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Learning To Think Spatially
Index
A
Abstract concepts, 41, 45-47, 91
etak, 139-140
Access Excellence, 209
Advanced Visualization System (AVS), 157, 170, 171, 286
Age
and perceptual imaging, 97
and spatial skills, 101, 108, 270, 274-275
Air traffic control and controllers, 54-55, 93, 95
Alexandria Digital Library, 34-35
Algebra, 19, 91, 92, 117, 126, 130
Alpha Centauri, 62
American Forests, 180, 190
AML, 166
Andromeda Nebula, 64, 67
Animation environments, 46, 80, 105, 108, 149, 156, 157, 158, 159, 171, 182, 219, 224, 286
Anthropogeography, 88
Application program interface (API), 156, 157, 173-174
ArcCatalog, 224
ArcEditor, 222
ArcExplorer, 161, 167, 223
ArcGlobe, 224-226
Architects and architectural design, 12, 28, 40, 43, 54, 55, 95, 97, 100, 104, 141, 155, 156
ArcIMS, 222
ArcInfo, 222
ArcLessons, 209
ArcReader, 222
ArcSDE, 222
ArcView, 156, 166-167, 173, 174, 177, 180, 185-187, 190-192, 194, 196-198, 200, 201, 202, 204, 209, 222-226, 290, 291
ArcView GIS, 166, 184, 188, 222, 226
ArcVoyager, 167, 184, 185-187, 190, 191, 223, 291
Assembly instructions, 50, 51
Association for Geographic Information (AGI), 289, 291
Association of American Geographers (AAG), 292
Association of Research Libraries, 215
Astronomy. See Astrophysical spatialization
parsec unit, 62
Astrophysical spatialization
absolute magnitude, 62-63, 64, 66
beyond solar system, 60-67, 68
Copernican model, 59, 60
distance scales, 57, 60, 64, 65, 67-68
Earth shape and size, 57-58, 65, 67
epicycles, 59, 61
expertise in, 55, 57-58
frames of reference, 57-58, 59
geocentric theory, 60
heliocentric theory, 60, 61
Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, 62-64
Hubble constant and, 64-65, 68
main sequence, 63, 64
measurements, 56, 58, 60-67
parallax concept, 60, 62, 64
pattern recognition, 56
period-luminosity diagram, 64, 66
primitives, 56, 57
Ptolemaic universe, 59, 60, 61
role of, 67-68, 94
solar system, 59, 67
spectroscopic parallaxes, 64
standard candle, 64
time dimension, 56, 57, 59
universe structure and evolution, 56-57, 64, 68
Atlas GIS, 167
Atmospheric physics/physicists, 80, 81
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AutoCAD, 156, 285
Autodesk Map, 167
Avenue, 166, 191, 192
B
Barrington Middle School (Rhode Island), 180
Batik SVG Toolkit (BGRG), 286
Berkeley Geo-Research Group, 290
Bessel, Friedrich, 62
Big Bang theory, 64
Bishop Dunne Catholic School (Texas), 212
Botany/botanists, 53, 69, 209, 291
Brahe, Tycho, 60, 62, 67
Bruner, Jerome, 11-12, 16, 20, 150, 176, 237, 270-271
Bunge, William, 93
C
California State University, San Bernardino, 291, 292
Car safety seat (CSS) installation, 49-50
Cartesian coordinate system, 3, 12, 27, 149, 272
Cartographic modeling, 27, 169-171, 173
Cartography, 83, 113, 156, 222, 287, 288
Center for Image Processing in Education (CIPE), 290
Central place theory, 56, 88-93
Cepheid variables, 64, 66, 67
Charlottesville Education Summit, 111
Chemistry, 27, 43, 181
Chess players, 96, 97
Chorology, 88
Christaller, Walter, 48, 49, 56, 88-93, 95
CITYgreen, 180-181, 190
Cognition/cognitive
development, 270, 271
environmental, 26, 29
geographic, 287, 289
maps/mapping, 26, 27, 29, 142
skills, 12, 81.
See also Spatial skills and abilities
about space, 30
in space, 30
with space, 30
spatial tool kit, 27
Collaborative Visualization Project (CoVIS), 290
Color
identifying and classifying objects by, 70
recognition and evaluation, 41, 42, 43, 53, 56, 138
representations, 16, 52, 80, 104, 105, 141, 143, 149, 169, 170, 171, 180-181
Columbia University, 83
Communication, in mathematics, 116, 117
Community Atlas project, 210, 291
Community Geography: GIS in Action, 179, 209
Community Mapping Program, 291
Community projects with GIS
crime reduction, 179, 212
pollution hazard mapping, 181, 213
vegetation mapping and analysis, 180-181, 190
water quality monitoring, 179, 180, 212-213
Computer-assisted design (CAD) systems, 12, 19, 20, 141, 155, 156, 158, 185, 290
Concept graphing tools, 32, 157, 286
Concept maps/mapping, 19, 30, 156, 157, 159, 282
Concepts for spatial thinking, 18-19, 26, 29-31, 32, 33
Coordinate systems
3D, 151
ability to use, 276
abstract, 139-140
Cartesian, 3, 12, 27, 149, 272
Earth-anchored conceptual, 69, 77-79, 160
geometry standard, 118, 120, 121, 122, 123
latitude-longitude, 37, 38, 148, 149, 162, 168
local, 38
polar, 3, 12, 123
raster data, 160, 223
rotating, 123
specific, 149
spheres, 123
State Plane Coordinate System, 148, 149, 183
temporal, 171
transformations, 149, 173
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM), 149, 183
vector models, 70, 160, 223
Copernicus, 59
Corel Draw, 285
Coriolis effect, 123
Crescent School (Ontario), 213
Crick, Francis, 1-3, 55
Crime monitoring, 179, 212
Crystallography/crystallographers, 69, 70, 72, 103
Curriculum. See K-12 curriculum
Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics, 165
D
Data
analysis and probability, 116, 117, 156
attribute, 162, 163
collection, 14, 156
combining spatial and nonspatial data, 88
correction procedures, 55, 171
extrapolation and interpolation, 55, 86-87
generalization, 55
geometric, 162
GIS characteristics, 159-162, 171, 173, 175, 217
management, 13, 16, 30, 32, 34-35, 55, 76-77, 111, 156, 177, 223, 224
mining, 34, 111
models, 160-161, 173, 175, 183, 223
nonspatial, 88, 168-169
pixel, 32, 175
quality and quantity, 102, 171
raster, 32, 156, 160, 161, 173, 183, 223
retrieval, 34
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space for interpreting, 28
spatialization of, 6, 31-33, 34, 35, 111, 148-149, 156, 157, 168-169, 182
vector, 160, 161, 173, 175, 223
visualization, 13, 16, 30, 32, 34, 76-77, 111
Data Explorer (DX), 155, 157, 170, 171, 286
DataScape, 291
Demographics
economic processes integrated with, 180
geographic metaphors, 30, 33
GIS applications, 180, 237-240
workforce needs, 112
Developmental theories, 270-271
Developmentally appropriate education, 270
Diagrams, 19
animated vs. still, 46
central place, 89, 91, 93
devices that focus attention, 46, 47, 102, 177
DNA structure, 2
equal-area projection, 70, 71
flow, 45, 46
GIS output, 169, 189
Hertzsprung-Russell, 62-64
hierarchical, 27, 30, 40
as instructional device, 47-48, 50, 102, 116, 138, 139, 283
mattang stick chart, 138
period-luminosity, 64-66
phase, 27, 36, 133
physiographic, 84, 86, 88
purpose of, 47
reasoning from, 41, 47, 102, 104, 284
and recall, 47, 96, 282, 283
schematic, 27, 50, 282, 283
of spatial operations, 30, 45, 47, 56, 70, 102
T-S, 82
types of, 27-28
Diatoms, 72
Digital Library for Earth System Education (DLESE), 209, 210
Digital Quest, 209
Dimensionality, 12, 47, 102.
See also Coordinate systems
domain considerations, 37
frames of reference, 53-54
GIS capacity, 169
motion and, 54-55, 56, 59, 80-81
three-space, 37, 53, 54-55, 70, 80, 102, 151
transformation, 40, 149
two-space representation, 13, 16, 32, 37, 53, 70, 76-77, 102, 121, 169
Directionality, 37, 43, 45, 58
Director, 157, 171, 182, 286
Distance, 46, 47, 82
astronomical scales, 57, 60, 64, 65, 67-68
as measure of time, 81-82
Distortions, 40, 41, 45, 52, 72-73
DNA structure, 1-3, 55, 103
Drawing inferences.
See also Problem solving;
Reasoning
expertise in, 47, 53, 72, 86, 88, 102, 104
from shapes, 72-76, 77
from size, 57-58, 74, 90, 91, 92
E
Earth science
competency of students, 114
curriculum, 123, 291
education standards, 119-120, 123, 129
GIS software, 215
Earth Science Information Partners (ESIP), 215
Earth System Science Internet Project (ESSIP), 207
Earthviewer, 171, 172
Eastern Michigan University, 291
Echo sounders and echograms, 84, 86-87
Education Applications of GIS (EdGIS) conference, 290, 291, 292
Education reform, 12, 111-112
recommendations, 131, 133-134
Educational challenges
committee position statement, 7-8, 233-234
concepts for spatial thinking, 18-19
curriculum design, 134
resource-related, 103, 110, 190
support tools, 7-10, 19-20, 144-145, 233-235
Educational software
collaborative model, 215
commercial model, 214-215
customization, 174, 182, 183, 184, 185, 190-192, 218-219, 293-297
Earth Science, 215
geometry, 168, 169, 173, 183
GIS, 164-165, 166, 167-168, 173, 178-179, 184-185, 214-216, 220, 285;
see also individual products
market, 204-205, 232
open vs. closed architecture, 188-189, 215
redesign challenges, 214-216, 220
resources, 285-286
Seasonal Differences module, 293-297
Einstein, Albert, 45, 95
Electronic circuit design, 95
Embedded figures test, 26
Emergent phenomena, 104
Encarta, 184
Environmental and Spatial Technology (EAST) initiative, 179, 290
Environmental cognition, 26, 29
Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI), 19, 166, 167, 177, 184, 185, 186, 188, 190-191, 200, 201, 206, 208, 209, 210-211, 215, 220, 223, 224, 285, 290, 291-292
Epicycles, 59, 61
Epidemiology, 12, 55
arsenic in drinking water, 13
Snow’s cholera maps, 13, 14-15
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ER Mapper, 285
Eratosthenes of Cyrene, 57-58, 67
Erdas, 156, 285
Etak, 139-140
Everyday life
GIS in, 158-159
IT applications, 111
spatial thinking in, 12, 30, 42, 43, 49-52
Ewing, Maurice, 86
Expertise in spatial thinking
acquisition of knowledge, 95, 100-101, 103-104, 107
age and, 108
challenges in developing, 103-104
chess example, 96, 97
cognitive processes, 98-100, 107
combining spatial and nonspatial data, 88
differences in, 95-103
domain-specific, 40, 53-54, 55, 67-68, 94, 95, 96, 101, 104, 108
expertise in creating and understanding, 47, 87-88, 95-96, 101, 104
fostering, 107-108
inference and intuition, 47, 53, 72, 86, 88
intelligence and, 95, 96
memory and recall, 88, 95, 96-98
nature of, 95-96
novices compared, 46-47, 54, 55, 56, 70, 71, 75, 77, 79, 80, 93, 101
pattern recognition, 42, 54, 87
projects for, 104-105
role of, 46-47, 93, 101-102
in science, 55, 56, 57-58, 68, 69-70, 71, 72, 75, 76, 77, 78-80, 83-88, 93
transformations, 44
visualization, 76-77, 80-81, 84, 88, 103
at work, 52-53
Explore Your World, 209
Extending Scientific Inquiry Through Collaborative Geographic Information Systems, 208, 292
F
Federation of GIS Education Partners, 215, 220
Flash, 157, 171, 182, 286
Foraminifera, 72, 74, 75
Fractal Technologies, 156, 285
Frames of reference, 37, 41, 42, 44, 45.
See also Coordinate systems
abstract, 139-140
astrophysical, 57-58, 59
dimensionality, 53-54
replotting, 149
rotating, 123, 129
FreeHand, 157, 285
Function concept, 19
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI), 19
G
GenScope project, 105
Geocentric theory, 60
Geodesy, 57, 290
Geographic information systems (GIS)
academic model, 214, 215
accessibility to all learners, 186-190, 192
administrative and institutional support, 202-203
analytical capabilities, 171, 173-174, 177, 190, 210
animation environment, 171, 182, 219, 224
appeal to students, 182, 219
applications, 164, 166, 180
appropriateness to student needs, 173, 179, 183-192, 205, 218
assessment as an educational support system, 176, 182-183, 191-192, 203, 213-214, 217-225
buffer analysis, 175
capabilities, 156-159, 165, 167-176
community support, 179-182, 190, 212-213, 218, 220
compatibility issues, 200
competitions, 210-212, 292
component-based or open system architecture, 184
components, 160
computing environment in schools and, 200-203
coordinate system, 171
curriculum support, 208-212, 213, 218, 220, 237-240
customizability, 174, 182, 183, 184, 185, 190-192, 218-219, 224, 293-297
data characteristics, 159-162, 171, 173, 175, 217
data management, 177, 223, 224
design criteria, 176-203, 215, 218-219
difficulties in using, 193-200
educational context, 192-203
for English language learners, 189-190
in everyday life, 158-159
expert users, 164, 183, 219
flexibility in contexts and modes of use, 192-193
and GPS, 39, 156, 212
graphic variables, 170
implementation in schools, 193-214, 219-220
infrastructure demands, 200-203, 219
inquiry-based learning with, 176-177, 182-183, 210
instructional support, 204, 206-208, 213, 214, 222
Internet access, 202, 204
K-12 software, 164-165, 166, 167-168, 173, 178-179, 184-185;
see also individual products
logistical support, 205-206, 213, 214, 219
low-tech learning tools, 205
material support for, 179, 204-205, 213, 219
media support, 169, 171
meeting educational goals, 176-183
modeling capabilities, 169-171, 173, 175, 190
nature and functions, 158-164
and navigation, 38-39, 158
nongeographic spaces, 168
novice users, 184, 185-187, 193-200, 219
operational functions, 18, 40, 158, 162-163, 168, 171, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 187, 205, 207, 218
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overlay (thematic layers) analysis, 162-163, 175, 180-181, 193-195
personal guidance system, 38-39
problem solving in real-world contexts, 177-179, 218
proximity analysis, 175
queries, 163, 196-197
recommendations, 9-10, 234-235
representations, 118-119, 170-171
resource constraints in schools, 192-199
role in spatial thinking, 15, 18, 19
size transformations, 169, 170, 171-173, 175, 183-184, 198-199, 225
spatialization capacity, 168-169, 176, 182
standards-based education and, 118-119, 200, 212, 214
status as support system, 164-165, 220-221
teacher-related issues, 189-190, 193, 200-201, 204, 206-208, 214, 219-220
technological evolution, 222-226
time line for introduction into K-12 education, 289-292
time modeling, 171
transfer of learning across domains, 179-182, 218
transformation capacity, 158-159, 169, 170, 171-173, 174, 175, 177, 183-184, 198-199, 218, 225
user interfaces, 9, 171, 173, 174, 177, 182, 184, 185, 188-189, 196-197, 219, 224
virtual applications, 171, 188-189, 237, 291
visualization capacity, 9, 169-171, 176, 177, 210, 214, 217-218, 234
for visually impaired learners, 188-189
workplace applications, 168
Geographic Resources Analysis Support System (GRASS), 167, 215
Geography
active learning, 11-12
central place theory, 56, 88-93
defined, 116
education standards, 116
expertise in, 55, 56
information technology and, 110
as rational sets of induction, 11
spatial thinking in, 55, 56, 116
Geography Network, 209, 211
Geolocation systems, 111.
See also Global positioning system
Geology/geologists, 43
field, 76, 79-80
structural, 69, 70, 72
GeoMedia, 167, 179
Geometry
activities, 118
computational, 288
coordinate, 118, 120, 121, 122, 123, 130, 132
curriculum, 18, 118, 131
education standards, 114, 115, 116-118, 120-122, 123, 124-125, 130
Euclidean, 123
everyday applications, 142
geography integrated with, 58
GIS software, 168, 169, 173, 183
international student rankings, 114
projective, 274
science content linked to, 123, 124, 125, 129, 130
spatial thinking applied in, 19, 36, 37, 81, 92, 94, 115, 123, 126, 131
transformational, 114, 117, 118, 125, 130
Geomorphology/geomorphologists, 61, 74, 77, 86, 87
Geophysicists, 80
Georeferencing, 37, 143, 159, 180
Geoscience
analytical systems, 156, 158, 285
ascribing meaning to shapes, 72-76, 77
crystal planes of symmetry, 69, 70
describing position and orientation, 77-79
describing shapes, 69-70
equal-area projection diagrams, 70, 71
expert spatial thinking in, 55, 56, 57-58, 68, 69-70, 71, 72, 75, 76, 77, 78-80, 83-88, 101
identifying/classifying objects, 70-72
Miller indices, 70
motion in 3D space, 80-81
novice learning, 56, 70, 71, 75, 77, 79, 80, 93, 101
pattern recognition, 76, 78
processes of spatial thinking, 82-83
recall of object location and appearance, 79-80
representations for nonspatial parameters, 82
sedimentary folding, 69, 70
spatial operations, 68-83
time progression, 81-82
topographic maps, 79
visualization of structures, 76-77, 78, 80-81, 95
Geospatial technology
defined, 112-113
high-tech systems, 156, 158, 179
market characteristics, 112
support for, 179
Geospatial Technology Competency Model, 112-113
GeoVISTA Studio, 188
Geovisualization, 169
Girasek, Deborah, 49-50
GIS Day, 206, 291
GIScience, 159, 287-288, 291
Gladwin, Thomas, 137
Global positioning system (GPS), 55
data collection, 156
GIS and, 39, 156, 212
hand-held receiver, 16
Location Based Services (LBS), 111
mobile devices linked to, 110, 111
ocean navigation, 77, 78, 84, 136, 137, 141
personal guidance system, 38-39
tracking, 111, 143
water quality monitoring, 15, 16, 212-213
GLOBE, 193
Gradmann, Robert, 90
Graphics generators, 157, 159, 179
Graphing calculators, 19
Gravitational theory, 59
Greenbriar High School (Arkansas), 179
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H
Haptic mice, 188
Haptic Soundscapes Project, 189
Heezen, Bruce, 83-86, 87-88
Heliocentric theory, 60, 61
Hertzsprung, Edward, 62
Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagram, 62-64
Hettner, Alfred, 88
High-stakes testing, 200, 212
Hubble constant, 64-65, 68
Hubble, Edwin, 64, 67, 68
Human Genome Project, 19
Humboldt, Alexander von, 88
Hutton, James, 72
I
Idrisi, 19, 156, 167, 200, 201, 204, 208, 214, 285
IHMC Concept Map, 286
IKONOS satellite, 16
Imagine, 156
Inferences. See Drawing inference
Information
geographic metaphor, 30, 33
nonvisual processing, 38-39
visualization systems, 156, 157, 159, 170, 171, 286
Information technology (IT).
See also Geospatial technology;
Support systems and tools;
Virtual world
intersection with space, 111
need for skilled thinkers, 110-111
skill building with GIS, 182
Inspiration, 286
Instruction. See Learning;
Teaching spatial thinking
Intellectual space, 28, 30, 31, 32, 48
Intelligence measurement and testing, 26
Interfaces. See User interfaces
Intergraph, 19, 179, 207-208, 215
IRIS Explorer, 286
Isotropic plane, 92
J
James Madison University, 291
JASON project, 289
K
K-12 curriculum, 13.
See also Teaching
competitions, 210-212, 292
design challenges, 134
GIS resources, 105, 121, 124-125, 126, 151, 209-210, 293-297
infusion of spatial thinking across, 5, 6, 101, 105-107, 109, 120, 131, 133-134, 147, 176, 179-181, 182, 183, 218, 231
interpreting representations, 47-48, 102
supports, 104-105, 151
transfer of spatial thinking across subjects, 101, 105-107
Kansas Collaborative Research Network (KanCRN), 193, 209, 290
Kekulé, Friedrich, 95
Kepler, Johannes, 59, 60, 67
Keyhole Inc. Images, 171
Knowledge. See Spatial knowledge
L
Lake Ontario Keeper, 213
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, 84
Learning.
See also Expertise in spatial thinking;
K-12 curriculum;
Transfer of learning
assimilation and accommodation, 270
cognitive development and, 270
collaborative projects, 192-193, 202
developmental theories and, 270-271
disabilities, 190
general principles, 106
inquiry-based, 133-134, 140, 145, 176-177, 182-183, 207, 210, 237-240
interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary, 181-182, 210
to learn, 101
multiple examples and, 106, 107
pattern, 99, 100
perceptual processes, 97-98, 100
performance-based environments, 179
practice and, 98-100, 103, 106, 107
problem-based, 207, 212
productivity, 106
representations, 281-282
rote, 144-145
spiral curriculum, 270-271
Leavitt, Henrietta, 64, 66
Life spaces, 12, 28, 30, 31, 48
Literacy.
See also Spatial literacy
defined, 4, 17, 49
verbal, 50
Location Based Services (LBS), 111
Location theory, 88-93
Logo software, 126
Looking at the Environment (LATE) program, 209, 210
M
Mac GIS, 167
Macaulay, David, 28, 29
Magic, 174
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 19, 27
Malone, Lyn, 237-240
MapExtreme, 200
MapInfo, 156, 167, 173, 174, 200, 204, 285
Maple, 156, 285
Mapping Our City project, 191, 208
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Mapping Our World: GIS Lessons for Educators, 189-191, 209, 222
Mapping System, 200
MapQuest, 111, 155, 183-184
Maps/mapping
Albers Equal Area, 173
cartographic, 27, 28, 33, 36, 57, 83, 85, 142, 145, 149, 156, 162, 169, 170, 171, 173, 288
chloropleth or isopleth, 188-189
cognitive, 26, 27, 29, 142
concept, 19, 30, 32, 156, 157, 159, 282, 286
contour, 84, 85, 88
digital elevation models, 86
environmental, 179, 180-181, 190, 212-213
geological, 79, 80
Internet structure, 168-169
mental, 52
modified Mercator projections, 27, 141, 145, 146, 173
paper-and-pencil activities, 133
reading and interpreting, 33, 36, 79, 104, 142
satellite-based systems, 84
seafloor, 56, 76-78, 83-88
self-organizing, 33
stellar, 64, 65
swath-mapping, 84
topographic, 79
weather, 104, 105, 223
web-based interactive, 223
Maptek, 285
Maptitude, 167
Marine geochemists, 80
Mathematica, 156, 285
Mathematical thinking, 25, 144
Mathematics.
See also Algebra;
Geometry
communication in, 116, 117
connections among ideas, 118
education standards, 114, 115-119
international comparison of student competencies, 113-114
representations in, 114, 115, 116, 118-119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 125, 130, 132
spatial concepts, 18
support tools, 19, 104, 118-119, 136, 141, 142, 144, 156, 159, 285
Matlab, 285
Measurement, mathematics standard, 117
Memory and recall, 11
chunking information, 97
classic model of, 97-98
diagrams as aid to, 47, 96, 282, 283
domain specificity, 100
and expertise, 88, 95, 96-98
learning and encoding new information, 281-282
long-term, 97, 142
method of loci, 281
mnemonic techniques, 281
overlearning and, 97
pattern recognition, 27, 40, 41, 42, 44, 53-54, 68, 76, 78, 82, 86, 96, 100, 276
peg word system, 281-282
reinstatement and generation techniques, 282-283
representations and, 45, 46, 47, 97, 98, 102, 107, 281-283
sensory storage, 97
sex differences, 277
structural differentiation, 98
support systems, 144
verbal materials, 97, 98, 282
working (short-term), 46, 97, 98, 100, 101, 107, 140-141
Mental imagery/practice, 43, 44, 55
Mental rotation, 18, 26, 27, 31, 40, 43, 44, 47, 52, 83, 98, 99-102, 107, 123, 130, 133, 150, 266, 267, 268, 274, 275, 276-277, 280
Meta-cognitive knowledge, 100, 106
Metaphors in spatial thinking, 12, 25, 34, 41, 93, 94
in everyday life, 45
geographic, 30, 33
graphics, 36
overlay integration, 180
root, 36, 56, 110
in science, 82, 83
“space” used for nonspatial parameters, 82
for virtual-world access, 110-111, 184
Meteorology, 27, 98, 103
Mfworks, 167
Micromine, 156, 285
MicroStation, 156, 285
Mineralogy/mineralogists, 69, 70-71, 76
Missouri Botanical Garden, 209, 291
Modified Mercator projection, 27
Motion/movement, 149, 170, 225, 271, 272
and angular estimation, 78
astrophysical, 56, 59, 61, 62, 68
describing, 129
directionality, 43, 45, 50
through geospaces, 82
parallactic, 62
representations, 43, 45
rotating frames of reference, 123, 129
through 3-D space, 80-81
in 3-D space-time, 54-55, 56, 59, 80-81
tracking, 38-39
and transformations, 102
visualization, 47, 69, 80-81
Multidimensional scaling (MDS), 12, 27, 111
Multiscalar analysis, 56
My Community, Our Earth: Geographic Learning for Sustainable Development, 210, 212, 292
My World, 167
N
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 112, 215
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 113
National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), 215
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National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), 113-114, 207
National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis (NCGIA), 208, 289, 290
National Education Goals, 111
National Education Standards
coupling between mathematics and science, 120-131
geography, 116
goals, 114-115
mathematics, 114-119
organization, 115
role of spatial thinking in, 6-7, 114-115, 208-209, 232
science, 114-115, 119-120
National Geographic Alliance, 208, 289
National Geographic Society (NGS), 290
National Geography Standards, 116, 165
National Science Education Standards, 165
categories, 115
content standards, 115, 119-120
mathematics standards linked to, 120-131
National Science Foundation (NSF), 208, 289, 290, 291
Navigation, 30, 94
angular estimations, 78-79
buffers, 39
celestial, 84, 87, 138, 140
computer programs, 38-39, 122
dead reckoning, 78-79, 84, 87, 138, 139
GIS technology, 158
GPS, 78, 84, 136
homing vector/path integration procedure, 142
knowledge of physical environment and, 138
landmarks, 38, 52, 53, 94, 142, 143, 213, 272, 277
map reading, 79
Mattang stick chart, 138
neurophysiology and, 52
oceanographic techniques, 77-79, 84, 87, 135-140, 141
personal guidance systems, 38-39
“piloting” system, 142
Puluwatan islanders, 135-140
sex differences in, 142
size evaluation and, 42
vehicle navigation systems, 111, 135-136, 142-143
virtual, 110, 193, 206, 207, 224
workplace networks, 53
Networks, 123
Neural networks, 33
Newton, Isaac, 59
No Child Left Behind Act, 114, 134, 186-188
Northwestern University, 290
Numbers and operations, 116, 117, 119
O
Objects
ascribing meaning to shapes, 72-76
concrete vs. abstract, 27
defined, 36-37
describing shapes, 69-70
distinguishing figures from ground, 41-42
embedded, 26, 44
identifying and classifying, 70-71
motion visualization, 80-81
position and orientation, 77-79
properties, 37-38
recall of, 40, 41-42, 44, 79-80
recognizing shapes or patterns, 76
remembering location and appearance, 79-80
shape change processes, 81
visualizing from 1D or 2D data, 76-77
Oceanography. See Physical oceanography/oceanographers
Onstar System, 142
Operations. See Spatial operations
Orientation. See Mental rotation;
Spatial orientation
Orton Family Foundation, 291
P
Paleontology/paleontologists, 70-71, 72, 76
Paper folding test, 26, 81
Parallax concept, 60, 62, 64
Patterns, 5, 19, 32, 33
description and analysis, 47, 91, 92, 150
in epidemiology, 13, 14-15, 16
with GIS, 18
noisy background, 76, 78, 86, 92
operations, 40, 41, 76
perceptual learning of, 100
process modeling, 150
random vs. systematic, 40
recognition, 27, 40, 41, 42, 44, 53-54, 68, 76, 78, 82, 86, 96, 100, 276
transformation of, 100
Pennsylvania State University, 290
Period-luminosity diagram, 64, 66
Personal Brain, 286
Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), 111
Personal guidance systems (PGSs), 38-39
Perspective, 3, 12, 26, 27, 28, 31, 44, 47, 98, 100, 102, 118, 123-124, 131, 141, 143, 149, 225, 282.
See also Frames of reference
Petrology/petrologists, 69, 70-71, 82
Philosophy, 101
Photogrammetry, 287, 288
Photoshop, 19, 157, 285
Physical oceanography/oceanographers
conductivity-temperature-depth profiles, 76
seafloor mapping, 56, 76-77
visualization of structures, 76-77, 80
Physical science/physics
achievement of U.S. students, 114
curriculum, 18, 27, 47, 133
education standards, 114, 115, 119, 123, 124, 127-128
spatial concepts, 12, 18
spatial representations, 47, 57, 102
and spatial visualization, 76
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Physical space/environment, 28, 29-30, 31-32, 48, 118, 138, 177, 268, 271-272
Physiographic diagrams, 84, 86, 88
Piedmont Research Institute, 291
Pixel data, 32, 175
Plate tectonics, 86, 100
Point concept, 19
Pollution hazard mapping, 181, 213
Position of objects. See Spatial orientation
Precision data recorders (PDRs), 84
Pressure-temperature space, 82
Primitives, 25, 36-37, 40, 56, 57, 86
Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
content standards, 115
expectations for students, 115, 117-118
and GIS support, 118-119
process standards, 115
science standards linked to, 120-131
spatial thinking and, 115-119
Problem solving, 12, 13, 27-28, 48, 53
age and sex differences, 52
Buddhist monk problem, 283
car safety seat installation, 49-50
in everyday life, 49-52
knock-out tournament problem, 283-284
mathematics standard, 117, 120
representations and, 27, 107, 108, 283-284
in science, 83-88
Production graphics environments, 156, 157, 159, 285
Psychometric testing, 273
Ptolemaic universe, 59, 60, 61
Ptolemy, Claudius, 59
R
Radiologists and radiology, 53, 54, 95, 97, 98
Raster data models, 32, 156, 160, 161, 173, 183, 223
Ratzel, Friedrich, 88
Reading, 50
Reasoning.
See also Drawing inferences;
Problem solving
ascribing meaning from shapes, 72-76
from diagrams, 41, 47, 102, 104, 284
examples, 3, 12-13
from first principles, 75
mathematics standard, 117, 120, 121
problem solving, 121
processes, 28, 29, 40, 44, 45-46
scientific, 44
technology and, 126
Recall. See Memory and recall
Recommendations
GIS, 9-10, 234-235
spatial literacy goals, 7, 232-233
timetable for implementing, 236
Red River High School (North Dakota), 212-213
Relativity theory, 45, 95
Remote-sensing applications and imagery, 32, 42, 113, 149, 156, 158, 162, 183, 200, 285, 288, 290
Representations. See Spatial representations
Ritter, Carl, 88
Rodgers, John, 79
Russell, Henry Norris, 62
Russell Sage Foundation, 112
S
SAGUARO Project, 209
Satellite imaging, 16
Scale and scalar relations, 92.
See also Size
multidimensional, 12, 27, 111
progression, 31
properties, 37
terminal values (bounds), 37
transformation, 27, 149
Schematization, 45, 46
Science.
See also Astrophysical spatialization;
Geoscience
concepts of spatial thinking, 19
forms of thinking in, 12
international comparison of student competencies, 113-114
IT applications, 111
spatial thinking in, 27, 42, 43, 55-56
Seafloor
mapping, 56, 76-78, 83-88
sediment deposition patterns, 81, 84
spreading, 84, 86, 103
Secondary Education Project (SEP), 290
Secretary of Labor Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS), 111-112
Sedimentology/sedimentologists, 69, 72-73, 74, 76, 81, 82
Sex differences
developmental emergence, 277
memory for spatial locations, 277
in navigation, 142
origins of, 277-280
problem solving, 52
in spatial performance, 269, 273, 276-277
Shapes.
See also Size;
Spatial orientation
ascribing meaning to, 72-76, 77
change processes, 81
describing, 69-70
identifying and classifying, 70-72
recognizing, 76
Simple Measure of Gobbledygook (SMOG) statistic, 50
Sims Superstars, 169
69 Cygni, 62
Size
comparison, 42
evaluation, 41, 42, 43, 45, 52, 53, 189
GIS modeling, 169, 170, 171, 172, 175, 225
inferences from, 57-58, 74, 90, 91, 92
scaling, 47, 56, 92
transformation, 44, 149, 169, 170, 171-173, 175, 183-184, 198-199, 225
zooming, 198-199
Small Magellanic Cloud, 64, 66
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Smallworld, 174
Smith, William, 79-80
Snow, John, 13, 14-15, 16
Software. See Educational software;
individual packages
Space
as basis for spatial thinking, 36-40
economic model of, 91-92
examples, 12
forms of thinking about, 25-27
as framework for understanding, 28-33
GIS context, 168
Internet intersection with, 111
for interpreting data, 28
languages of, 37, 40
objective vs. subjective, 27
properties, 12
SPACESTARS program, 209-210
Spatial ability. See Expertise in spatial thinking;
Spatial skills and abilities
Spatial agnosia, 94
Spatial amnesia, 94
Spatial analysis, 88-93, 158-159
Spatial attitude, 27
Spatial cognition, 26, 30, 272
Spatial development
age-linked, 271-272
theoretical approached, 272-273
Spatial knowledge, 18-19, 27
domains, 12
Spatial location, 40, 45
Spatial literacy
components, 16-20
fostering, 3-4, 12, 15-20, 89-90, 105
and problem solving, 49
student characteristics, 4, 20
Spatial operations, 25
ability to perform, 26
analytical, 160
ascribing meaning to shapes, 72-76, 77
cognitive, 5, 12, 230
describing shapes, 69-70
diagrams of, 30, 45, 47, 56, 70, 102
distortions in patterns, 40, 41, 45, 52, 72-73
encoding, 41-48, 281-282
in everyday life, 52
externalization, 28
in geoscience, 68-83
GIS, 18, 40, 158, 162-163, 168, 171, 173, 174, 177, 187, 205, 207, 218
identifying/classifying shapes, 69-72
learning, 49
mental, 43, 46, 101
metaphors, 36
motion of objects through space, 80-81
on nonspatial parameters, 79
opacity-transparency issue, 144
ordering, 52
pattern recognition, 40, 76, 78
position/orientation of objects, 37, 77-79
problem solving, 12
remembering location and appearance, 79-80
research needs, 7, 15, 232
scaling, 37, 40
sensory modality and, 26
shape-changing processes, 79
spatial location and, 40
support systems, 8, 134, 140, 141, 148, 150, 158, 233
time factor, 79-80
transformations, 36, 37-38, 41
visualization, 76-77, 80-81
Spatial orientation, 26, 52.
See also Coordinate systems
changing, 44
describing, 77-79
determining, 42-43
inferring meaning from, 74
of natural objects, 74, 77-79
real-world relative to conceptual coordinate system, 77-79
Spatial perception, 26, 29, 276, 277
Spatial representations, 4, 5, 7, 14, 15, 17, 20, 26, 40, 57.
See also Diagrams in spatial thinking;
Maps/mapping;
Metaphors
animated, 46, 80, 105, 149
classes and forms, 149
color, 16, 52, 80, 104, 105, 141, 143, 149, 169, 170, 171, 180-181
of concepts in space, 30
curriculum, 47-48, 102
decomposition of, 41
digital, 34, 86
dimensionality, 13, 16, 32, 37, 53, 70, 76-77, 102
effectiveness, 46, 80, 103
encoding processes, 41-48
in everyday life, 32, 52
examples, 3, 12, 19, 150
external, 25, 27-28, 46, 102
GIS support, 118-119
imaging technologies, 19
interference with problem solving, 283
internal (mental) forms, 25, 27-28, 41, 102
interpreting, 47-48, 102
and learning and encoding new information, 107, 108, 282-282
limitations of, 104
maps and mapping, 33-34, 36
mathematics, 114, 115, 116, 118-119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 125, 130, 132
and memory performance, 45, 46, 47, 97, 98, 102, 107, 281-283
of movement/motion, 43, 45
for nonspatial parameters, 82
and orientation, 42-43
physiographic diagrams, 84, 86
practice in creating and transforming, 98-100, 101, 108
in problem solving, 27, 107, 108, 283-284
properties of, 41-42
reasoning with, 47, 87-88, 95-96, 104
relations between dynamic entities, 43
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relations between static entities, 42-43
role of, 46
science, 47, 57, 102
sensory modalities, 36, 149
structure of classifications, 40
support system capabilities, 149
systems of, 12
and transfer of learning, 101, 281-284
transformations of, 41, 43-45, 98, 274-275
on 2-D space, 30, 33-34, 37, 70, 121, 169
virtual auditory system, 39
Spatial skills and abilities, 19-20.
See also Spatial development
angular estimations, 78-79
categories, 26
chronological age and, 101, 270, 274-275
defined, 26
differences among learners, 266-268, 269
Euclidean, 70, 77
gender differences, 268, 269
group differences in performance, 267, 268-269
intuition, 75, 77, 84
measurement, 274-275
memory, 80
observational skills, 91
organizational ability, 80, 91, 92
sex differences in performance, 269, 273, 276-280
Spatial structures, 25, 36, 37, 95
analysis, 149, 150
extracting, 47, 102
relationships between, 106-107
Spatial thinking and acting
approaches to, 25-28
catalog of elements, 41
committee position statement, 5-7, 230-232
concepts, 18-19, 26, 40, 29-31, 32, 33, 40
contexts for, 29-31, 32, 33
defined, 33
developmentally appropriate education, 270-273
DNA structure as example of, 1-3
educational challenges, 18-19
in everyday life, 12, 49-52, 93, 94
functions of, 3, 5-7, 33, 36
primitives, 36-37, 40
as problem solving, 27-28
processes, 3, 16, 26, 28, 40-48, 82-83, 93;
see also Spatialization
in science, 14-15, 16-17, 55-93, 94
space as basis for, 3, 36-40
value of studying differences in, 209
at work, 12, 52-55, 93, 94
Spatial visualization.
See also Concept maps/mapping
age and, 97
classroom activities, 121, 124-125, 126
content standards, 123, 125
courses, 210
data management, 13, 16, 30, 32, 34, 76-77, 111
defined, 118
design issues, 46
DNA molecule, 3
effectiveness of, 55
expertise, 76-77, 80-81, 84, 88, 96-97, 103
GIS capacity, 9, 169-171, 176, 214, 217-218, 234
information exploration, 156, 157, 158-159, 169, 171, 185, 286
in mathematics, 114, 117, 118, 120, 123, 156
measurement, 26, 81, 276-277
motion of objects through 3D space, 80-81
multidimensional scaling, 12, 27, 111
negative spaces, 81
nonspatial input, 82, 97
problem solving with, 117, 120-126, 131, 133, 276-277
process, 60-61
and recall skills, 282
Science magazine wards, 103
scientific, 3, 36, 46, 55, 56, 73-77, 80
sex differences, 277
of shape changes, 81
skill development in learners, 79, 122-123
spatialization and, 111
in statistical analysis, 155, 156
support systems, 8, 135, 143, 155, 156, 158-159, 169, 217-218, 233, 286
of 3-D objects from 1-D or 2-D data, 13, 16, 32, 37, 53, 76-77, 78, 79, 131
virtual reality systems, 36
for visually impaired people, 36, 188-189
Spatialization, 25, 41.
See also Astrophysical spatialization
ability, 26, 31
in communications, 116
concept graphing tools, 157
of data, 6, 31-33, 34, 35, 111, 148-149, 156, 157, 168-169, 182
defined, 30, 168
GIS capacity for, 168-169, 176, 182
high-tech support systems, 148, 156-159
and information retrieval, 34
of mapping domains, 111
multidimensional scaling, 111
of nonspatial data, 168-169
in numbers and operations, 116
process, 31-32
software tools, 156, 157
support systems for, 8, 148, 156-159, 168-169, 182, 233
visualization and, 111
Spatialized query user interface, 35
Speech recognition software, 188
Standard candle, 64
Standards. See National Education Standards
State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS), 148, 149, 183
State University of New York–Buffalo, 289
Statistical analyses, 12, 19, 82, 89-90, 91, 92, 117, 141, 149, 155, 156, 159, 175, 183, 190, 205, 273, 285, 288
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Statistical interaction, 279, 280
Struve, Friedrich von, 62
Support systems and tools, 13.
See also Geographic information systems;
other specific systems and software packages
analytical capabilities, 150
appropriateness to student needs, 141, 146, 147, 151
barriers to classroom use, 179
committee position statement, 7-8, 233-234
context considerations, 147
costs of learning, 20
design criteria, 145-147, 218-219
discipline-specific, 19
educational challenges, 7-10, 19-20, 144-145, 233-235
end-means issue, 144
expert users, 141-142
functions of, 140-141, 143
high-tech, 19, 135, 136, 141, 142, 155-165, 179
implementation, 144, 151-152
instruction process, 144
in K-12 context, 150-152
limitations of, 141-145, 146, 157
low-tech, 19, 84-86, 87, 135, 136, 137-140, 141, 142, 150-151, 155
meeting education goals, 145, 147
nature of, 135-140
need for, 147-148
novice users, 144
opacity-transparency issue, 144
operations capabilities, 150
power-limitations issue, 145
representations, 149
requirements of, 148-150, 217-218
rote learning-comprehension issue, 144-145
spatialization of data, 148-149
and transfer of learning, 142, 143, 147, 176, 179-181, 182, 183
transformation capability, 149
visual, 55
visualization of results, 149
Surpac Minex, 156, 285
Surveying, 287, 288
T
T-S diagrams, 82
Teachers
demands on, 200-201, 212
GIS skills, 208, 219
professional development opportunities, 207-208, 222
training issues, 13, 45-46, 189-190, 202, 206-208, 219-220, 291
Teaching spatial thinking, 3-4, 26, 45-46.
See also Educational challenges;
K-12 curriculum
diagrams as aids to, 47-48, 50, 102, 116, 138, 139, 283
examples of using GIS, 11-12, 179-181, 212-213, 237-240
facilitating GIS, 179
formal instruction in spatial ideas, 131
inquiry approach, 133-134, 140, 145
reasoning, 3, 47
reinstatement and generation techniques, 282-283
Technology, 13, 55
barriers to classroom use, 179
collaborative, 192-193
coordinators, 202
mathematics education standard, 119
Technology in Education Research Consortium (ERC), 191, 208, 290
Temperature, 82
Tetris, 100, 105
Texture, 36, 41, 42, 43, 70-71, 72, 84, 169
Tharp, Marie, 48, 56, 76-77, 79, 83-88
ThemeRiver, 157
Thinking.
See also Spatial thinking and acting
forms of, 12
Thought experiments, 95
Time, 40, 55
coordinate, 171
dimension, 56, 57, 59
distance in space as measure of, 81-82
geological, 81-82
leap year, 57
GIS modeling capability, 171
Topology, 36, 113, 171, 173, 272, 287
TouchGraph, 157
Transfer of learning, 52
curriculum infusion and, 5, 6, 101, 105-107, 109, 120, 134, 147, 176, 179-181, 182, 183, 231
direct application theory, 106
domain specificity, 5, 45-46, 99, 100, 105-107, 108, 109, 145, 231
education standards and, 120
far, 100, 105, 106
instruction and, 106-107, 134
mental rotation skills, 101
near, 100, 105
negative, 143
pattern recognition skills, 53, 100
practice and, 95, 99, 101, 105, 107
preparation for future learning, 106
representations and, 101, 281-284
support systems and, 142, 143, 144-145, 147, 176, 179-181, 182, 183
testing for, 106
visualization skills, 100
ways to facilitate, 46, 95, 105-107, 143, 147, 176, 179-181, 182, 183
Transformations, 3, 5, 12, 27, 230
age and skill in, 274-275
in coordinate systems, 149, 173
defined, 149
detecting embedded figures, 44
dimensionality, 40
domain specificity, 100
enacting, 43, 44-45, 47
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geometry standard, 114, 117, 118, 125, 130
GIS, 158-159, 169, 171-173, 174, 177, 218
learning, 102
mathematical and statistical analysis systems, 130, 156
memory and, 46, 100
mental rotation, 18, 26, 27, 31, 40, 43, 44, 47, 52, 83, 98, 99-102, 107, 123, 130, 133, 150, 266, 267, 268, 274, 275, 276-277, 280
novices vs. experts, 47, 108, 274-275
operations, 30, 37-38, 44, 59, 173
ordering, 45
orientation changes, 44, 102
of patterns, 100
perspective changes, 44
practice in, 98, 100, 101, 102, 108, 274-275
processes, 45, 98
properties of, 41
and reasoning, 45
reconfiguring parts, 44
of representations, 41, 43-45, 98, 274-275
in scale, 28, 36, 47, 56, 102
shadow projection task, 274-275
support systems for, 8, 148, 149, 150, 156, 158-159, 169, 171, 173, 174, 177, 218, 233
Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), 113-114
TurboCAD, 285
U
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM), 149, 183
University Consortium for Geographic Information Science (UCGIS), 215, 287
University of Arizona, 291
University of California Santa Barbara, 38, 289
University of Kansas, 289, 292
University of Maine, 289
University of Minnesota, 207
University of Wyoming, 207
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 215
U.S. Department of Education, 113, 201, 220
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 16
U.S. Navstar, 38
U.S. Navy, 84
U.S. State Department, 292
User interfaces, 222, 224, 234
application program interface, 156, 157, 173-174, 177, 184, 188
command-line style, 177
customized, 224
for English language learners, 189-190
GIS, 9, 171, 173, 177, 178, 182, 183-184, 185, 188-189, 191-192, 193, 196-197, 214, 215, 218, 219, 222, 224
nonvisual, 188-189
pictorial, 177, 178
query, 34-35, 173, 175, 196-197
standards, 215
vehicle navigation systems, 143
virtual auditory display, 39
WIMP, 173, 174, 177
wizards, 9, 177, 184, 219
V
Vector data model, 70, 160, 161, 173, 175, 223
Vega, 62
Vegetation mapping and analysis, 180-181, 190
Verbal thinking, 25-26
Video games, 100, 105, 169, 182, 188
Virtual auditory display, 39
Virtual Campus, 291
Virtual Immersion in Science Inquiry for Teachers, 291
Virtual reality systems, 27, 36, 141
Virtual world
access to, 110-111;
see also User interfaces
displays, 39, 111, 141
GIS applications, 171, 188-189, 237, 291
teacher training, 291
for visually impaired learners, 188-189
Visual Basic, 166, 174
Visual browsing query process, 34
Visual exploration systems, 157, 159, 169, 177, 179
Visualization.
See also Spatial visualization
Visualizations in Science and Mathematics (VISM), 291
Visualizing Earth (VisEarth), 290
Visually impaired people, 36, 38-39, 188-189, 218
von Thunen, Johann Heinrich, 88
Vulcan, 156
W
Water quality monitoring, 179, 180, 212-213
Watson, James, 1-3, 55
Wayfinding, 38-39, 94, 142.
See also Navigation
Weber, Alfred, 88
Wegener, Alfred, 72
Wegner, Mark, 49-50
Work force
adequacy of education, 112
cognitive skills, 110-113
GIS applications, 168
international competition, 111-113
IT applications, 111
Workplace
demand for knowledge workers, 110-111
spatial thinking, 12, 52-55
Workplace Investment Act of 1998, 17
World Health Organization (WHO), 16
World Resources Institute (WRI), 291
World Watcher program, 290
Z
Zoologists/zoology, 69
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
education standards
