|
Items in cart [0] |
Questions? Call 888-624-8373 |
| Copyright © 2009. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Terms of Use and Privacy Statement |
Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole.
Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter.
Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines.
OCR for page 65
Growing Up Global: The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries
PART II
Preparation for Adult Roles
OCR for page 66
Growing Up Global: The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries
This page intentionally left blank.
OCR for page 67
Growing Up Global: The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries
3
Schooling
INTRODUCTION
Learning occurs more intensely during childhood and adolescence than during other phases of the life cycle in all domains, whether it is the development of physical or cognitive skills or the acquisition of knowledge and the shaping of values and beliefs. This is not just because of the obvious fact that growth always appears more rapid when starting from a lower base. During these same years, physical and intellectual capacities are growing rapidly, allowing for the more rapid acquisition of skills and accumulation of knowledge than at other phases of the life cycle. Interventions affecting the timing and sequencing of learning and the quality of the learning environment during these years can have important implications for the development of adult productive capacities. Investments in learning in these earlier stages of the life cycle tend to yield relatively high returns in comparison to learning later in life, because there are expected to be more decades of subsequent adulthood for returns to be obtained. Failure to invest at this stage is extremely unlikely to be compensated for in any later stage.
For all these reasons, this phase of the life cycle has typically been associated with a focus on learning. This learning can take many forms, ranging from learning by doing and imitating around the household and in family economic activities, to learning in the labor market or in military service, to formal training and schooling. Education is a central aspect of preparation for the multiple aspects of the transition to adulthood and indeed interacts with and affects each of them.
OCR for page 68
Growing Up Global: The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries
This chapter explores the process of becoming an educated adult during the second decade of life and beyond in the context of rapid global change. This process involves the acquisition of relevant capacities, including cognitive competencies, marketable skills, social capital, and complementary values and motivations, that enable individuals to function effectively in a range of adult roles, including worker, household provider, parent, spouse, family caretaker, citizen, and community participant. While education is not synonymous with going to school, the formal schooling system has become the preeminent institution worldwide dedicated to the education of young people. As a result, it is a place in which a growing percentage of young people spend significant amounts of their time. In major part, this is because the rapid changes that are discussed in Chapters 1 and 2 have substantially increased the benefits from both a more intensive as well as an extended period of learning at this stage of the life cycle. Indeed, schools are widely seen to be institutions in which young people can best develop their capacity for lifelong learning and thus are critical institutions in creating the enabling conditions for successful transitions to adulthood.
The strong link between schooling levels and subsequent earnings is well documented in the empirical literature (e.g., Knight and Sabot, 1990; Krueger and Lindahl, 2001; Psacharopoulos, 1994), as is the link between schooling levels, particularly for females, and various nonmarket or social outcomes, such as subsequent fertility and child health and educational outcomes (e.g., National Research Council, 1999; Jejeebhoy, 1995; Knowles and Behrman, 2005; Schultz, 2002; Summers, 1994; World Bank, 2001). In some parts of the developing world, however, the opportunities that education opens up for girls in the marriage market may be even more salient for parents making decisions about their girls’ schooling (see Chapter 7 for further discussion of the links between schooling and various aspects of marriage). While many of these studies characterize static relations between schooling and various outcomes, a subset of studies provides evidence of a causal effect of schooling on the capacity to deal with change in markets and technologies, a capacity that is likely to be of increasing importance given the acceleration of change that motivates this report (e.g., Rosenzweig, 1995; Schultz, 1975; Welch, 1970). The quantity and quality of schooling experienced by today’s young people in developing countries will have important effects on them as well as on future economic growth and development and on trends in inequality and poverty.
The chapter begins with a review of the basic facts and figures with respect to changes in schooling participation, attainment, and academic performance. We then explore some of the forces that have led to these changes, not only factors affecting demand for schooling, but also facts about some of the critical features of school systems, including recent re-
OCR for page 69
Growing Up Global: The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries
form efforts. Throughout these discussions, we recognize that changes in the quantity and quality of schooling provided are to an important extent a response to increased demand for schooling on the part of young people and their families. Both increases in demands for schooling and various proposals for school reform have emerged in response to the global changes, including changes in policies and programs outside the educational sphere, described in Chapters 1 and 2. The chapter also reviews the evidence about the effectiveness of existing educational policies and programs in improving the schooling environment and achieving various educational goals. The chapter ends with a summary of key findings, policy recommendations, and research questions.
WHAT ROLES DO SCHOOLS PLAY?
In traditional and slowly changing societies, the acquisition of productive capacities or human capital was largely taken up in the family or kin group through informal on-the-job apprenticeships, which taught agricultural techniques or various traditional trades. Over the course of economic development, with the growth of the monetized economy and the shift in the occupational structure from agriculture to industry to services, the inputs required to develop productive skills have shifted. These changes have led to a growing demand in the job market for literacy and numeracy—skills more efficiently provided in a formal classroom setting with specially trained teachers—as well as for the broader knowledge base and reasoning and problem-solving skills that are acquired in school. In response to these worldwide changes, mass formal schooling has become a global institution with commonly recognized features in all countries of the world (Meyer, 1992). These include courses in reading, mathematics, language, history or social studies, and science. While formal schools occasionally include religious education and religious groups sometimes run formal schools,1 we do not include in our definition of formal schools those schools that are solely dedicated to providing a religious education to the exclusion of other subjects.2 The gains from extended formal schooling, as noted, are expected to
1
In Egypt, there is a separate government ministry that is responsible for religious schools, but these schools are required to include all elements of the formal school curriculum in addition to religious instruction, and we would therefore include them as part of the formal schooling system. In a nationally representative survey of youth in Egypt fielded in 1997, it was found that 6 percent of all students attending formal schools attend school supervised by Al-Azhar (el-Tawila et al., 1999).
2
In some cases these religious schools complement other forms of schooling and children attend both, but, in other cases, children attend religious schools exclusively and are therefore not exposed to the formal school curriculum.
OCR for page 70
Growing Up Global: The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries
increase with the more rapid changes that are being experienced by young people today.
The acquisition of human capital is only one of several types of capital potentially acquired in school. Social capital, defined as “the ability of actors to secure benefits by virtue of membership in social networks or other social structures” (Portes, 1998), can be acquired in school through the formation of peer networks, parents’ networks, or student-teacher networks.3 An additional domain of learning important to our subject is the acquisition of values or “cultural capital” (a termed coined by Bourdieu, 1985, as cited in Portes, 1998) that enhances an individual’s effectiveness in the culture, in the community, and in the workplace. In a modernizing society, formal schooling, particularly Western-style schooling, provides a major counterpoint to the family in the socialization of the young. One important example concerns gender. While boys and girls are mostly taught the same curriculum when it comes to academic subjects, the process of socialization that occurs in the schoolyard and the classroom is often quite different for boys and girls, as are some of the traditional nonacademic subjects, such as home economics and agriculture, that are still provided in some school systems on a sex-segregated basis. In traditional societies, gender role socialization occurred primarily in the home and the community. The school, through the authority of the teacher, also has enormous potential to influence the values, expectations, and behaviors of boys and girls with respect to gender roles in the family as well as the workplace, either by reinforcing traditional roles or by sharing in the classroom changing international norms regarding human rights and gender equality.4 Therefore, the role of schools in the socialization of the young is another factor to consider in the progress of children in school and their transition to adulthood.
A final aspect of formal schooling relates to becoming a citizen and a community participant and is treated more fully in Chapter 6. Effective citizenship at the community, national, and global levels requires a broad knowledge of the world and the acceptance of certain common values. As articulated by the Convention on the Rights of the Child, these include respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, respect for local cul-
3
School attendance, by taking children away from an exclusive reliance on family networks, may result in a decline in some types of social capital at the same time that it may provide access to other sources of social capital.
4
Other important examples include attitudes about roles, potentialities, and interactions with other members of society who may differ in respects other than gender—race, ethnicity, class, caste, clan, or tribe—and their value as individuals independent of these differences in background.
OCR for page 71
Growing Up Global: The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries
ture and language, respect for the natural environment, and the acquisition of a spirit of understanding, peace, tolerance, and gender equality (United Nations, 1989). Most national governments and educational ministries typically include at least some aspects of citizenship training in their educational curricula.
The universal desire of governments to control the education of children and youth through the provision of public formal schooling can be largely explained by the need perceived by all governments to shape citizens’ values and beliefs in ways that are consonant with prevailing culture, predominant religious beliefs, and national political ideology. A recent assessment of the centralized public school curriculum in Pakistan, for example, has concluded that “an overemphasis on Islamic interpretations in the government-prescribed syllabus has distorted historical data, nurtured intolerance for other religions and confined the scope of the physical and social sciences” (International Crisis Group, 2004).
In recent years, there has been a growing concern that nonformal religious schools, in particular Islamic schools, are capturing a growing share of school enrollment in parts of the Muslim world. The panel, however, could not find any solid evidence that this is indeed the case. Nonetheless, we did have access to recent nationally representative data from Pakistan from a survey of youth fielded in 2001-2002 that shows that 3.2 percent of young men ages 15-19 and 1.7 percent of young women of the same age had ever attended religious schools; less than 0.05 percent of young people attended religious schools exclusively.5
TRENDS AND PATTERNS OF SCHOOLING PARTICIPATION AND ATTAINMENT
The panel used data from a number of recent nationally representative household surveys—particularly Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS)—to describe various important aspects of formal schooling in this chapter. For most topics, we use these data in preference to United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) data because they permit the exploration of differentials in formal school participation and attainment by household background characteristics and because they permit the derivation of trends over the last two decades on a consistent basis across countries. A full discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of alternative sources of data on schooling and the reasons for our choice of data sources can be found in Appendix A. Appendix tables to this chapter pro-
5
Tabulations from Adolescents and Youth in Pakistan, 2001-2002 Survey data.
OCR for page 72
Growing Up Global: The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries
vide country by country data to complement the tables in the text that are based on regional and country income groups.
Current Patterns of School Participation
Table 3-1 presents aggregate country-level data on patterns of current school attendance6 by age according to regional and income grouping (see definitions in Appendix A) based on all DHS data from the 1990s. Data for China and India are presented separately in Table 3-2. Data for these two countries, representing the education experience of two-fifths of all young people in the developing world, are not available for the full range of ages presented in Table 3-1, but are available for two recent points in time, revealing very recent changes for these two important countries.
On average, the estimates presented in Table 3-1 suggest that roughly three-quarters of 10-14-year-olds, who are in the early phase of their transitions to adulthood, are attending school. This is probably a reasonable estimate of attendance rates for all developing countries, since India and China, with roughly equal numbers of young people in these ages, would exert countervailing and roughly balancing influences on the average if included (see Table 3-2). Attendance rates in low-income countries are about 16 to 18 percentage points lower than in the upper middle-income group. The gender gap in attendance rates among younger adolescents is also slightly larger in the lower income countries (6 versus 4 percentage points). Attendance rates for the 10-14 age group fall below 75 percent for boys and girls in sub-Saharan Africa and for girls in the Middle East. Gender equality in attendance rates during the early adolescent years has essentially been achieved in China, the former Soviet Asia, and Central and South America. The distribution of this attendance between primary and secondary school for this age group varies substantially across regions. This is partly a result of differences in the age at entry and the duration of the primary school cycle, but it is also affected by variation in progression rates from primary to secondary school across countries. Over 50 percent of 10-14-year-old students are attending secondary school in Asia, but no more than 3 percent are in Eastern and Southern Africa (data not shown).
In the later teenage years, attendance rates fall off substantially, gender gaps widen, and regional differences become more pronounced. Roughly 50 percent of boys and 41 percent of girls in the 15-19 age group are attending school in the countries represented in Table 3-1. Boys have higher
6
We use the term “attendance” to refer to those who are reported by their household to be currently attending school, whereas we use the term “enrollment” to refer to officially reported opening day enrollment. For further discussion see Appendix A.
OCR for page 73
Growing Up Global: The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries
TABLE 3-1 Percentage Currently Attending School, DHS Countries
Region or Income Level
Weighteda Averages
Ages 10-14
Ages 15-19
Ages 20-24
Boys
Girls
Boys
Girls
Boys
Girls
Region
Africa
Eastern/Southern Africa
74.1
70.6
52.2
39.4
16.4
9.1
Western/Middle Africa
66.1
57.6
48.1
34.3
24.2
12.2
Asiab
South-central/South-eastern Asiac
81.0
76.0
47.1
37.3
16.9
9.8
Former Soviet Asiad
98.4
98.9
56.1
54.4
13.2
11.7
Latin America and Caribbean
Caribbean/Central America
80.0
77.8
50.9
44.2
21.3
16.5
South America
92.9
93.1
60.5
61.7
22.0
23.8
Middle East
Western Asia/Northern Africa
81.0
67.6
47.7
37.4
17.5
10.3
Income Levele
Low
75.3
69.2
46.4
34.0
17.5
8.8
Lower middle
86.6
84.1
57.4
54.0
20.1
16.5
Upper middle
91.4
87.2
59.6
58.1
22.1
22.1
TOTAL—All DHS
79.8
74.6
50.4
41.2
18.7
12.2
aWeighting is based on United Nations population estimates for year 2000 (World Population Prospects: The 2000 Revision).
bEastern Asia not included; no DHS available.
cIndia’s DHS does not include current enrollment data for 18-24-year-olds and has been removed from this table.
dFormer Soviet Asia includes former Soviet Republics in South-central and Western Asia.
eWorld Bank income classifications, World Bank (2002b).
NOTE: See Appendix Table 3-1 for the data from each country.
attendance rates than girls in all regions except South America. While over 50 percent of 15-19-year-olds are attending school in middle-income countries, this is not the case for the low-income countries. Among those who are attending school, over 70 percent of 15-19-year-old students are currently attending secondary school (data not shown). However, in Eastern and Southern Africa, where children get a late start in school and many primary school cycles are more than six years, no more than 31 percent of male students and 38 percent of female students ages 15-19 are enrolled in secondary school (data not shown).
OCR for page 74
Growing Up Global: The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries
TABLE 3-2 Recent Trends in School Attendance in India and China
Sex and Age
China
India
1989
1997
% Growth
1992
1999
% Growth
Boys 12-13
93
96
3.2
76
81
6.2
Girls 12-13
92
96
4.3
56
67
19.6
Boys 14-15
77
85
10.4
35
69
74.3
Girls 14-15
69
84
21.7
23
52
126.1
Boys 16-17
38
65
71.1
n.a.a
54
n.a.a
Girls 16-17
31
59
90.3
n.a.a
37
n.a.a
aInformation on attendance was not asked of those over the age of 15 in 1992 survey.
NOTE: n.a. = not available
SOURCES: Hannum and Liu (2005); DHS data.
In some parts of the developing world, a substantial minority of young people ages 20-24 are still in school—over 20 percent of young men and women in South America and of young men in Western and Middle Africa and in the Caribbean and Central America. For boys at this age, the differences in attendance rates between low and upper middle-income countries are not large (18 versus 22 percent), whereas for girls the gap is much larger (9 versus 22 percent). The reasons for these patterns vary substantially. In some cases, grade attainment is high, leading to continuing school attendance at later ages; in other cases, lower grade attainment combined with late ages of entry and repetition have led to similar patterns of attendance by age despite poorer grade attainment (see further discussion of schooling beyond the secondary level below).
In Table 3-2, we compare recent changes in attendance by age in India and China. China has made impressive progress in extending school participation later into the adolescent years. The gender gap in attendance that had begun to emerge at the age of 14 in the late 1980s has almost been eliminated in the 14-15 age group and is now apparent only to a small degree among 16-17-year-olds who have showed extraordinary growth in school participation over the past 8 years. By ages 16-17, 59 percent of girls and 65 percent of boys are still attending school. India has also seen exceptional growth in school participation during the same period, particularly among the 14-15-year-olds. While the absolute gender gap in attendance rates has widened at this age, the percentage growth for girls exceeds that for boys because girls’ attendance rates started from a much lower base.
OCR for page 75
Growing Up Global: The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries
Differentials in Attendance by Wealth and Residence and Other Characteristics
Globalization is sometimes claimed to benefit most those who are relatively better off. Thus, it is interesting to look separately at current enrollment patterns among the most privileged in each country. We can do that by using the wealth index developed by Filmer and Pritchett (1999) especially for use with DHS data. It is based on a common set of indicators capturing the ownership of a set of consumer durables (e.g., radio, bike, car) as well as various indicators of quality of housing, including the availability of piped water, electricity, and finished flooring. Table 3-3 mirrors Table 3-1, but includes only those in the top 20 percent of the wealth
TABLE 3-3 Percentage Currently Attending School, Wealthiest 20 Percent of Households, DHS Countries
Region or Income Level
Weighteda Averages
Ages 10-14
Ages 15-19
Ages 20-24
Boys
Girls
Boys
Girls
Boys
Girls
Region
Africa
Eastern/Southern Africa
88.6
84.8
60.9
49.4
21.2
12.7
Western/Middle Africa
86.7
80.0
67.4
53.7
40.2
26.8
Asia
South-central/South-eastern Asiab
90.7
88.3
67.3
58.1
31.7
20.3
Former Soviet Asia
98.6
98.9
64.0
63.6
24.8
22.1
Latin America and Caribbean
Caribbean/Central America
96.3
92.6
81.0
74.0
50.0
43.1
South America
98.1
97.0
73.2
72.8
31.9
36.9
Middle East
Western Asia/Northern Africa
93.5
88.9
61.8
60.3
27.7
20.4
Income Level
Low
88.8
85.0
64.4
53.8
31.3
19.9
Lower middle
96.6
93.6
74.5
66.8
32.9
26.9
Upper middle
96.6
95.5
67.8
70.8
27.4
30.8
TOTAL—All DHS
91.4
88.1
66.7
58.7
31.0
22.8
aWeighting is based on United Nations population estimates for year 2000 (World Population Prospects: The 2000 Revision).
bIndia’s DHS does not include current enrollment data for 18-24-year-olds and has been removed from this table.
NOTES: For source of regional and income groupings and population data for weighted averages, see Table 3-1. Further detail can be found in Appendix A. See Appendix Table 3-2 for the data from each country.
OCR for page 157
Growing Up Global: The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries
Girls
Ages 10-14
Ages 15-19
Urban
Rural
Index Inequality
Urban
Rural
Index Inequality
99.5
98.6
1.0
73.4
54.9
25.2
70.4
77.9
−10.6
39.4
32.9
16.7
45.3
21.5
52.5
24.8
8.2
67.0
95.6
81.7
14.6
75.0
32.4
56.9
95.7
88.5
7.5
68.0
49.0
27.9
62.5
14.0
77.6
34.1
1.4
95.8
87.4
70.7
19.0
53.3
25.1
52.9
69.8
33.0
52.7
33.3
7.6
77.2
52.3
22.9
56.3
31.8
6.4
79.9
93.9
81.9
12.8
57.0
35.0
38.5
67.3
56.3
16.3
63.4
40.5
36.2
53.7
41.8
22.1
28.3
7.3
74.4
96.2
93.6
2.7
69.2
52.6
24.0
92.0
75.2
18.3
65.1
40.1
38.5
78.4
28.4
63.8
58.8
17.1
70.9
86.2
76.9
10.8
41.1
35.6
13.5
81.0
70.0
13.6
46.4
25.9
44.1
48.3
14.2
70.6
26.9
4.6
83.0
83.4
75.2
9.9
71.9
58.6
18.5
93.1
86.3
7.3
60.1
33.5
44.2
96.9
95.1
1.8
72.1
65.1
9.7
99.6
98.7
0.9
80.3
73.9
8.0
86.5
91.4
−5.6
29.6
55.6
−88.3
OCR for page 158
Growing Up Global: The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries
Country
Survey Date
Boys
Ages 10-14
Ages 15-19
Urban
Rural
Inequality Index
Urban
Rural
Inequality Index
Kyrgyz Republic
1997
98.5
96.9
1.6
60.7
47.8
21.3
Madagascar
1997
78.1
53.3
31.8
45.6
12.8
71.9
Malawi
2000
94.8
82.1
13.4
72.7
62.8
13.7
Mali
2001
71.8
37.6
47.6
58.2
16.5
71.7
Morocco
1992
84.6
42.9
49.3
53.6
16.3
69.6
Mozambique
1997
84.5
67.7
19.9
55.7
40.8
26.8
Namibia
1992
96.4
90.1
6.5
78.2
76.2
2.6
Nepal
2001
90.4
82.7
8.5
61.4
49.7
19.1
Nicaragua
1997
86.0
66.4
22.8
59.3
25.0
57.8
Niger
1998
65.7
23.0
64.9
37.3
3.9
89.5
Nigeria
1999
82.2
71.2
13.3
72.6
56.2
22.6
Pakistan
1990-1991
79.2
64.9
18.0
48.9
42.0
14.0
Peru
2000
97.0
93.3
3.8
66.7
55.4
16.9
Philippines
1998
92.4
83.9
9.2
65.6
51.4
21.6
Rwanda
2000
46.7
41.0
12.2
17.6
11.3
35.4
Senegal
1992-1993
69.5
27.0
61.2
41.3
13.7
66.9
South Africa
1998-2000
97.9
95.5
2.5
82.8
86.8
−4.9
Togo
1998
94.2
80.9
14.1
75.3
61.0
19.0
Turkey
1998
86.7
73.4
15.4
41.5
27.9
32.9
Uganda
2000-2001
89.7
91.5
−1.9
65.6
66.2
−0.9
United Republic of Tanzania
1999
81.2
66.5
18.1
26.8
31.2
−16.7
Uzbekistan
1996
97.5
98.9
−1.5
42.1
44.5
−5.9
Vietnam
1997
93.0
90.0
3.3
54.1
41.5
23.2
Zambia
1996-1997
87.0
69.7
19.9
60.8
46.1
24.2
Zimbabwe
1999
97.4
91.9
5.6
59.3
57.6
2.8
OCR for page 159
Growing Up Global: The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries
Girls
Ages 10-14
Ages 15-19
Urban
Rural
Inequality Index
Urban
Rural
Inequality Index
99.0
97.1
1.8
67.7
47.7
29.5
76.5
51.1
33.2
37.5
8.0
78.7
86.5
84.3
2.5
57.5
42.0
27.0
54.0
24.0
55.6
33.2
5.4
83.8
73.4
19.1
74.0
46.6
4.8
89.7
75.6
53.3
29.5
33.3
11.1
66.6
95.8
92.6
3.4
61.8
72.2
−16.9
81.4
63.2
22.4
54.8
27.7
49.5
89.9
69.9
22.2
60.3
26.2
56.6
55.9
11.5
79.4
25.3
0.8
96.9
82.6
64.3
22.2
59.9
45.0
24.8
68.4
33.1
51.7
41.1
10.0
75.7
95.8
87.3
8.9
65.9
43.3
34.3
93.9
91.6
2.4
65.0
61.4
5.5
46.6
41.8
10.3
16.7
6.8
59.1
54.8
16.9
69.2
22.5
2.3
89.7
98.4
96.8
1.6
79.4
79.4
0.0
74.5
61.5
17.5
45.0
31.2
30.6
72.6
47.1
35.1
34.4
13.9
59.5
87.5
90.5
−3.4
48.7
44.9
7.8
76.6
67.1
12.4
27.6
25.9
6.0
99.4
98.8
0.6
44.3
38.1
14.2
94.0
84.3
10.3
59.8
28.4
52.5
86.2
67.1
22.2
43.5
24.6
43.6
92.3
91.6
0.8
41.7
43.3
−3.9
OCR for page 160
Growing Up Global: The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries
APPENDIX TABLE 3-5 Percentage Ever Attended School, DHS Countries
Country
Survey Date
Male (age)
Female (age)
10-14
15-19
20-24
10-14
15-19
20-24
Armenia
2000
99.2
99.8
99.5
99.6
99.8
99.6
Bangladesh
1999-2000
87.5
79.4
61.8
89.1
68.4
51.3
Benin
1996
66.9
66.3
57.4
38.4
32.2
24.7
Bolivia
1998
99.3
99.0
98.7
98.8
96.7
92.6
Brazil
1996
97.9
94.4
92.6
98.7
96.9
93.3
Burkina Faso
1998-1999
40.6
36.0
22.7
27.2
16.8
9.3
Cameroon
1998
88.6
90.5
85.3
83.6
77.6
67.3
Central African Republic
1994-1995
82.9
86.1
80.7
62.8
56.1
48.7
Chad
1996-1997
54.5
61.0
45.1
35.1
27.2
16.7
Colombia
2000
98.0
97.5
96.1
99.2
98.0
96.3
Comoros
1996
77.1
78.1
61.9
63.6
63.8
35.0
Côte d’Ivoire
1998-1999
72.8
62.7
51.5
57.3
53.4
37.9
Dominican Republic
1996
96.2
91.9
89.8
97.6
93.8
91.7
Egypt
2000
95.6
92.4
83.4
86.7
78.1
61.2
Ethiopia
1999
49.9
53.5
50.2
40.0
30.3
20.6
Ghana
1998-1999
86.8
86.9
83.3
85.8
75.0
65.5
Guatemala
1998-1999
93.8
89.6
83.6
90.2
80.6
75.0
Guinea
1999
57.6
48.5
43.0
40.3
24.2
17.8
Haiti
2000
87.5
90.1
80.8
88.4
83.8
63.5
India
1998-2000
90.4
85.5
75.3
80.0
61.6
46.2
Indonesia
1997
98.7
97.9
95.4
98.8
97.1
88.3
OCR for page 161
Growing Up Global: The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries
Jordan
1997
99.4
97.6
94.7
99.2
98.5
94.2
Kazakhstan
1999
99.6
99.5
99.6
99.6
99.6
99.9
Kenya
1998
96.5
97.3
95.8
95.0
94.7
91.4
Kyrgyz Republic
1997
99.4
99.2
99.5
99.3
99.8
99.4
Madagascar
1997
77.6
81.6
82.0
77.7
81.4
78.7
Malawi
2000
92.6
90.6
83.4
93.2
81.2
65.5
Mali
2001
50.7
34.2
33.0
36.3
20.0
18.8
Morocco
1992
75.4
74.3
60.0
54.1
45.5
30.6
Mozambique
1997
84.5
81.6
83.0
70.8
58.7
64.6
Namibia
1992
95.1
88.4
78.4
96.2
92.7
82.0
Nepal
2001
89.6
83.8
66.4
71.8
44.4
24.6
Nicaragua
1997
88.8
85.2
85.0
91.3
87.8
85.2
Niger
1998
40.9
39.0
27.0
27.4
19.9
12.3
Nigeria
1999
82.7
83.0
76.3
79.2
69.6
57.9
Pakistan
1990-1991
76.2
65.9
54.3
51.3
36.1
24.1
Peru
2000
99.7
99.1
98.6
99.1
97.5
94.3
Philippines
1998
98.4
98.7
98.7
98.9
98.7
98.4
Rwanda
2000
87.7
83.2
70.1
87.9
81.9
65.1
Senegal
1992-1993
52.0
50.4
38.2
40.2
32.8
24.2
South Africa
1998-2000
97.9
97.6
95.3
98.8
98.0
92.4
Togo
1998
88.9
85.1
76.9
72.3
58.8
46.6
Turkey
1998
97.0
98.5
96.5
92.7
89.8
84.1
Uganda
2000-2001
96.4
92.5
90.7
95.4
84.0
73.9
United Republic of Tanzania
1999
75.3
88.7
90.7
74.3
82.9
78.5
Uzbekistan
1996
99.5
99.9
99.7
100.0
99.3
99.7
Vietnam
1997
97.2
94.5
97.2
96.9
94.4
96.7
Zambia
1996-1997
87.5
92.8
93.8
87.5
89.0
86.9
Zimbabwe
1999
98.5
98.5
97.3
98.6
98.1
94.0
OCR for page 162
Growing Up Global: The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries
APPENDIX TABLE 3-6 Percentage Completing Four or More Years of Schooling, DHS Countries
Country
Survey Date
Male (age)
Female (age)
15-19
25-29
35-39
15-19
25-29
35-39
Armenia
2000
99.2
99.4
99.3
100.0
99.8
99.4
Bangladesh
1999-2000
70.8
58.5
48.6
69.5
44.2
32.7
Benin
1996
45.9
44.9
36.8
25.5
21.6
10.5
Bolivia
1998
96.4
93.3
84.8
92.5
79.2
65.0
Brazil
1996
76.7
78.1
74.6
85.3
79.8
74.0
Burkina Faso
1998-1999
29.7
21.0
12.9
18.4
10.0
7.6
Cameroon
1998
77.9
82.2
72.6
72.2
65.4
54.1
Central African Republic
1994-1995
55.6
57.7
52.1
34.9
32.3
17.7
Chad
1996-1997
36.1
33.6
28.9
14.2
7.7
7.1
Colombia
2000
90.2
87.1
79.1
92.9
88.4
80.4
Comoros
1996
64.1
62.6
34.9
48.9
43.6
15.1
Côte d’Ivoire
1998-1999
57.1
59.0
50.5
40.9
43.5
27.3
Dominican Republic
1996
77.7
81.5
74.4
87.0
84.9
73.4
Egypt
2000
89.3
83.7
71.7
77.2
61.8
44.8
Ethiopia
1999
30.7
36.6
29.3
20.8
19.5
7.9
Ghana
1998-1999
85.0
83.7
77.0
79.1
62.4
60.1
Guatemala
1998-1999
67.3
62.9
53.0
62.9
49.5
41.9
Guinea
1999
48.9
35.3
31.1
25.1
15.1
12.1
Haiti
2000
62.2
66.8
49.2
65.1
50.2
28.6
India
1998-2000
81.5
75.1
65.4
64.9
47.0
38.4
Indonesia
1997
92.6
91.8
76.8
93.2
83.6
61.3
OCR for page 163
Growing Up Global: The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries
Jordan
1997
98.0
94.8
92.3
97.5
95.0
86.4
Kazakhstan
1999
98.9
99.1
99.8
99.5
99.8
99.7
Kenya
1998
90.6
93.0
90.9
90.6
88.5
72.3
Kyrgyz Republic
1997
99.0
99.4
99.8
99.3
99.4
98.8
Madagascar
1997
41.3
57.5
55.1
43.1
55.5
42.0
Malawi
2000
71.8
69.6
66.4
71.5
48.0
38.2
Mali
2001
35.3
25.0
25.3
23.0
14.0
14.9
Morocco
1992
69.0
56.5
50.3
44.5
32.3
22.2
Mozambique
1997
56.2
49.8
52.4
34.1
30.0
17.9
Namibia
1992
70.1
74.2
69.6
82.1
78.9
65.0
Nepal
2001
74.2
64.2
47.1
51.2
25.0
8.8
Nicaragua
1997
74.9
70.0
65.3
79.6
75.1
59.6
Niger
1998
35.7
26.8
15.8
18.1
15.0
7.2
Nigeria
1999
83.2
79.4
75.6
73.4
64.1
48.0
Pakistan
1990-1991
66.0
54.6
51.1
40.5
25.6
18.8
Peru
2000
96.1
95.8
93.2
95.0
90.3
82.7
Philippines
1998
93.5
92.5
91.0
97.0
95.5
92.8
Rwanda
2000
57.0
64.9
51.8
56.8
61.8
36.6
Senegal
1992-1993
45.6
38.4
35.0
34.0
20.7
18.4
South Africa
1998-2000
96.2
93.1
88.9
97.6
91.5
84.1
Togo
1998
68.8
63.9
61.0
47.5
32.9
26.8
Turkey
1998
97.1
96.8
94.6
90.6
84.3
72.9
Uganda
2000-2001
82.8
78.0
71.1
74.1
58.3
46.4
United Republic of Tanzania
1999
73.5
82.5
84.8
70.5
77.6
54.1
Uzbekistan
1996
99.1
99.6
99.8
99.2
99.5
99.4
Vietnam
1997
88.2
88.4
91.4
86.6
87.7
83.7
Zambia
1996-1997
80.6
87.4
90.1
78.4
74.8
71.1
Zimbabwe
1999
95.0
97.0
90.9
95.2
94.2
72.1
OCR for page 164
Growing Up Global: The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries
APPENDIX TABLE 3-7 Mean Grades Attained, DHS Countries
Country
Age at Start
Number of Years in Primary
Survey Date
Male (age)
Female (age)
20-24
30-34
40-44
20-24
30-34
40-44
Armenia
7
4
2000
10.7
11.8
11.7
11.6
12.0
11.6
Bangladesh
6
5
1999-2000
6.1
4.8
4.5
4.7
3.1
2.3
Benin
6
6
1996
3.8
4.2
2.8
1.6
1.6
0.9
Bolivia
6
8
1998
9.9
9.2
8.2
8.8
7.7
6.2
Brazil
7
8
1996
6.5
6.8
6.0
7.4
6.9
5.9
Burkina Faso
7
6
1998-1999
2.6
1.6
1.3
1.2
0.6
0.4
Cameroon
6
6
1998
7.5
7.7
6.1
6.3
4.8
3.5
Central African Republic
6
6
1994-1995
5.0
5.1
3.7
2.8
2.4
1.0
Chad
6
6
1996-1997
3.6
2.7
2.3
1.1
0.7
0.4
Colombia
6
5
2000
8.6
7.7
7.2
9.2
8.0
7.0
Comoros
7
6
1996
5.3
5.4
2.3
4.3
2.8
0.7
Côte d’Ivoire
6
6
1998-1999
5.0
4.5
3.9
3.7
2.6
2.4
Dominican Republic
6
8
1996
7.5
8.2
7.4
8.7
8.6
6.6
Egypt
6
5
2000
9.6
9.1
7.7
8.0
6.4
4.4
Ethiopia
7
6
1999
2.8
3.1
2.1
1.7
1.1
0.4
Ghana
6
6
1998-1999
8.6
8.5
8.6
6.5
5.7
5.3
Guatemala
7
6
1998-1999
6.3
5.4
4.4
5.4
4.5
3.1
Guinea
7
6
1999
3.8
3.7
3.9
1.7
1.4
1.2
Haiti
6
6
2000
6.8
6.4
3.6
5.5
4.1
2.2
India
6
5
1998-2000
7.9
6.8
6.1
5.3
3.6
3.1
Indonesia
7
6
1997
8.7
7.9
6.3
8.1
6.3
4.9
Jordan
6
10
1997
11.0
10.1
9.9
11.4
9.6
7.1
Kazakhstan
7
4
1999
10.7
10.9
11.0
11.1
11.3
11.0
Kenya
6
8
1998
8.5
8.6
7.8
8.1
7.3
4.8
OCR for page 165
Growing Up Global: The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries
Kyrgyz Republic/Kyrgyzstan
7
4
1997
10.4
10.9
11.1
10.7
10.9
10.9
Madagascar
6
5
1997
3.8
5.0
4.2
3.8
4.3
3.3
Malawi
6
8
2000
6.4
5.7
5.4
4.8
3.4
2.5
Mali
7
6
2001
2.4
2.2
2.4
1.2
1.1
0.9
Morocco
7
6
1992
5.5
4.5
3.5
3.4
2.3
1.3
Mozambique
7
5
1997
3.9
4.1
3.2
2.3
2.2
0.9
Namibia
7
7
1992
6.1
6.1
5.1
6.9
5.9
4.0
Nepal
6
5
2001
6.2
4.8
3.3
3.1
1.4
0.6
Nicaragua
7
6
1997
6.3
6.5
5.6
6.7
6.6
4.8
Niger
7
6
1998
2.8
2.1
1.2
1.3
0.8
0.4
Nigeria
6
6
1999
8.2
7.8
6.5
6.6
5.2
3.0
Pakistan
5
5
1990-1991
5.4
4.5
3.8
2.8
1.8
1.2
Peru
6
6
2000
10.2
10.2
9.6
9.8
9.1
8.0
Philippines
7
6
1998
9.3
9.0
8.4
9.9
9.3
8.6
Rwanda
7
7
2000
4.8
4.9
3.6
4.6
4.0
2.4
Senegal
7
6
1992-1993
3.9
3.0
2.7
2.2
1.7
0.9
South Africa
6
7
1998-2000
9.8
9.2
7.9
10.1
8.5
7.2
Togo
6
6
1998
5.1
5.5
4.6
2.9
2.4
1.7
Turkey
6
5
1998
8.7
7.6
7.4
6.7
5.7
4.4
Uganda
6
7
2000-2001
6.5
6.4
6.1
5.1
4.0
3.5
United Republic of Tanzania
7
7
1999
6.0
6.3
5.0
5.6
5.3
2.8
Uzbekistan
6
4
1996
10.6
11.1
11.2
10.5
10.7
10.6
Vietnam
6
5
1997
7.4
8.0
8.1
7.4
7.5
6.9
Zambia
7
7
1996-1997
7.0
8.0
8.3
6.0
6.0
5.6
Zimbabwe
6
7
1999
9.5
10.0
7.3
9.0
8.2
5.0
SOURCE: UNESCO Statistical Yearbook (1999).
OCR for page 166
Growing Up Global: The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries
APPENDIX TABLE 3-8 Percentage Ever Attended School Beyond Secondary School, DHS Countries
Country
Survey Date
Male (age)
Female (age)
25-29
35-39
25-29
35-39
Armenia
2000
23.0
20.8
21.2
16.4
Bangladesh
1999-2000
18.2
13.8
7.4
2.9
Benin
1996
3.3
4.9
0.2
0.7
Bolivia
1998
27.0
24.4
21.7
16.5
Brazil
1996
7.0
9.0
7.6
10.1
Burkina Faso
1998-1999
2.4
1.2
0.5
0.5
Cameroon
1998
7.7
7.1
2.9
1.2
Central African Republic
1994-1995
4.4
5.3
1.7
1.0
Chad
1996-1997
2.1
2.3
0.1
0.3
Colombia
2000
18.3
15.1
17.8
15.3
Comoros
1996
4.2
5.6
1.4
0.5
Côte d’Ivoire
1998-1999
7.6
5.7
3.8
1.2
Dominican Republic
1996
14.5
16.4
18.6
16.6
Egypt
2000
17.9
17.4
13.0
10.3
Ethiopia
1999
3.0
2.9
1.2
0.8
Ghana
1998-1999
6.7
8.2
2.2
3.1
Guatemala
1998-1999
8.8
5.2
4.1
4.4
Guinea
1999
5.9
6.6
2.3
3.0
Haiti
2000
5.9
2.7
3.2
1.0
India
1998-2000
25.2
18.3
12.5
7.7
Indonesia
1997
8.9
5.5
7.1
3.1
Jordan
1997
34.1
37.3
34.1
24.2
Kazakhstan
1999
14.1
17.8
18.5
22.7
Kenya
1998
6.6
6.2
3.4
1.7
OCR for page 167
Growing Up Global: The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries
Country
Survey Date
Male (age)
Female (age)
25-29
35-39
25-29
35-39
Kyrgyz Republic
1997
11.5
20.7
17.0
18.2
Madagascar
1997
2.6
6.2
1.8
2.1
Malawi
2000
0.7
1.1
0.3
0.1
Mali
2001
4.3
2.7
1.2
0.8
Morocco
1992
10.2
5.2
3.9
1.7
Mozambique
1997
0.2
0.3
0.0
0.1
Namibia
1992
4.3
6.7
3.2
2.9
Nepal
2001
12.4
7.9
2.6
0.8
Nicaragua
1997
8.1
13.1
9.5
8.6
Niger
1998
2.0
2.3
0.3
0.5
Nigeria
1999
16.4
19.3
8.9
9.9
Pakistan
1990-1991
6.4
5.2
2.2
1.6
Peru
2000
30.5
27.9
29.2
22.8
Philippines
1998
33.5
30.3
36.1
31.8
Rwanda
2000
1.3
2.1
0.7
0.2
Senegal
1992-1993
3.4
7.6
1.2
0.7
South Africa
1998-2000
11.1
10.5
11.2
8.5
Togo
1998
4.3
5.2
1.2
0.7
Turkey
1998
13.3
10.7
10.6
5.3
Uganda
2000-2001
8.3
9.5
5.0
4.6
United Republic of Tanzania
1999
0.1
0.5
0.0
0.1
Uzbekistan
1996
19.1
22.8
11.5
13.6
Vietnam
1997
1.3
2.2
1.3
3.1
Zambia
1996-1997
5.5
10.7
4.0
5.1
Zimbabwe
1999
7.1
10.4
4.5
3.9
Representative terms from entire chapter:
secondary school
