Ingwavuma district, 214

malaria control, 11, 14, 64

morbidity and mortality, 214–215

L

Labeling and instructions, 317–318

Lagos, Nigeria, 169, 317

Laos, 101, 236, 280, 318

Lapdap, 22n. 1, 292, 307

Lariam, 306

Larvivorous fish, 211

Late clinical failures (LCF), 279

Laveran, Charles Louis Alphonse, 127–128

Ledger, Charles, 130

Lee, J.W., 120

Lesotho, 98

Liberia, 98

LICA Pharmaceuticals, 309

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2004. Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11017.
×

LICUS. See Low Income Countries Under Stress Initiative

Light microscopy, 220–221

Lincoln, Abraham, 126

Linnaeus, Carl, 130

Liver schizont, 138

Living standards, 174, 182–183

London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 130

Low Income Countries Under Stress Initiative (LICUS), 103, 105

Lugo, Juan de, 130

Lumefantrine, 62, 253, 255, 258, 294

Lusaka, Zambia, 40, 41, 44

M

Macdonald, G., 144

Macrolides, 309

Madagascar, 96, 97, 98, 146, 207

Magic spells, 30

Malaria

cerebral, 152–151

clinical, 252–253

control, 197–238

cost of illness, 192

current situation, 2–4, 19–21, 23–24, 26–27

economic burden of, 177–194

epidemic, 142–143, 230–231

health burden of, 168–177

historical estimates of costs, 179

history of discoveries, 125–127

immunity, 144–147

in specific areas, 24–26, 25

integrated control of, 11

medicines and supplies service, 120–121

mortality rates, 2, 19, 169, 170, 172–175, 174, 176, 198, 203–205

pathogenicity, 144

recrudescence, 140

recurrent, 140

severe, 256–257

symptoms, 27

transmission, 212–213

treatment. See Treatment

uncomplicated, 254

urban, 230

Malaria early warning systems (MEWS), 232–233

Malaria Medicines and Supplies Service, 120–121

Malaria Vaccine Initiative (MVI), 47

Malarine, 38, 41, 43

Malarone, 65, 253, 294, 306

Malawi

antimalarial drug resistance, 270, 271

chloroquine resistance, 132

drug policy, 235

HIV, malaria, and pregnancy, 157

hospital-based evidence, 176–177

household expenditures on prevention and treatment, 184

indirect costs, 185

IPT, 218

migration, 232

per capita health expenditures, 98

productivity costs of morbidity, 188–189

total direct and indirect costs (of malaria), 186

Malaya, 132

Mali, 43, 271, 280, 318

Malignant tertian malaria. See Plasmodium falciparum

Maloprim, 217

Management Sciences for Health (MSH), 34, 119

Manson, Patrick, 129

Mao Tse Tung, 133

Mapping Malaria Risk in Africa (MARA), 47, 169

Mass drug administration (MDA), 208, 212–213, 216, 233

Mauritius, 179

Mawanhgolui Han dynasty, 133

Mbarara, Uganda, 321

McClellan, George, 126

McGregor, I.A., 216

MDA. See Mass drug administration

MDGs. See Millennium Development Goals

MDR. See Multidrug resistant

Meckel, Johann Friedrich, 128

Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF), 62, 64, 75

Medicines for Malaria Venture (MMV)

antimalarial drugs R&D, 10, 15, 81

major initiatives, 47

partnerships, 48, 74, 76, 302

R&D, 301, 303–305, 304, 307–309

synthetic artemisinin, 64

Mefloquine

analogs, 310

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2004. Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11017.
×

availability, 43

basic properties, 255

chemoprophylaxis, 217

description, 132–133, 293

drug class, 253

public sector drug flows, 38

R&D, 306, 308

social marketing, 41

tier pricing, 65

Melbourne, Australia, 224

Metabolic acidosis, 149, 150, 151–152

Metakelfin, 291

Methylene blue, 309

MEWS. See Malaria early warning systems

Microeconomic studies, 183–184

Conly’s study in Paraguay, 186

direct costs, 184–185

indirect costs, 185

total direct and indirect costs, 185–187

Microscopy, 32, 84, 220–221

Migration, 231–232

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), 51

MIM. See Multilateral Initiative on Malaria

Minimum parasiticidal concentration (MPC), 258

Mission Pharma, 41

Mlomp, Senegal, 175, 176

MMSS. See Malaria Medicines and Supplies Service

MMV. See Medicines for Malaria Venture

Modern care, 28–29, 58, 60

Molecular diagnostic methods, 223

Molecular markers of resistance, 279–281

Monotherapies

discouraging of, 13, 82

resistance, 4, 5

vs. ACT, 7, 73, 95

Montreal, Canada, 197

Mortality rates. See Malaria, mortality rates

Mosquito

Anopheles, 126, 128–129

breeding, limiting of, 2, 11

discovering stages of, 128–129

Mozambique

chloroquine resistance, 280

IPTi trials, 219

malaria control, 214–215

migration, 232

per capita health expenditures, 98

trade and foreign direct investment, 182

vaccines, 224

MPC. See Minimum parasiticidal concentration

Mpumalanga, South Africa, 235

MSF. See Médecins Sans Frontières

MSH. See Management Sciences for Health

Muheza, Tanzania, 132

Multidrug resistant (MDR), 260, 309

Multilateral Initiative on Malaria (MIM), 48

Multi-Stage Malaria DNA Vaccine Operation (MuStDO), 227–228

MVI. See Malaria Vaccine Initiative

Myanmar, 236

N

Najera, J.A., 179

Namibia, 24, 96, 97, 98

National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Challenge Grant Program, 305

National Institutes of Health, 224, 301

Naval Medical Research Center. See U.S. Naval Medical Research Center

Navrongo, Ghana, 228

Navrongo Health Research Centre, 228

Netherlands, the

bilateral donor, 105

contributions to R&D, 304

German invasion of, 131

International Dispensary Association, 40

malaria in, 97

per capita health expenditures, 99

Neurotoxicity studies, 267–268, 310

New Guinea

chloroquine resistance, 132, 276, 280

malaria control, 209–210

mosquito netting, 202

Plasmodium malariae, 158

New York, New York, 197

New York University, 224

NGOs. See Nongovernmental organizations

Niakhar, Senegal, 175, 176

Nicaragua, 216

Niger, 96, 98

Nigeria

Abuja 50, 52, 76, 198, 317, 318

Calabar Hospital, 177

drug labeling and instructions, 318

drug resistance, 261

Garki, 207, 208

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2004. Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11017.
×

health care expenditures, 96, 98

home treatment, 318

hospital-based evidence, 177

Lagos, 169, 317

productivity costs, 188–189

total direct and indirect costs, 187

training shopkeepers, 320

NMRC. See U.S. Naval Medical Research Center

Nobel Prize, 128, 129

Noguchi Memorial Institute of Medical Research, 228

Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 42, 45, 75

North America, malaria in, 26

Norway, 105

Novartis, 303, 309

NYVAC-Pf7, 227

O

Oceania, 254

OptiMAL dipstick, 222

Organophosphates, 200, 201

Oxford University, 224

Oylset, 206

P

Packaging, drug, 315–316

Pakistan, 186, 210, 231, 232

Pan-African Malaria Conference, 48

Papua, New Guinea

chloroquine resistance, 132, 276, 280

malaria control, 209–210

mosquito netting, 202

overcoming economic barriers to treatment, 313

Plasmodium malariae, 158

Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical Research, 224

Paraguay, microeconomic study in, 185, 186

Paralysis, 153

ParaSight-F, 222

Parasitemia, 205, 208

Pare-Taveta Malaria Scheme, 207

PATH. See Program for Appropriate Technology in Health

PCR. See Polymerase chain reaction

Peace Corps, 305

Pelletier, Joseph, 130

Permanet, 206

Permethrin, 201

Peru, 157, 236

Pesticide Evaluation Scheme. See World Health Organization

Petroleum oil, 211

Pfcrt, 280

Pfdhfr, 279–280

Pfdhps, 279–280

Pfizer, 306, 310

Pfmdr, 280–281

Pharmacie Regionale d’Approvisionnement (PRA), 36

Pharmacodynamics, 258

Pharmacokinetics, 254–255, 258

Philippines, 203

Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 42

Pinotti, M., 216

Piperaquine, 253, 255, 294, 307

Plasmochin (pamaquine), 131

Plasmodium berghei, 133

Plasmodium falciparum

diagnostic testing, 41

drug resistance, 130, 198, 256, 273–275

fluorescent microscopy, 221

Garki project, 208

human malaria, 136–140, 144–147

MDA, 213

natural immunity, 225

RDTs, 221–222

severe manifestations, 149

vaccines, 223, 226

Plasmodium malariae, 126, 128, 136–137, 158–159

Plasmodium ovale, 132, 136–137, 140, 144, 159

Plasmodium relictum, 129

Plasmodium vivax

chloroquine resistance, 275

described, 157–158

discoveries, 128–131

human malaria, 136, 144

MDA, 216

primaquine tolerance, 276

recurrent malaria, 140

transmission of, 126

vaccines, 223

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2004. Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11017.
×

Plasmodium yoelii, 275

Plato, 125

PLIVA Pharmaceuticals, 309

PNA. See Senegalese Pharmacie Nationale d’Approvisionnement

Policy making issues, ix

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 137, 146, 279

Polypharmacy, 32, 65

Population-based studies, 175

Population movements and malaria, 231–232

Poverty and malaria, 180

Poverty Reduction Support Loans and Credits, 102

PRA. See Pharmacie Regionale d’Approvisionnement

Pregnancy

anemia, 205

artemisinins and, 13, 268–269

azithromycin, 310

chemoprophylaxis, 50, 217, 302

intermittent preventive therapy (IPTp). See Intermittent preventive therapy, pregnant women

ITN use, 198

malaria in, 155–157

mortality, 205

reducing high-risk, 103

sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine and, 22

susceptibility during, 26

treatment, 255

Price, R.N., 266, 267

Price discrimination, 65

Primaquine, 276, 292, 306

Private sector drug flows, 40–41

Procurement. See Drug procurement

Productivity costs, 188–189

Program for Appropriate Technology in Health (PATH), 47

Proguanil, 132, 217, 253, 291, 294

Prostration, 149

PRSCs. See Poverty Reduction Support Loans and Credits

Public good, 79, 80–81

Public sector drug flows, 36

Pulmonary edema, 149, 154

Pyrethrum, 200–201, 203, 206

Pyrimethamine, 217, 253, 254, 255, 291

Pyronaridine, 294, 307

Pyrroloquinazolines, 309

Q

Qinghaosu. See Artemisinins

Quartan malaria. See Plasmodium malariae

Queensland Institute RESA of Medical Research (QIMR), 224

Quinidine, 253, 256

Quinine

absorption and elimination, 255

aryl aminoalcohol compounds, 253

described, 130–131, 291

severe malaria, 256

uncomplicated malaria, 254

Quinoline, 308

R

R&D. See Research and development

RACTAP. See Réseau d’Afrique Centrale des Thérapeutiques Antipaludiques

Ranbaxy, 308

Rapid diagnostic test (RDT), 68, 69–71, 221–223

RBCs. See Red blood cells

RBM. See Roll Back Malaria

RDT. See Rapid diagnostic test

Recrudescence, 140, 272

Rectal artesunate, 309

Rectocap, 262

Recurrent malaria, 140

Red blood cells (RBCs), 138, 220

Regulation in retail drug market, 94

Renal impairment, 149, 255

Repellants, 211

Republic of the Congo. See Congo

Research and development (R&D)

antimalarial drugs, 10, 301–311

impetus for, 81

global investment, 15, 74–75

Réseau d’Afrique Centrale des Thérapeutiques Antipaludiques (RACTAP), 237

Resochin (chloroquine), 131

Respiratory distress, 149, 151–152

Riamet, 294

Risk mapping, 47, 169

RNA for diagnosis, 223

Rockefeller Foundation, 199

MMV funding, 47

R&D contributions, 304

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2004. Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11017.
×

Roll Back Malaria (RBM), 13

financing and procurement of drugs, 113

goals, 232–233

increased funding since advent of, 105–106

major initiatives, 49–51, 50, 76, 198

Malaria Medicines and Supplies Service (MMSS), 120–121

market stimulation, 116

Roman Campagna, 126

Rome, Italy, 126

Ross, Ronald, 128–129, 178, 202

Ross Institute, 130

RTS,S, 225

Rufiji Demographic Surveillance Site (DSS), 28, 56

Rufiji District, Tanzania, 56, 94

Russell, Paul, 199

Rwanda

drug policy, 235

epidemics and climate change, 231

microeconomic studies, 187

migration, 232

per capita health expenditures, 98

productivity costs of morbidity, 188–189

tax revenues, 97

S

Sachs, Jeffrey, 180

SACs. See Structural Adjustment Credits

SADCC. See Southern African Development Cooperation Conference

SALs. See Structural Adjustment Loans

Sao Tome & Principe, 98

School-based education, 323–324

Schultz, L.J., 218

SEACAT. See South East African Combination Antimalarial Therapy Evaluation

Sector-wide approach (SWAp), 102–103, 103n. 2, 104

Senegal

ACT, evidence base, 264

availability of antimalarials, 42

Bandafassi, 175

childhood mortality, 173, 176

Dakar, 41, 48, 210

drug financing, 43–44

drug pricing, 43, 44

economic and health indicators, 35

health care expenditures, 98

illegal drug flows, 41–42

IPTc, 219

malaria in, 34

Mlomp, 175

Niakhar, 175

population-based studies, 175

private sector drug flows, 40

public sector drug flows, 36, 37

subclinical infections, 146

Senegalese Pharmacie Nationale d’Approvisionnement (PNA), 36, 40

Severe malaria, defined, 150

Shillcutt, S.D., 69

Shin Poong, 307

Shopkeepers, training, 320–321

Shortt, H.E., 129–130

Sicily, Italy, 131

Sickle cell anemia, 127, 147

Sidewalk medication, 41

Sierra Leone, 96, 97, 98, 229

SIT. See Sterile insect technology

Snow, R.W., 169, 170, 172–173

Social marketing of antimalarials, 41, 43, 56

Solomon Islands, 203

Somalia, 98

Sontochin (3 methyl chloroquine), 131

Sophocles, 125

South Africa

ACT use, 213

health care spending, 96, 98

KwaZulu Natal, 11, 14, 172, 207, 214–215, 229, 236

malaria in, 24

Mpumalanga, South Africa, 235

pharmaceuticals from, 36

South East African Combination Antimalarial Therapy Evaluation (SEACAT), 237

Southern African Development Cooperation Conference (SADCC), 42

Soviet Union, 198, 203

SP. See Sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine

Spasticity, 153

Speech disorders, 153

Spirit possession, 30

Sporozoites, 138

Sri Lanka, 198, 210, 211, 231

Statens Serum Institut, 224

Sterile insect technology (SIT), 212

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2004. Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11017.
×

Sterling Winthrop, 306

Structural Adjustment Credits (SAC), 102

Structural Adjustment Loans (SAL), 102

Subsidy. See Global subsidy

Sudan

chloroquine resistance, 132, 280

malaria early warning systems, 233

migration, 232

per capita health expenditures, 98

productivity costs of morbidity, 188–189

seasonal transmission, 146

Sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP)

antifol combination drugs, 291

artesunate and, 235

combination treatment and, 22n. 1

discoveries in, 132

effectiveness, 22

Garki project, 208

IPT with, 218–219

low-cost drug, 3, 42

R&D, 306

resistance, 4n. 2, 172, 198–199, 237, 271, 274

stopgap drug, 66, 80

Sulfalene, 291

Sulfamethoxazole, 291

Supernatural intervention, 30

Supranational subsidy, 88, 92–93

Suriname, 236

Swamp fever. See Malaria

SWAp. See Sector-wide approach

Swaziland, 24, 98

Sweden, 105

Sweet wormwood. See Artemisia annua

Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, 47, 303

Swiss Tropical Institute, 224

Switzerland, 105, 224, 304

Symptomatic cases, treatment of, 212–213

T

Tafenoquine, 253, 292–293, 306, 310

Tajikistan, 232

Tanzania

Bagamoyo District, 59, 175, 209

childhood mortality, 173

chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum, 132

climate change, 231

Dar es Salaam, 211, 317

drug policy, 235

economic barriers to treatment, 313

educating family decision makers and traditional healers, 322

health care expenditures, 98

health education messages, 320

HIV and malaria, 156

hospital-based evidence, 177

IPT use, 219

Kilombero, 94

malaria early warning systems, 233

Muheza, 132

Pare-Taveta Malaria Scheme, 207

pharmaceuticals from, 36

poor drug supply, 33

population-based study, 175

retail drug competition and regulation, 94

Rufiji District, 56, 94

severe malaria, 145

single vs. combination candidates, 227

SWAp, 103n. 2

traditional medicines, 31

Ulanga, 94

Tanzania Essential Health Interventions Project (TEHIP)

description, 28–29

key observations, 59

malaria-related deaths, 57

research area, 56

results, 29

verbal autopsies, 57

types of care, 58

Tax revenues, potential for increased, 97–99

TB. See Tuberculosis

TDR. See World Health Organization, Special Programme on Research and Training in Tropical Diseases

TEHIP. See Tanzania Essential Health Interventions Project

Tennessee Valley Authority, 127, 197

Tertian malaria. See Plasmodium vivax

Tetracycline, 253, 292

Thailand

ACT as first-line therapy, 213, 229, 236, 263, 264, 266

azithromycin clinical trials, 310

chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum, 131–132, 280

counterfeit drugs, 317

DEET use, 211

informal sector, 31

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2004. Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11017.
×

ITN use, 205

introduction of sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine, 132

Karen, 227, 232

mefloquine resistance, 275

middle-income country, 101

migration, 232

pyronaridine, 294

RDTs, 222

study of pregnant women, 269, 270

Thalassemias, 147

Therapeutic treatment failure (TTF), 273

Tiered pricing, 65

Tigray, Ethiopia, 191–194

Tobin taxes, 100

Trade investment, 181–182

Traditional care, 31, 58

Traditional healers, educating, 321–323

Trape, J.F., 175

Treatment, 27–28

antimalarial, aims of, 252–253

close-to-home, 318–319

decisions to seek—, 30–33

epidemics and, 233

government expenditures, 185

household expenditures, 184–185, 193

models, 67–74

self-—, 30, 41, 59, 85–86, 315

severe malaria, 256–257

symptomatic cases, 213

uncomplicated malaria, 254

Trimethoprim, 253, 291

Tropical splenomegaly syndrome. See Hyperreactive malarial splenomegaly

TROPIVAL, 308

Tryptanthrins, 309

TTF. See Therapeutic treatment failure

Tuberculosis (TB)

combining drugs for treatment, 4

external support for control, 75

Global Drug Facility, 9, 112

global market for drugs, 86

price discrimination for drugs, 65

Tunis, Tunisia, 131

Tunisia, 131

U

Uganda

antimalarial drug resistance, 271

chloroquine resistance, 132, 280

drug labeling and instructions, 318

drug packaging, 316

educating family decision makers and traditional healers, 321–322

epidemics and climate change, 231, 233

Iteso, 323

per capita health expenditures, 98

Poverty Reduction Support Loans and Credits process, 102

Ulanga, Tanzania, 94

UNICEF. See United Nations Children’s Fund

United Kingdom

bilateral donor, 105

contributions to R&D, 304

health care expenditures, 99

major initiatives, 46

malaria, spread of, 126, 197

United Nations

agencies of, 105

Children’s Fund (UNICEF), 104, 105, 112–115, 117, 120, 302–303, 323

Millennium Summit, 51

Office of—High Commissioner for Refugees, 105

United States

Army Medical Research and Development Command, 132

bilateral donor, 105

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 127

Department of Defense, 305

Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 303, 305, 306

funding source, 8

health care expenditures, 99

major initiatives, 46

R&D, 74

spread of malaria, 126–127

State Department, 305

University of Edinburgh, 129

University of Liverpool, 308

University of Maryland, 223

University of Nairobi, 317

University of Nebraska, 308

Urban malaria, 230

U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), 20, 101, 104, 228.

See also Roll Back Malaria

U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command (USAMRMC), 305

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2004. Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11017.
×

U.S. Naval Medical Research Center (NMRC), 224, 227, 306

User fees for health services, 99–100

V

Vaccines, 223, 225

candidate, 224

development, 47

natural immunity, 225

strategies, 225–226

testing and use, 228–229

trials, 228

Vanuatu, 203

Vector control, 209–212

Venezuela, 132

Verbal autopsy, 28, 57

Vestergaard nets, 206

Vical, 224

Vietnam

ACT as first-line therapy, 213, 236

concerns about drug resistance, 74

counterfeit drugs, 317

household living standards, 181, 182–183

ITN programs, 203

low-income country, 101

neurotoxicity, 268

piperaquine, 294

Vietnam Living Standards Surveys (VLSS), 182

Vietnam War, 127, 133, 305

Virchow, Rudolf Ludwig Karl, 128

VLSS. See Vietnam Living Standards Surveys

W

Wage rate method, 188–189

Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 224

Walter Reed Army Institute of Research (WRAIR)

antimalarial drug R&D, 10, 15, 262, 307–310

Division of Experimental Therapeutics, 305

drug budget, 307

mefloquine production, 132–133

Military Infectious Disease Research Program, 305–307

R&D, 301

vaccine clinical trials, 224

WANMAT I and II. See West African Networks for Monitoring Antimalarial Treatments

Washington, D.C., 126, 262, 305

Washington, George, 126

Wasps, The (Aristophanes), 125

Wellcome-Kenya Medical Research Institute, 224

Wellcome Trust, 46, 48, 301, 303

R&D contributions, 304

West Africa

Anopheles gambiae, 202, 212

Burkina Faso, West Africa, 97, 98, 187, 188–189, 202, 203–205, 212, 223, 316

drug resistance, 172

genetic expression of Duffy blood antigen, 157

Plasmodium malariae, 158

productivity costs of morbidity, 188–189

West African Networks for Monitoring Antimalarial Treatments (WANMAT I and II), 237

Wet agriculture and malaria, 126

WHO. See World Health Organization

WHOPES. See World Health Organization, Pesticide Evaluation Scheme

Williams, Hervey Vaughan, 215

Willingness-to-pay approach, 184, 190–191, 192, 194

Winthrop Stearns, 131

World Bank

Abuja Conference, 49

Adaptable Program Loans and Credits (APLs), 103

emergency recovery loans and credits, 103

evidence from experimental animals, 269

funding data, 107

funding source, 101, 102–103, 105

International Development Association (IDA), 8, 75, 103, 105

International School Health Initiative, 323

market stimulation, 116

Medicines for Malaria Venture initiative, 47

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2004. Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11017.
×

Poverty Reduction Support Loans and Credits (PRSCs), 102

R&D, 302–303

Structural Adjustment Loans and

Structural Adjustment Credits (SALs and SACs), 102

World Health Organization (WHO)

Abuja Conference, 49

artemisinins, 12, 263

centralized procurement system, 9, 112–113

control strategies, 199–200, 234

endorsement of combination therapy, 5, 61, 72, 79, 80, 237

environmental controls, 211

Global Burden of Disease program, 169

Global Drug Facility (GDF), 118–119, 119, 120

global eradication of chloroquine, 131

Higher Impact Adjustment Lending, 103

in vivo antimalarial drug sensitivity classification, 277, 277

IPT recommendations, 218

ITN approval, 206

major initiatives, 46, 174

Medicines for Malaria Venture initiative, 47

mefloquine development, 132

partnership with U.S. Agency for International Development, 20

Pesticide Evaluation Scheme (WHOPES), 200

pre-qualification for drug suppliers, 40

quality assurance strength, 116

school-based education, 323

severe malaria, defined, 150

Special Programme on Research and Training in Tropical Diseases (TDR), 10, 46–49, 48, 203, 301, 302–303, 304, 306, 307–309, 315

support for Cambodian Pharmaceutical Enterprise, 38

treatment benchmarks, 66

World Health Report, 67

World Trade Organisation, 99

World War I, 131

World War II, 127, 130, 132, 198, 200, 206

WRAIR. See Walter Reed Army Institute of Research

Wright’s stain, 220

Y

Ya chud, 31

Yorktown, Virginia, 126

Z

Zaire, 205, 232

Zambia

ACT as first-line therapy, 236

availability of antimalarials, 42

Central Board of Health, 36

chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum, 132

control methods, 229

drug financing, 44–45

drug pricing, 43, 44

economic and health indicators, 35

health care expenditures, 98

home treatment, 319

illegal drug flows, 42

Kafue, 44

Lusaka, 40, 41, 44

malaria in, 34

Medical Stores Ltd., 36

private sector drug flows, 40–41

public sector drug flows, 36, 38

Zambian National Formulary, 41

Zanzibar, 235, 236

Zhou En Lai, 133

Zimbabwe, 24, 36, 98, 222

Zoophagic, 141

Zoophilic, 141

Zooprophylaxis, 210

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2004. Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11017.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2004. Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11017.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2004. Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11017.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2004. Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11017.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2004. Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11017.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2004. Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11017.
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For more than 50 years, low-cost antimalarial drugs silently saved millions of lives and cured billions of debilitating infections. Today, however, these drugs no longer work against the deadliest form of malaria that exists throughout the world. Malaria deaths in sub-Saharan Africa—currently just over one million per year—are rising because of increased resistance to the old, inexpensive drugs. Although effective new drugs called “artemisinins” are available, they are unaffordable for the majority of the affected population, even at a cost of one dollar per course.

Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance examines the history of malaria treatments, provides an overview of the current drug crisis, and offers recommendations on maximizing access to and effectiveness of antimalarial drugs. The book finds that most people in endemic countries will not have access to currently effective combination treatments, which should include an artemisinin, without financing from the global community. Without funding for effective treatment, malaria mortality could double over the next 10 to 20 years and transmission will intensify.

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