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Naval Forces' Defense Capabilities Against Chemical and Biological Warfare Threats (2004)

Chapter: Appendix B: Chemical and Biological Agents and Their Effects

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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Chemical and Biological Agents and Their Effects." National Research Council. 2004. Naval Forces' Defense Capabilities Against Chemical and Biological Warfare Threats. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11034.
×

B
Chemical and Biological Agents and Their Effects

The tables in this appendix are reprinted from a previous National Research Council report, Strategies to Protect the Health of Deployed U.S. Forces: Force Protection and Decontamination.1 They provide brief descriptions of both chemical agents (Tables B.1 through B.3) and biological agents (Tables B.4 through B.7), as follows:

1  

National Research Council. 2000. Strategies to Protect the Health of Deployed U.S. Forces: Force Protection and Decontamination, Board on Army Science and Technology, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., Tables 2-5 through 2-11.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Chemical and Biological Agents and Their Effects." National Research Council. 2004. Naval Forces' Defense Capabilities Against Chemical and Biological Warfare Threats. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11034.
×

TABLE B.1 Inhalation/Respiratory Agents

Agent

Mode of Delivery

Effect

Effective Dose (mg-min/m3 except where otherwise noted)

Rate of Action

Phosgene

Vapor

Causes fluid buildup in the lungs that can cause drowning

ICt50 = 1,600

Delayed, although immediate irritation in high concentrations At low concentrations, no effects for three hours or more

Diphosgene

Vapor

Causes fluid buildup in the lungs that can cause drowning

ICt50 = 1,600 (at rest)

Delayed, although immediate irritation in high concentrations At low concentrations, no effects for three hours or more

Tabun

Vapor

Cessation of breath

ICt50 = 300 (at rest)

ECt50 = no existing estimates

ECt50 = no existing

estimates (severe effects)a

ECt50 = 0.9 (mild effects)a

ECt50 = 2-3b

Very rapid

Sarin

Vapor

Incapacitation; cessation of breath

ICt50 = 75 (at rest); 35 (mildly active)

ECt50 = no existing estimates (threshold)a

ECt50 = 35 (severe effects)a

ECt50 = 2 (mild effects)a

ECt50 = 3b

Very rapid

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Chemical and Biological Agents and Their Effects." National Research Council. 2004. Naval Forces' Defense Capabilities Against Chemical and Biological Warfare Threats. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11034.
×

Soman

Vapor

Incapacitation; cessation of breath

ICt50 = 75-300 (at rest)

ECt50 = no existing estimates (threshold)a

ECt50 = 35 (severe effects)a

ECt50 = no existing estimates (mild effects)a

ECt50 = 1-2b

Very rapid

GF

Vapor

Incapacitation; cessation of breath

ECt50 = no existing estimates (threshold)

ECt50 = no existing estimates (severe effects)

ECt50 = no existing estimates (mild effects)

Very rapid

VX

Vapor

Incapacitation; cessation of breath

ICt50 = 50 (at rest);

24 (mildly active)

ECt50 = no existing estimates (threshold)a

ECt50 = 25 (severe effects)a

ECt50 = 0.09 (mild effects)a

ECt50 = 1-2b

Very rapid

Hydrogen cyanide

Vapor

Interferes with the body’s utilization of oxygen; accelerates rate of breathing

ICt50 varies with concentration

ECt50 1,500

Very rapid; incapacitation can occur within 1 to 2 minutes of exposure to an incapacitating or lethal dose, and death can occur within 15 minutes of receiving a lethal dose

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Chemical and Biological Agents and Their Effects." National Research Council. 2004. Naval Forces' Defense Capabilities Against Chemical and Biological Warfare Threats. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11034.
×

Agent

Mode of Delivery

Effect

Effective Dose (mg-min/m3 except where otherwise noted)

Rate of Action

Cyanogen chloride

Vapor

Choking, irritation, slows breathing

ICt50 = 7,000

Very rapid

Arsine

Vapor

Damages blood, liver, and kidneys

ICt50 = 2,500

Effects delayed from 2 hours to 11 days

Distilled mustard

Vapor

Inflammation of the nose, throat, trachea, bronchi, and lungs

ICt50 = 150

ECt50 = no existing

estimates (threshold)a

ECt50 = 200 (moderate temperature, severe effects)a

ECt50 50 (mild effects)a

ECt50 = 10-1,000b

Effects delayed for 4 to 6 hours

Nitrogen mustard

Vapor

Incapacitation

N/Ac

Effects delayed for ~12 hours

Mustard-T mixture

Vapor

Incapacitation

N/Ac

Delayed action not well known

Lewisite

Vapor

Incapacitation

ECt50 = 1,500

Rapid acting

Mustard-lewisite mixture

Vapor

Incapacitation

N/Ac

Rapid acting skin irritation, blisters in 13 hours

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Chemical and Biological Agents and Their Effects." National Research Council. 2004. Naval Forces' Defense Capabilities Against Chemical and Biological Warfare Threats. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11034.
×

Phenyldichloroarsine

Vapor

Incapacitation

N/Ac

Rapid acting

Ethyldichloroarsine

Vapor

Incapacitation

ICt50 = 5-10

Rapid acting nose/throat irritation, blisters in 12 hours

Methyl-dichloroarsine

Vapor

Incapacitation

ICt50 = 25

Rapid acting nose/throat irritation, blisters in several hours

Phosgene oxime

Vapor

Coughing, choking, chest tightness on exposure; possible cyanosis following pulmonary edema

ICt50 = unknown; lowest irritant concentration after a 10-second exposure is 1 mg/m3; effects of the agent become unbearable after 1 minute at 3 mg/m3

Rapid acting

 

aNATO, 1996; NRC, 1997.

bAli et al., 1997.

cExposure via this route is unlikely; no information was found.

SOURCES: Boyle, 1998; U.S. Army, 1995; Army et al., 1990.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Chemical and Biological Agents and Their Effects." National Research Council. 2004. Naval Forces' Defense Capabilities Against Chemical and Biological Warfare Threats. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11034.
×

TABLE B.2 Dermal Absorption Agents

Agent

Mode of Delivery

Effect

Effective Dose (mg-min/m3except where otherwise noted)

Rate of Action

Tabun (GA)

Liquid; vapor

N/Aa

ED50 = no existing estimates

Very rapid

Sarin (GB)

Liquid

N/Aa

ED50 = no existing estimates

Very rapid; may be lethal within 15 minutes after absorption

Soman (GD)

Liquid

N/Aa

ED50 = no existing estimates

Very rapid; may be lethal within 15 minutes after absorption

GF

Liquid

N/Aa

ED50 = no existing estimates

Very rapid

VX

Liquid

N/Aa

ED50 = 5 mg/70-kg manb

ED50 = 1 mgc

Very rapid; may be lethal within 15 minutes after absorption

Distilled mustard

Liquid

Inflammation of the nose, throat, trachea, bronchi, and lungs

ID50 = 2,000 by skin; 200 by eye

ED50 = no existing estimatesb

ED50 = 10 Tgc

Effects delayed for 4 to 6 hours

Nitrogen mustard

Liquid

Incapacitation

ID50 = 200 by eye; 9,000 by skin

Effects delayed for ~12 hours

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Chemical and Biological Agents and Their Effects." National Research Council. 2004. Naval Forces' Defense Capabilities Against Chemical and Biological Warfare Threats. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11034.
×

Mustard-T mixture

Liquid

Incapacitation

ID50 = very low

Delayed action not well known

Lewisite

Liquid

Incapacitation

ID50 = less than 300 by eye; more than 1,500 by skin

ED50 = 15 Tg

Rapid acting

Mustard-lewisite mixture

Liquid

Incapacitation

ID50 = 200 by eye;

1,500-2,000 by skin

Rapid acting skin irritation; blisters in 13 hours

Phenyldichloroarsine

Liquid

Incapacitation

ID50 = 16 as vomiting agent;

1,800 as blister

Rapid acting

Ethyldichloroarsine

Liquid

Incapacitation

N/Aa

Rapid acting nose/throat irritation; blisters in 12 hours

Methyldichloroarsine

Liquid

Incapacitation

N/Aa

Rapid acting nose/throat irritation; blisters in several hours

aUnlikely exposure via this route; no information found.

bAli et al., 1997.

cNRC, 1997.

SOURCES: Boyle, 1998; NATO, 1996; U.S. Army, 1995; U.S. Army et al., 1990.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Chemical and Biological Agents and Their Effects." National Research Council. 2004. Naval Forces' Defense Capabilities Against Chemical and Biological Warfare Threats. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11034.
×

TABLE B.3 Dermal Necrotic Agents

Agent

Mode of Delivery

Effect

Effective Dose

Rate of Action

Distilled mustard

Liquid

Incapacitation

ID50 = 2,000 by skin; 200 by eye

ED50 = no existing estimatesa

ED50 = 10 μgb

Effects delayed for 4 to 6 hours

Nitrogen mustard

Liquid

Incapacitation

ID50 = 200 by eye; 9,000 by skin

Effects delayed for ~12 hours

Mustard-T mixture

Liquid

Incapacitation

ID50 = very low

Delayed action not well known

Mustard-lewisite mixture

Liquid

Incapacitation

ID50 = 200 by eye; 1,500-2,000 by skin

Rapid acting skin irritation; blisters in 13 hours

aNATO, 1996; NRC, 1997.

bAli et al., 1997.

SOURCES: Boyle, 1998; U.S. Army, 1995; U.S. Army et al., 1990.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Chemical and Biological Agents and Their Effects." National Research Council. 2004. Naval Forces' Defense Capabilities Against Chemical and Biological Warfare Threats. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11034.
×

TABLE B.4 Inhalation/Respiratory Agents

Agent

Mode of Delivery

Effect

Effective Dose

Onset Time (days)

Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis)

Aerosol

75% morbidity; 80% mortality

8,000-50,000 spores

1-5

Plague (Yersinia pestis)

Aerosol

 

100-500 organisms

2-3

Tularemia (Francisella tularensis)

Aerosol

80% morbidity; 35% mortality

10-50 organisms

2-3

Q fever (Coxiella burneti)

Aerosol

70% morbidity; <1% mortality

1-10 organisms

14-21

Smallpox

Aerosol

30-35% mortality

10-100 organisms

12

Venezuelan equine encephalitis

Aerosol

90% morbidity; <5% mortality

10-100 organisms

1-5

Dysentery (Shigella dysenteriae)

Aerosol

25% mortality

10-100 organisms

1-7

Cholera (Vibrio comma)

Aerosol

15-90% mortality

1,000,000 organisms

1-5

Brucellolis (Brucella suis)

Aerosol

2% fatality

10-100 organisms

5-21

 

SOURCES: Ali et al., 1997; Boyle, 1998; U.S. Air Force, 1997; U.S. Army et al., 1990.

TABLE B.5 Ingestion Agents

Agent

Mode of Delivery

Effect

Effective Dose

Onset Time (days)

Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis)

Ingestion

75% morbidity; 80% mortality

1,000 spores

1-7

Cholera (Vibrio comma)

Ingestion

15-90% mortality

>107organisms

1-5

Dysentery (Shigella dysenteriae)

Ingestion

25% mortality

10-100 organisms

1-7

Q Fever (Coxiella burneti)

Ingestion

70% morbidity; <1% mortality

1-10 organisms

14-21

Tularemia (Francisella tularensis)

Ingestion

80% morbidity; 35% mortality rate

N/Aa

2-3

aInformation, if known, was not readily available during the course of the study.

SOURCES: Ali et al., 1997; Boyle, 1998; U.S. Air Force, 1997; U.S. Army et al., 1990.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Chemical and Biological Agents and Their Effects." National Research Council. 2004. Naval Forces' Defense Capabilities Against Chemical and Biological Warfare Threats. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11034.
×

TABLE B.6 Agents Absorbed via Mucous Membranes or the Skin

Agent

Mode of Delivery

Effect

Effective Dose

Onset Time

Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis)

Direct contact with contaminated material

25% mortality

N/Aa

N/Aa

Tularemia (Francisella tularensis)

Inoculation of skin or mucous membranes with blood or tissue fluids of infected animals

80% morbidity;

35% mortality rate

10-50 organisms

N/Aa

Brucellosis (Brucella suis)

Through abraded and possibly intact skin

N/Aa

N/Aa

N/Aa

Ebola/Marburg

Through abrasion or via conjunctiva; possibly direct contact with blood or other tissues

N/Aa

N/Aa

N/Aa

Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever

Direct contact with animal or human tissues and blood

N/Aa

N/Aa

N/Aa

aInformation, if known, was not readily available during the course of the study.

SOURCES: Ali et al., 1997; Boyle, 1998; Johnson, 1990; LeDuc, 1989; Johnson, 1990; Mikolich and Boyce, 1990; U.S. Air Force, 1 997; U.S. Army, 1990.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Chemical and Biological Agents and Their Effects." National Research Council. 2004. Naval Forces' Defense Capabilities Against Chemical and Biological Warfare Threats. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11034.
×

TABLE B.7 Arthropod Vectors

Agent

Mode of Delivery

Effect

Effective Dose

Onset Time (days)

Plague (Yersinia pestis)

Fleas

25-100% mortality

1-103 organisms

2-7

Tularemia (Francisella tularensis)

Bites of infected deerflies, mosquitoes, or ticks

80% morbidity;

35% mortality

1-103 organisms

1-10

Rocky Mountain spotted

fever (Rickettsia rickettsi)

Ticks

7-20% fatal

N/Aa

3-10

Yellow fever

Ticks

<5% mortality

N/Aa

3-6

Rift Valley fever

Mosquitoes

<1% mortality

N/Aa

3-12

Venezuelan equine encephalitis

Variety of mosquitoes

90% morbidity;

<5% mortality

1-103 organisms

4-20

Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever

Ticks

N/Aa

N/Aa

N/Aa

aInformation, if known, was not readily available during the course of the study.

SOURCES: Ali et al., 1997; Boyle, 1998; LeDuc, 1989; U.S. Air Force, 1997; U.S. Army et al., 1990.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Chemical and Biological Agents and Their Effects." National Research Council. 2004. Naval Forces' Defense Capabilities Against Chemical and Biological Warfare Threats. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11034.
×

REFERENCES

Ali, J., L. Rodrigues, and M. Moodie. 1997. U.S. Chemical-Biological Defense Guidebook. Alexandria, Va.: Jane’s Information Group.


Boyle, R.E. 1998. U.S. Chemical Warfare: A Historical Perspective. LG-1597. Albuquerque, N.Mex.: Sandia National Laboratories.


Johnson, K.M. 1990. “Marburg and Ebola Viruses.” In Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 3rd Ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone, pp. 1303-1306.


LeDuc, J.W. 1989. “Epidemiology of Hemorrhagic Fever Viruses.” Reviews of Infectious Diseases 11(Supp.4): S730-S725.


Mikolich, D.J., and J.M. Boyce. 1990. “Brucella Species.” In Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 3rd Ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone, pp. 1735-1742.


NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization). 1996. NATO Handbook on the Medical Aspects of NBC Defense Operations. Part III. Chemical. AMed P-6(B). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

NRC (National Research Council). 1997. Review of Acute Human-Toxicity Estimate for Selected Chemical-Warfare Agents . Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.


U.S. Air Force. 1997. USAF Operations in a Chemical and Biological (CB) Warfare Environment, CB Hazards. Air Force Handbook 32-4014, Vol. 2. Washington, D.C.: Department of the Air Force.

U.S. Army. 1995. Medical Management of Chemical Casualties Handbook. Aberdeen Proving Ground, Md.: Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, Chemical Casualty Care Office.

U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, and U.S. Air Force. 1990. Potential Military Chemical/Biological Agents and Compounds. Army Field Manual 3-9, Navy Publication P-467, and Air Force Manual 355-7. Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army/Department of the Navy/Department of the Air Force.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Chemical and Biological Agents and Their Effects." National Research Council. 2004. Naval Forces' Defense Capabilities Against Chemical and Biological Warfare Threats. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11034.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Chemical and Biological Agents and Their Effects." National Research Council. 2004. Naval Forces' Defense Capabilities Against Chemical and Biological Warfare Threats. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11034.
×
Page 150
Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Chemical and Biological Agents and Their Effects." National Research Council. 2004. Naval Forces' Defense Capabilities Against Chemical and Biological Warfare Threats. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11034.
×
Page 151
Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Chemical and Biological Agents and Their Effects." National Research Council. 2004. Naval Forces' Defense Capabilities Against Chemical and Biological Warfare Threats. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11034.
×
Page 152
Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Chemical and Biological Agents and Their Effects." National Research Council. 2004. Naval Forces' Defense Capabilities Against Chemical and Biological Warfare Threats. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11034.
×
Page 153
Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Chemical and Biological Agents and Their Effects." National Research Council. 2004. Naval Forces' Defense Capabilities Against Chemical and Biological Warfare Threats. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11034.
×
Page 154
Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Chemical and Biological Agents and Their Effects." National Research Council. 2004. Naval Forces' Defense Capabilities Against Chemical and Biological Warfare Threats. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11034.
×
Page 155
Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Chemical and Biological Agents and Their Effects." National Research Council. 2004. Naval Forces' Defense Capabilities Against Chemical and Biological Warfare Threats. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11034.
×
Page 156
Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Chemical and Biological Agents and Their Effects." National Research Council. 2004. Naval Forces' Defense Capabilities Against Chemical and Biological Warfare Threats. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11034.
×
Page 157
Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Chemical and Biological Agents and Their Effects." National Research Council. 2004. Naval Forces' Defense Capabilities Against Chemical and Biological Warfare Threats. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11034.
×
Page 158
Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Chemical and Biological Agents and Their Effects." National Research Council. 2004. Naval Forces' Defense Capabilities Against Chemical and Biological Warfare Threats. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11034.
×
Page 159
Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Chemical and Biological Agents and Their Effects." National Research Council. 2004. Naval Forces' Defense Capabilities Against Chemical and Biological Warfare Threats. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11034.
×
Page 160
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U.S. naval forces must be prepared to respond to a broad array of threats. Of increasing importance are those from chemical and biological warfare (CW and BW). To help review its current state of preparedness, the Chief of Naval Operations asked the National Research Council (NRC) to assess the U.S. Navy’s defense capabilities against CW and BW threats. In particular to what extent are they being developed to enable naval forces to sense and analyze quickly the presence of chemical and biological agents, withstand or avoid exposure to such agents, deal with contamination under a broad spectrum of operational conditions, and over what period will these capabilities be realized. This report presents the results of that assessment. It provides an overview of the potential threats, and an evaluation of the Navy’s operations, non-medical programs, and medical countermeasures designed to confront those threats. The report also presents a series of general and specific findings and recommendations based on these assessments.

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