National Academies Press: OpenBook
« Previous: 7 Recommendations
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

References

Abdul-Razzak, H., and S. J. Ghan. 2000. A parameterization of aerosol activation: 2. Multiple aerosol types. Journal of Geophysical Research 105:6837-6844.

Adams, J. B., M. E. Mann, and C. M. Ammann. 2003. Proxy evidence for an El Niño-like response to volcanic forcing. Nature 426:274-278.

Albrecht, B. A. 1989. Aerosols, cloud microphysics, and fractional cloudiness. Science 245:1227-1230.

Alcamo, J., ed. 1994. IMAGE 2.0: Integrated Modeling of Global Climate Change. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Allen, M. R., P. A. Stott, J. F. B. Mitchell, R. Schnur, and T. L. Delworth. 2000. Quantifying the uncertainty in forecasts of anthropogenic climate change. Nature 407:617-620.

Ambartsumyan, V. A. 1958. Theoretical Astrophysics. London: Pergamon Press.

Ammann, C. M., G. A. Meehl, W. M. Washington, and C. S. Zender. 2003. A monthly and latitudinally varying volcanic forcing dataset in simulations of the 20th century climate. Geophysical Research Letters 30:1657, DOI: 10.1029/2003GL016875

Ammann, C. M., G. A. Meehl, W. M. Washington, and C. S. Zender. Submitted. Climate simulations of the 20th century with the PCM. Geophysical Research Letters.

Anderson, T. L., R. J. Charlson, S. E. Schwartz, R. Knutti, O. Boucher, H. Rodhe, and J. Heintzenberg. 2003a. Climate forcing by aerosols—A hazy picture. Science 300:1103-1104, DOI: 10.1126/science.1084777.

Anderson, T. L., R. J. Charlson, D. M. Winker, J. A. Ogren, and K. Holmén. 2003b. Mesoscale variations of tropospheric aerosols. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 60(1):119-136.

Andronova, N. G., and M. E. Schlesinger. 2001. Objective estimation of the probability density function for climate sensitivity. Journal of Geophysical Research 106(D19):22605-22612, DOI: 10.1029/2000JD000259.

Annual Energy Outlook. 2004. Annual Energy Outlook 2004: With Projections to 2025. Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, DOE/EIA-0383(2004), also available at http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Arellano, A. F., Jr., P. S. Kasibhatla, L. Giglio, G. R. van der Werf, and J. T. Randerson. 2004. Top-down estimates of global CO sources using MOPITT measurements. Geophysical Research Letters 31, L01104, DOI: 10.1029/2003GL018609.

Avissar, R., and D. Werth. 2005. Global hydroclimatological teleconnections resulting from tropical deforestation. Journal of Hydrometeorology, in press.


Bahreini, R., J. L. Jimenez, J. Wang, R. C. Flagan, J. H. Seinfeld, J. T. Jayne, and D. Worsnop. 2003. Aircraft-based aerosol size and composition measurements during ACE-Asia using an aerodyne aerosol mass spectrometer. Journal of Geophysical Research 108(D23): 8645, DOI: 10.1029/2002JD003226.

Baldocchi, D. D., E. Falge, L. Gu, R. Olson, D. Hollinger, S. Running, P. Anthoni, Ch. Bernhofer, K. Davis, J. Fuentes, A. Goldstein, G. Katul, B. Law, X. Lee, Y. Malhi, T. Meyers, J. W. Munger, W. Oechel, K. Pilegaard, H. P. Schmid, R. Valentini, S. Verma, T. Vesala, K. Wilson, and S. Wofsy. 2001. FLUXNET: A new tool to study the temporal and spatial variability of ecosystem-scale carbon dioxide, water vapor and energy flux densities. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 82:2415-2435.

Baldwin, M. P., and T. J. Dunkerton. 1999. Propagation of the Arctic Oscillation from the stratosphere to the troposphere. Journal of Geophysical Research 104:30937.

Baliunas, S. L., R. A. Donahue, W. H. Soon, J. H. Horne, J. Frazer, L. Woodard-Eklund, M. Bradford, L. M. Rao, O. C. Wilson, Q. Zhang, W. Bennett, J. Briggs, S. M. Carroll, D. K. Duncan, D. Figueroa, H. H. Lanning, T. Misch, J. Mueller, R. W. Noyes, D. Poppe, A. C. Porter, C. R. Robinson, J. Russell, J. C. Shelton, T. Soyumer, A. H. Vaughan, and J. H. Whitney. 1995. Chromospheric variations in main-sequence stars. Astrophysical Journal 438:269-287.

Bard, E., G. Raisbeck, P. Yiou, and J. Jouzel. 2000. Solar irradiance during the last 1200 years based on cosmogenic nuclides. Tellus B 52:985-992.

Barnett, T. P., D. W. Pierce, and R. Schnur. 2001. Detection of anthropogenic climate change in the world’s oceans. Science 292:270-274.

Barrie, L. A., P. Borrell, O. Boucher, J. Burrows, C. Camy-Peyret, J. Fishman, A. Goede, C. Granier, E. Hilsenrath, D. Hinsman, H. Kelder, J. Langen, V. Mohnen, T. Ogawa, T. Peter, P. C. Simon, P.-Y. Whung, and A. Volz-Thomas. 2004. International Global Atmospheric Chemistry Observations System (IGACO) Theme Report, L. Barrie, P. Borrell, and J. Langen, eds. Newcastle-under-Lyme, UK: P & PMB Consultants. Available on-line at http://www.luna.co.uk/~pborrell/p&pmb/IGACO/IGACO-report.htm.

Bartalev, S. A., V. G. Bondur, A. A. Gitelson, C. Justice, E. A. Loupian, D. Cline, V. I. Gorny, T. E. Khromova, P. W. Stackhouse, and S. V. Victorov. 2004. Remote sensing of the Northern Eurasia. Chapter 4 in NEESPI Science Plan. Available online at http://neespi.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/science.html. Accessed January 27, 2005.

Bauer, E., M. Claussen, and V. Brovkin. 2003. Assessing climate forcings of the Earth system for the past millennium. Geophysical Research Letters 30, DOI: 10.1029/ 2002GL016639.

Beer, J., A. Blinov, G. Bonani, R. C. Finkel, H. J. Hofmann, B. Lehmann, H. Oeschger, A. Sigg, J. Schwander, T. Staffelbach, B. Stauffer, M. Suter, and W. Wötfli. 1990. Use of 10Be in polar ice to trace the 11-year cycle of solar activity. Nature 347:164-166, DOI: 10.1038/347164a0.

Beer, R., T. A. Glavich, and D. M. Rider. 2001. Tropospheric emission spectrometer for the Earth Observing System’s Aura satellite. Applied Optics 40:2356-2367.

Bengtsson, L., K. I. Hodges, and S. Hagemann. 2004. Sensitivity of large-scale atmospheric analyses to humidity observations and its impact on the global water cycle and tropical and extratropical weather systems in ERA40. Tellus A 56(3):202.

Berner, R. A., and Z. Kothavala. 2001. GEOCARB III: A revised model of atmospheric CO2 over Phanerozoic time. American Journal of Science 301:182-204.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Berner, R. A., A. C. Lasaga, and R. M. Garrels. 1983. The carbonate-silicate geochemical cycle and its effect on atmospheric carbon dioxide over the past 100 million years. American Journal of Science 283:641-683.

Bertrand C., M. F. Loutre, M. Crucifix, and A. Berger. 2002. Climate of the last millennium: A sensitivity study. Tellus 54(A):221-244.

Betts, A. K. 2004. Understanding hydrometeorology using global models. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 85(11):e, DOI: 10.1175/BAMS-85-11-1673.

Betts, R. A. 2001. Biogeophysical impacts of land use on present-day climate: near-surface and radiative forcing. Atmospheric Science Letters, DOI: 10.1006/asle.2001.0023.

Bianchi, G. G., and I. N. McCave, 1999. Holocene periodicity in North Atlantic climate and deep-ocean flow south of Iceland. Nature 397:515-517.

Blunier, T., J. Chappellaz, J. Schwander, B. Stauffer, and D. Raynaud. 1995. Variations in atmospheric methane concentration during the Holocene epoch. Nature 374:46-49.

Boer, G. J., G. Flato, M. C. Reader, and D. Ramsden. 2000. A transient climate change simulation with greenhouse gas and aerosol forcing: Experimental design and comparison with the instrumental record for the 20th century. Climate Dynamics 16:405-425.

Bond, G. C., B. Kromer, J. Beer, R. Muschler, M. N. Evand, W. Showers, S. Hoffmann, R. Lotti-Bond, I. Hajdas, and G. Bonani. 2001. Persistent solar influence on North Atlantic climate during the Holocene. Science 294:2130-2138.

Bond, T. C., D. G. Streets, K. F. Yarber, S. M. Nelson, J.-H. Woo, and Z. Klimont. 2004. A technology-based global inventory of black and organic carbon emissions from combustion. Journal of Geophysical Research 109:14203, DOI: 10.1029/2003JD003697.

Bongaarts, J., and R. A. Bulatao. 2000. Beyond Six Billion: Forecasting the World’s Population. Washington, D.C.: National Research Council.

Boucher, O. 1999. Air traffic may increase cirrus cloudiness. Nature 397:30-31.

Boucher, O., and J. Haywood. 2001. On summing the components of radiative forcing of climate change. Climate Dynamics 18:297-302.

Boucher, O., and U. Lohmann. 1995. The sulfate-CCN-cloud albedo effect: A sensitivity study using two general circulation models. Tellus 47B:281-300.

Bowman, K. W., T. Steck, H. M. Worden, J. Worden, S. Clough, and C. D. Rodgers. 2002. Capturing time and vertical variability of tropospheric ozone: A study using TES nadir retrieval. Journal of Geophysical Research 107(D23):4723, DOI: 10.1029/ 2002JD002150.

Breon, F.-M., D. Tanre, and S. Generoso. 2002. Aerosol effect on cloud droplet size monitored from satellite. Science 295:834-838.

Briffa, K. R., P. D. Jones, F. H. Schweingruber, and T. J. Osborn. 1998. Influence of volcanic eruptions on Northern Hemisphere summer temperatures over 600 years. Nature 393:450-455.

Broecker, W. S. 1994. Terminations. Pp. 687-698 in Milankovitch and Climate: Understanding the Response to Astronomical Forcing, A. L. Berger, J. Imbrie, J. Hays, G. Kukla, and B. Saltzman, eds. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: D. Rieidel.

Broecker, W. S. 1997. Thermohaline circulation, the Achilles heel of our climate system: Will man-made CO2 upset the current balance? Science 278(5343):1582-1588.

Brühl, C. 1993. The impact of the future scenarios for methane and other chemically active gases on the GWP of methane. Chemosphere 26:731-738.

Budyko, M. I. 1969. The effect of solar radiation variations on the climate of the Earth. Tellus 21:611.


Cane, M. A., A. C. Clement, A. Kaplan, Y. Kushnir, D. Pozdnyakov, R. Seager, S. E. Zebiak, and R. Murtugudde. 1997. Twentieth-century sea surface temperature trends. Science 275:957-960.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Carslaw, K. S., R. G. Harrison, and J. Kirkby. 2002. Cosmic rays, clouds, and climate. Science 29:1732-1737.

Carton, J. A., G. Chepurin, X. Cao, and B. Giese. 2000. A simple ocean data assimilation analysis of the global upper ocean 1950-95. Part I. Methodology. Journal of Physical Oceanography 30:294-309.

Catling, D. C., K. J. Zahnle, and C. P. McKay. 2001. Biogenic methane, hydrogen escape, and the irreversible oxidation of early Earth. Science 293:839-843.

CDIAC (Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center). 2004. Oak Ridge National Laboratories, Oak Ridge, Tenn., Available at: http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/.

Cess, R. D. 1972. The thermal structure within the stratospheres of Venus and Mars. Icarus 17(2):561-569.

Cess, R. D. 1976. Climate change: An appraisal of atmospheric feedback mechanisms employing zonal climatology. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 33(10):1831-1843.

Cess, R. D., and G. L. Potter. 1988. A methodology for understanding and intercomparing atmospheric climate feedback processes in GCMs. Journal of Geophysical Research 93: 8305-8314.

Chamberlain, J. W. 1960. Interplanetary gas. II: Expansion of a model solar corona. Astrophysics Journal 131(47).

Chameides W. L., H. Hu, S. C. Liu, M. Bergin, X. Zhou, L. Mearns, G. Wang, C. S. Kiang, R. D. Saylor, C. Luo, Y. Huang, A. Steiner, and F. Giorgi. 1999. Case study of the effects of atmospheric aerosols and regional haze on agriculture: An opportunity to enhance crop yields in China through emission controls? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 26:13626-13633.

Chandrasekhar, S. 1947. The transfer of radiation in stellar atmospheres. Josiah Willard Gibbs Lecture. Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 53:641.

Charlock, T. P., and V. Ramanathan. 1985. The albedo field and cloud radiative forcing produced by a general circulation model with internally generated cloud optics. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 42:1405-1429.

Charlson, R. J., J. Langner, H. Rodhe, C. B. Leovy, and S. G. Warren. 1991. Perturbation of the Northern Hemisphere radiative balance by backscattering from anthropogenic sulfate aerosols. Tellus 43AB(4):152-163.

Chase, T. N., R. A. Pielke Sr., T. G. F. Kittel, R. R. Nemani, and S. W. Running. 2000a. Simulated impacts of historical land cover changes on global climate in northern winter. Climate Dynamics 16:93-105.

Chase, T. N., R. A. Pielke Sr., J. A. Knaff, T. G. F. Kittel, and J. L. Eastman. 2000b. A comparison of regional trends in 1979-1997 depth-averaged tropospheric temperatures. International Journal of Climatology 20:503-518.

Chase, T. N., R. A. Pielke, Sr., B. Herman, and X. Zeng. 2004. Likelihood of rapidly increasing surface temperatures unaccompanied by strong warming in the free troposphere. Climate Research 25:185-190.

Chen, C-T., and V. Ramaswamy. 1996. Sensitivity of simulated global climate to perturbations in low cloud microphysical properties. Part II: Spatially localized perturbations. Journal of Climate 9:2788-2801.

Chertow, M. 2001. The IPAT equation and its variants: Changing views of technology and environmental impact. Journal of Industrial Ecology 4(4).

Christy J. R., and W. B. Norris. 2004. What may we conclude about tropospheric temperature trends? Geophysical Research Letters 31(6):L0621.

Chung, C. E., and V. Ramanathan. 2003. South Asian haze forcing: Remote impacts with implications to ENSO and AO. Journal of Climate 16:1791-1806.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Chung, C. E., V. Ramanathan, and J. T. Kiehl. 2002. Effects of the south Asian absorbing haze on the northeast monsoon and surface-air heat exchange. Journal of Climate 15(17):2462-2476.

Chung, S. H., and J. H. Seinfeld. 2002. Global distribution and climate forcing of carbonaceous aerosols. Journal of Geophysical Research 107(D19):4407, DOI: 10.1029/ 2001JD001397.

Chylek, P., V. Ramaswamy, A. Ashkin, and J. M. Dziedzic. 1983. Simultaneous determination of refractive index and size of spherical dielectric particles from light scattering data. Applied Optics 22:2302-2307.

Chylek, P., G. Lesins, G. Videen, J. Wong, R. Pinnick, D. Ngo, and J. Klett. 1996. Black carbon and absorption of solar radiation by clouds. Journal of Geophysical Research 101:23365-23371.

Claussen, M., A. Ganopolski, H.-J. Schellnhuber, and W. Crameret. 2002. Earth system models of intermediate complexity: Closing the gap in the spectrum of climate models. Climate Dynamics 18:579-586.

Claussen, M., P. M. Cox, X. Zeng, P. Viterbo, A. C. M. Beljaars, R. A. Betts, H.-J. Boole, T. Chase, and R. Koster. 2004. The global climate. Chapter A.4 in Vegetation, Water, Humans and the Climate: A New Perspective on an Interactive System, P. Kabat, M. Claussen, P. A. Dirmeyer, J. H. C. Gash, L. Bravo de Guenni, M. Meybeck, R. Pielke Sr., C. J. Vörösmarty, R. W. A. Hutjes, and S. Lütkemeier, eds. Berlin: Springer Verlag.

Clement, A. C., R. Seager, and M. A. Cane. 2000. Suppression of El Niño during the mid-Holocene by changes in the Earth’s orbit. Paleoceanography 15:731-737.

Clilverd, M. A., E. Clarke, H. Rishbeth, T. G. Clark, and T. Ulich. 2003. Solar activity level in 2100. Astronomy and Geophysics 44(5):5.20-5.22.

Cline, W. R. 1992. The Economics of Global Warming. Washington, D.C.: Institute for International Economics.

Clough, S. A., C. P. Rinsland, and P. D. Brown. 1995. Retrieval of tropospheric ozone from simulations of nadir spectral radiances as observed from space. Journal of Geophysical Research 100:16579-16593.

Coakley, J. A., and C. D. Walsh. 2002. Limits to the aerosol indirect radiative effect derived from observations of ship tracks. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 59(3):668-680.

Coakley, J. A., R. L. Bernstein, and P. A. Durkee. 1987. Effect of ship-stack effluents on cloud reflectivity. Science 237:1020-1022.

Cobb, K. M., C. D. Charles, H. Cheng, and R. L Edwards. 2003. El Niño-Southern Oscillation and tropical Pacific climate during the last millennium. Nature 424:271-276.

Cochrane M. A., A. Alencar, M. D. Schulze, C. M. Souza, Jr., D. C. Nepstad, P. Lefebvre, and E. A. Davidson. 1999. Positive feedbacks in the fire dynamic of closed canopy tropical forests. Science 284(5421):1832-1835.

Collins, M. 2000. The El Niño-Southern Oscillation in the Second Hadley Centre Coupled Model and its response to greenhouse warming. Journal of Climate 13:1299-1312.

Collins, W. D., A. Bucholtz, D. Lubin, P. Flatau, F. P. J. Valero, C. P. Weaver, and P. Pilewskie. 2000. Determination of surface heating by convective cloud systems in the central equatorial Pacific from surface and satellite measurements. Journal of Geophysical Research 105:14807-14821.

Collins W. D., P. J. Rasch, B. E. Eaton, D. W. Fillmore, J. T. Kiehl, C. T. Beck, and C. S. Zender. 2002. Simulation of aerosol distributions and radiative forcing for INDOEX: Regional climate impacts. Journal of Geophysical Research 107(D19):8028, DOI: 10.1029/2000JD000032.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Conant, W. C., J. H. Seinfeld, J. Wang, G. R. Carmichael, Y. Tang, I. Uno, P. J. Flatau, K. M. Markowicz, and P. K. Quinn. 2003. A model for the radiative forcing during ACE-Asia derived from CIRPAS Twin Otter and R/V Ronald H. Brown data and comparison with observations. Journal of Geophysical Research 108(D23):8661, DOI: 10.1029/ 2002JD003260.

Cooke, W. F., V. Ramaswamy, and P. Kasibhatla. 2002. A general circulation model study of the global carbonaceous aerosol distribution. Journal of Geophysical Research 107(D16), DOI: 10.1029/2001JD001274.

Cox, P. M., R. A. Betts, C. D. Jones, S. A. Spall, and I. J. Totterdell. 2000. Acceleration of global warming due to carbon-cycle feedbacks in a coupled climate model. Nature 408:184-187.

Crisp, D. R., M. Atlas, F.-M. Breon, L. R. Brown, J. P. Burrows, P. Ciais, B. J. Connor, S. C. Doney, I. Y. Fung, D. J. Jacob, C. E. Miller, D. O’Brien, S. Pawson, J. T. Randerson, P. Rayner, R. J. Salawitch, S. P. Sander, B. Sen, G. L. Stephens, P. P. Tans, G. C. Toon, P. O. Wennberg, S. C. Wofsy, Y. L. Yung, Z. Kuang, B. Chudasama, G. Sprague, B. Weiss, R. Pollock, D. Kenyon, and S. Schroll. 2004. The Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO) Mission. Advances in Space Research 34:700-709.

Crowley, T. J. 1998. Significance of tectonic boundary conditions for paleoclimate simulations. Pp. 3-17 in Tectonic Boundary Conditions for Climate Reconstructions, T. J. Crowley and K. Burke, eds. New York: Oxford University Press.

Crowley, T. J. 2000. Causes of climate change over the past 1000 years. Science 289:270-277.

Crowley, T. J., and K.-Y. Kim. 1999. Modeling the temperature response to forced climate change over the last six centuries. Geophysical Research Letters 26:1901-1904.

Crowley, T. J., S. K. Baum, K.-Y. Kim, G. C. Hegerl, and W. T. Hyde. 2003. Modeling ocean heat content changes during the last millennium. Geophysical Research Letters 30:1932 DOI: 10.1029/2003GL017801.

Cubasch, U., G. A. Meehl, G. J. Boer, R. J. Stouffer, M. Dix, A. Noda, C. A. Senior, S. C. B. Raper, and K. S. Yap. 2001. Projections of Climate Change. Pp. 525-582 in Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis, J. T. Houghton, Y. Ding, D. J. Griggs, M. Noguer, P. J. van der Linden, X. Dai, K. Maskell and C.A. Johnson, eds. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.


Decesari, S., M. C. Facchini, E. Matta, F. Lettini, M. Mircea, S. Fuzzi, E. Tagliavini, and J. P. Putaud. 2001. Chemical features and seasonal trend of water soluble organic compounds in the Po Valley fine aerosol. Atmospheric Environment 35:3691-3699.

deMenocal, P., J. Ortiz, T. Guilderson, and M. Sarnthein. 2000. Coherent high and low latitude climate variability during the Holocene warm period. Science 288:2198-2202.

Denning, A. S., M. Nicholls, L. Prihodko, I. Baker, P.-L. Vidale, K. Davis, and P. Bakwin. 2003. Simulated variations in atmospheric CO2 over a Wisconsin forest using a coupled ecosystem-atmosphere model. Global Change Biology 9(9):1241-1250.

Dentener, F., M. van Weele, M. Krol, S. Houweling, and P. van Velthoven. 2003. Trends and inter-annual variability of methane emissions derived from 1979-1993 global CTM simulations. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 3:73-88.

de Vries, B., J. Bollen, L. Bouwman, M. den Elzen, M. Janssen, and E. Kreileman. 2000. Greenhouse gas emissions in an equity-, environment, and service-oriented world: An IMAGE-based scenario for the 21st century. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 63:2-3.

de Vries, H. J. M., J. G. J. Olivier, R. A. van den Wijngaart, G. J. J. Kreileman, and A. M. C. Toet. 1994. Model for calculating regional energy use, industrial production and greenhouse gas emissions for evaluating global climate scenarios. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 76:79-131.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Dlugokencky, E. J., S. Houweling, L. Bruhwiler, K. A. Masarie, P. M. Lang, J. B. Miller, and P. P. Tans. 2003. Atmospheric methane levels off: Temporary pause or a new steady-state? Geophysical Research Letters 30(19), DOI: 10.1029/2003GL018126.

Doran, J. C., and S. Zhong. 2002. Comments on “Atmospheric disturbances caused by human modification of landscape.” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 83:277-279.

Douglass, D. H., and B. D. Clader. 2002. Climate sensitivity of the Earth to solar irradiance. Geophysical Research Letters 29(16), DOI: 10.1029/2002GL015345.

Dutton, E. G., J. J. Michalasky, T. Stoffel, B. W. Forgan, J. Hickey, D. W. Nelson, T. L. Alberta, and I. Reda. 2001. Measurement of broadband diffuse solar irradiance using current commercial instrumentation with a correction for thermal offset errors. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 18:297-314.


Eastman, J. L., M. B. Coughenour, and R. A. Pielke Sr. 2001a. Does grazing affect regional climate? Journal of Hydrometeorology 2:243-253.

Eastman, J. L., M. B. Coughenour, and R. A. Pielke Sr. 2001b. The effects of CO2 and landscape change using a coupled plant and meteorological model. Global Change Biology 7:797-815.

Edmonds, J., M. Wise, H. Pitcher, R. Richels, T. Wigley, and C. MacCracken. 1996a. An integrated assessment of climate change and the accelerated introduction of advanced energy technologies: An application of MiniCAM 1.0. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 1(4):311-339.

Edmonds, J., M. Wise, R. Sands, R. Brown, and H. Kheshgi. 1996b. Agriculture, land-use, and commercial biomass energy. A preliminary integrated analysis of the potential role of biomass energy for reducing future greenhouse related emissions. PNNL-11155. Washington, D.C.: Pacific Northwest National Laboratories.

Edwards, D. P., C. M. Halvorson, and J. C. Gille. 1999. Radiative transfer modeling for the EOS Terra satellite Measurement of Pollution in the Troposphere (MOPITT) instrument. Journal of Geophysical Research 104(D14):16755-16776.

Ehrlich, P. R., and J. P. Holdren. 1971. Impact of population growth. Science 171:1212-1217.

Ellis, J. S., T. H. Vonder Haar, S. Levitus, and A. H. Oort. 1978. The annual variation in the global heat balance of the earth. Journal of Geophysical Research 83:1958-1962.

Elvidge, C. D., K. E. Baugh, K. E. Hobson, E. A. Kihn, H. W. Kroehl, H. W. Davis, E. R. Davis, and D. Cocero. 1997. Satellite inventory of human settlements using nocturnal radiation emissions: A contribution for the global toolchest. Global Change Biology 3:387-395.

Evans, W. F. J., and E. Puckrin. 1999. A comparison of GCM models with experimental measurements of surface radiative forcing by greenhouse gases. Pp. 378-381 in Tenth Symposium on Global Change Studies. Dallas, Texas: American Meteorological Society.


Facchini, M. C., S. Decesari, M. Mircea, S. Fuzzi, and G. Loglio. 2000. Surface tension of atmospheric wet aerosol and cloud/fog droplets in relation to their organic carbon content and chemical composition. Atmospheric Environment 34:4853-4857.

Feichter, J., E. Roeckner, U. Lohmann, and B. Liepert. 2004. Nonlinear aspects of the climate response to greenhouse gas and aerosol forcing. Journal of Climate 17(12):2384-2398, DOI: 10.1175/1520-0442(2004)017.

Feingold, G., and P. Chuang. 2002. Analysis of the influence of film-forming compounds on droplet growth: Implications for cloud microphysical processes and climate. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 59:2006-2018.

Feingold G., W. L. Eberhard, D. E. Veron, and M. Previdi. 2003. First measurements of the Twomey indirect effect using ground-based remote sensors. Geophysical Research Letters 30(6):1287, DOI: 10.1029/2002GL016633.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Fiore, A. M., D. J. Jacob, I. Bey, R. M. Yantosca, B. D. Field, A. C. Fusco, and J. G. Wilkinson. 2002. Background ozone over the United States in summer: Origin, trend, and contribution to pollution episodes. Journal of Geophysical Research 107(D15), DOI: 10.1029/2001JD000982.

Fishman, J., C. E. Watson, J. C. Larsen, and J. A. Logan. 1990. Distribution of tropospheric ozone determined from satellite data. Journal of Geophysical Research 95:3599-3617.

Folland, C. K., D. M. H. Sexton, D. J. Karoly, C. E. Johnson, D. P. Rowell, and D. E. Parker. 1998. Influences of anthropogenic and oceanic forcing on recent climate change. Geophysical Research Letters 25(3):353-356.

Folland, C. K., N. A. Rayner, S. J. Brown, T. M. Smith, S. S. P. Shen, D. E. Parker, I. Macadam, P. D. Jones, R. Jones, N. Nicholls, and D. M. H. Sexton. 2001. Global temperature change and its uncertainties since 1861. Geophysical Research Letters 28:2621-2624.

Fontenla, J. M., J. Harder, G. Rottman, T. Woods, G. M. Lawrence, and S. Davis. 2003. The signature of solar activity in the infrared spectral irradiance. Astrophysical Journal Letters 605(1 part 2):L85.

Forest, C. E., P. H. Stone, A. P. Sokolov, M. R. Allen, and M. D. Webster. 2002. Quantifying uncertainties in climate system properties with the use of recent climate observations. Science 295:113-117, DOI: 10.1126/science.1064419.

Forster, P. M. de F., and K. P. Shine. 1999. Stratospheric water vapour changes as a possible contributor to observed stratospheric cooling. Geophysical Research Letters 26:3309-3312.

Forster, P. M. de F., and K. Tourpali. 2001. The effect of tropopause height changes on the calculation of ozone trends and their radiative forcing. Journal of Geophysical Research 106:12241-12252.

Forster, P. M. de F., R. S. Freckleton, and K. P. Shine. 1997. On aspects of the concept of radiative forcing. Climate Dymanics 13:547-560.

Foukal, P., and L. Milano. 2001. A measurement of the quiet network contribution to solar irradiance variation. Geophysical Research Letters 28:883-886.

Fowler, L. D., D. A. Randall, and S. A. Rutledge. 1996. Liquid and ice cloud microphysics in the CSU general circulation model. Part I: Model description and simulated microphysical processes. Journal of Climate 9:489-529.

Freckleton, R. S., E. J. Highwood, K. P. Shine, O. Wild, K. S. Law, and M. G. Sanderson. 1998. Greenhouse gas radiative forcing: Effects of averaging and inhomogeneities in trace gas distribution. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 124:2099-2127.

Free, M., and A. Robock. 1999. Global warming in the context of the Little Ice Age. Journal of Geophysical Research 104:19057-19070.

Friddell, J. R., T. Thunell, T. Guilderson, and M. Kashgarian. 2003. Increased north-east Pacific climate variability during the warm middle Holocene. Geophysical Research Letters 30(11):1560, DOI: 10.1029/2003GL017048.

Fridlind, A. M., and M. Z. Jacobson. 2003. Point and column aerosol radiative closure during ACE 1: Effects of particle shape and size. Journal of Geophysical Research 108(D3), DOI: 10.1029/2001JD001553.

Friedlingstein P., L. Bopp, P. Ciais, J.-L Dufresne, L. Fairhead, H. LeTreut, P. Monfray, and J. Orr. 2001. Positive feedback between future climate change and the carbon cycle. Geophysical Research Letters 28:1543-1546.

Fröhlich, C., and J. Lean. 2002. Solar irradiance variability and climate. Astronomische Nachrichten 323:203-212.

Frouin, R., and S. F. Iacobellis. 2002. Influence of phytoplankton on the global radiation budget. Journal of Geographic Research 107(D19):5-1-5-10.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Fu, C., T. Yasunari, and S. Lutkemeier. 2004. The Asian monsoon climate. Chapter A.8 in Vegetation, Water, Humans and the Climate: A New Perspective on an Interactive System, P. Kabat, M. Claussen, P. A. Dirmeyer, J. H. C. Gash, L. Bravo de Guenni, M. Meybeck, R. Pielke, Sr., C. J. Vörösmarty, R. W. A. Hutjes, and S. Lütkemeier, eds. Berlin: Springer Verlag.

Fuglestvedt, J. S., I. S. A. Isaksen, and W.-C. Wang. 1996. Estimates of indirect global warming potentials for CH4, CO and NOx. Climatic Change 34:405-437.

Fuller, K., W. Malm, and S. Kreidenweis. 1999. Effects of mixing on extinction by carbonaceous particles. Journal of Geophysical Research 104:15941-15954.

Fusco, A. C., and J. A. Logan. 2003. Analysis of 1970-1995 trends in tropospheric ozone at Northern Hemisphere midlatitudes with the GEOS-CHEM model. Journal of Geophysical Research—Atmospheres 108(D15):4449.


Gaffin, S. R. 1998. World population projections for greenhouse gas emissions scenarios. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 3(2-4):133-170.

Gaffin, S. R. 2002. Fuzzy math on greenhouse gas. New York Times, February 19.

Galloway, J. N., F. J. Dentener, D. G. Capone, E. W. Boyer, R. W. Howarth, S. P. Seitzinger, C. P. Asner, C. C. Cleveland, P. A. Green, E. A. Holland, D. M. Karl, A. F. Michaels, J. H. Porter, A. R. Townsend, and C. J. Vorosmarty. 2004. Nitrogen cycles: Past, present and future. Biogeochemistry 70:153-226.

Ganopolski, A., C. Kubatzki, M. Claussen, V. Brovkin, and V. Petoukhov. 1998. The influence of vegetation-atmosphere-ocean interaction on climate during the mid-Holocene. Science 280:1916-1919.

Garrett, T. J., L. M. Russell, V. Ramaswamy, S. F. Maria, and B. J. Huebert. 2003. Microphysical and radiative evolution of aerosol plumes over the tropical North Atlantic Ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research 108(D1):4022, DOI: 10.1029/2002JD002228.

Gates, W. L., J. Boyle, C. Covey, C. Dease, C. Doutriaux, R. Drach, M. Fiorino, P. Gleckler, J. Hnilo, S. Marlais, T. Phillips, G. Potter, B. Santer, K. Sperber, K. Taylor, and D. Williams. 1998. An overview of the results of the Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project (AMIP I). Bulletin of the American Meterological Society 73:1962-1970.

Geller, M. A., and S. P. Smyshlyaev. 2002. A model study of total ozone evolution 1979-2000—The role of individual natural and anthropogenic effects. Geophysical Research Letters 29(22):2048 DOI: 10.1029/2002GL015689.

Gerber, S., F. Joos, P. P. Brügger, T. F. Stocker, M. E. Mann, S. Sitch and M. Scholze. 2003. Constraining temperature variations over the last millennium by comparing simulated and observed atmospheric CO2. Climate Dynamics 20:281-299.

Ghan, S. J., L. R. Leung, R. C. Easter, and H. Abdul-Razzak. 1997. Prediction of cloud droplet number in a general circulation model. Journal of Geophysical Research 102(21):777-794.

Gierasch, P., and R. M. Goody. 1968. A study of the thermal and dynamical structure of the Martian lower atmosphere. Planetary and Space Science 16:615-636.

Goldstein, G. A., and L. A. Greening. 1999. Energy Planning and the Development of Carbon Mitigation Strategies: Using the MARKAL Family of Models. Washington, D.C.: International Resources Group (IRG).

Gonzalez-Rouco, F., H. von Storch, and E. Zorita. 2003. Deep soil temperature as proxy for surface air-temperature in a coupled model simulation of the last thousand years. Geophysical Research Letters 30:2116, DOI: 10.1029/2003GL018,264.

Govindasamy, B., P. B. Duffy, and K. Caldeira. 2001. Land use changes and Northern Hemisphere cooling. Geophysical Research Letters 28:291-294.

Gregory, J. M., W. J. Ingram, M. A. Palmer, G. S. Jones, P. A. Stott, R. B. Thorpe, J. A. Lowe, T. C. Johns, and K. D. Williams. 2004. A new method for diagnosing radiative forcing and climate sensitivity. Geophysical Research Letters 31:L03205, DOI: 10.1029/2003 GL018747.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Gregory, J. M., R. J. Stouffer, S. C. B. Raper, P. A. Stott, and N. A. Rayner. 2002. An observationally based estimate of the climate sensitivity. Journal of Climate 15(22):3117-3121.

Grove, J. M. 1988. The Little Ice Age. London: Methuen.

Grubler, A. 1998. A review of global and regional sulfur emissions scenarios. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 3(2):383-418.

Grubler, A., N. Nakićenović, and D. G. Victor. 1999. Dynamics of Energy Technologies and Global Change, Energy Policy 27(5):247-280.

Gu, L., D. D. Baldocchi, S. C. Wofsy, J. W. Munger, J. J. Michalsky, S. P. Urbanski, and T. A. Boden. 2003. Science 299:2035-2038.

Guenther, A., C. Geron, T. Pierce, B. Lamb, P. Harley, and R. Fall. 2000. Natural emissions of non-methane volatile organic compounds, carbon monoxide, and oxides of nitrogen from North America. Atmospheric Environment 34:2205-2230.

Gultepe, I., G. A. Issac, W. R. Leaitch, and C. M. Banic. 1996. Parameterizations of marine stratus microphysics based on in situ observations: Implications for GCMS. Journal of Climate 9(2):345-357, DOI: 10.1175/1520-0442(1996)009<0345:POMSMB>2.0.CO;2.

Gurney, K. R., R. M. Law, A. S. Denning, P. J. Rayner, D. Baker, P. Bousquet, L. Bruhwiler, Y.-H. Chen, P. Ciais, S. Fan, I. Y. Fung, M. Gloor, M. Heimann, K. Higuchi, J. John, T. Maki, S. Maksyutov, K. Masarie, P. Peylin, M. Prather, B. C. Pak, J. Randerson, J. Sarmiento, S. Taguchi, T. Takahashi, and C.-W. Yuen. 2002. Towards robust regional estimates of CO2 sources and sinks using atmospheric transport models. Nature 415:626-630.


Haggerty, B. M. 1996. Episodes of flood-basalt volcanism defined by 40Ar/39Ar age distributions: Correlations with mass extinctions? Journal of Undergraduate Science 3:155-164.

Haigh, J. D. 2003. The effects of solar variability on the Earth’s climate. Philosophical Transactions Royal Society of London A 361:95-111.

Hansen, J., and L. Nazarenko. 2004. Soot climate forcing via snow and ice albedos. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101:423-428, DOI: 10.1073/pnas. 2237157100.

Hansen, J., A. Lacis, R. Ruedy, and M. Sato. 1992. Potential climate impact of Mount Pinatubo eruption. Geophysical Research Letters 19:215-218.

Hansen, J., M. Sato, and R. Ruedy 1997. Radiative forcing and climate response. Journal of Geophysical Research 102:6831-6864.

Hansen J., M. Sato, R. Ruedy, A. Lacis, and V. Oinas. 2000. Global warming in the twenty-first century: An alternative scenario. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 97(18):9875-9880.

Hansen, J., M. Sato, L. Nazarenko, R. Ruedy, A. Lacis, D. Koch, I. Tegen, T. Hall, D. Shindell, B. Santer, P. Stone, T. Novakov, L. Thomason, R. Wang, Y. Wang, D. Jacob, S. Hollandsworth, L. Bishop, J. Logan, A. Thompson, R. Stolarski, J. Lean, R. Willson, S. Levitus, J. Antonov, N. Rayner, D. Parker, and J. Christy. 2002. Climate forcings in Goddard Institute for Space Studies SI2000 simulations. Journal of Geophysical Research 107(D18):4347, DOI: 10.1029/2001JD001143.

Harshvardhan, S. E. Schwartz, C. M. Benkovitz, and G. Guo. 2002. Aerosol influence on cloud microphysics examined by satellite measurements and chemical transport modeling. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 59(3):714-725.

Haug, G. H., K. A. Hughen, D. M. Sigman, L. C. Peterson, and U. Rohl. 2001. Southward penetration of the intertropical convergence zone through the Holocene. Science 293: 1304-1308.

Hauglustaine, D., C. Granier, G. Brasseur, and G. Megie. 1994. The importance of atmospheric chemistry in the calculation of radiative forcing on the climate system. Journal of Geophysical Research 99:1173-1186.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Haywood, J., and V. Ramaswamy. 1998. Global sensitivity studies of the direct radiative forcing due to anthropogenic sulfate and black carbon aerosols. Journal of Geophysical Research 103:6043-6058.

Haywood, J., V. Ramaswamy, and B. Soden. 1999. Tropospheric aerosol climate forcing in clear-sky satellite observations over the oceans. Science 283:1299-1303.

Heald, C. L., D. J. Jacob, D. B. A. Jones, P. I. Palmer, J. A. Logan, D. G. Streets, G. W. Sachse, J. C. Gille, R. N. Hoffman, and T. Nehrkorn. 2004. Comparative inverse analysis of satellite (MOPITT) and aircraft (TRACE-P) observations to estimate Asian sources of carbon monoxide. Journal of Geophysical Research 109:D23306, DOI: 10.1029/ 2004JD005185.

Hegerl, G. C., K. Hasselmann, U. Cubasch, J. F. B. Mitchell, E. Roeckner, R. Voss, and J. Waszkewitz. 1997. Multi-fingerprint detection and attribution analysis of greenhouse gas, greenhouse gas-plus-aerosol and solar forced climate change. Climate Dynamics 13:613-634.

Hegerl, G. C., P. A. Scott, M. R. Allen, J. F. B. Mitchell, S. F. B. Tett, and U. Cubasch. 2000. Optimal detection and attribution of climate change: Sensitivity of results to climate model differences. Climate Dynamics 16:737-754.

Hegerl, G. C., T. J. Crowley, S. K. Baum, K-Y. Kim, and W. T. Hyde. 2003. Detection of volcanic, solar and greenhouse gas signals in paleo-reconstructions of Northern Hemispheric temperature. Geophysical Research Letters 30:1242, DOI: 10.1029/ 2002GL016635.

Hein, R., P. Crutzen, and M. Heimann. 1997. An inverse modeling approach to investigate the global atmospheric methane cycle. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 11:43-76.

Hessler, A. M., D. R. Lowe, R. L. Jones, and D. K. Bird. 2004. A lower limit for atmospheric carbon dioxide levels 3.2 billion years ago. Nature 428:736-738.

Hewitt, C. D. 1998. A fully coupled GCM simulation of the climate of the mid-Holocene. Geophysical Research Letters 25:361-364.

Hodell, D. A., J. H. Curtis, G. A. Jones, A. Higuera-Gundy, M. Brenner, M. W. Binford, and K. T. Dorsey. 1991. Reconstruction of Caribbean climate change over the past 10,500 years. Nature 352:790-793.

Hodell, D. A., M. Brenner, J. H. Curtis, and T. Guilderson. 2001. Solar forcing of drought frequency in the Maya lowlands. Science 292:1367-1370.

Hoerling, M., and A. Kumar. 2003. The perfect ocean for drought. Science 299:691-694.

Holland, E. A., B. H. Braswell, J. Sulzman, and J-F. Lamarque. 2004. Nitrogen deposition onto the United States and Western Europe: A synthesis of observations and models. Ecological Applications (in press).

Hong, Y. T., B. Hong, Q. H. Lin, Y. X. Zhu, Y. Shibata, M. Hirota, M. Uchida, X. T. Leng, H. B. Jiang, H. Xu, H. Wang, and L. Yi. 2003. Correlation between Indian Ocean summer monsoon and North Atlantic climate during the Holocene. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 211:371-380.

Hood, L. L. 2003. Thermal response of the tropical tropopause region to solar ultraviolet variations. Geophysical Research Letters 30(23):2215, DOI: 10.1029/2003GL018364.

Houweling, S., T. Kaminski, F. Dentener, J. Lelieveld, and M. Heimann. 1999. Inverse modeling of methane sources and sinks using the adjoint of a global transport model. Journal of Geophysical Research 104:26137-26160.

Hu, F. S., D. Kaufman, S. Yoneji, D. Nelson, A. Semesh, S. Huang, J. Tian, G. Bond, B. Clegg, and T. Brown. 2003. Cyclic variation and solar forcing of Holocene climate in the Alaskan subarctic. Science 301:1890-1893.

Huebert, B. J., and R. J. Charlson. 2000. Uncertainties in data on organic aerosols. Tellus 52B:1249-1255.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Indermühle A., T. F. Stocker, F. Joos, H. Fischer, H. J. Smith, M. Wahlen, B. Seck, D. Mastrolanni, J. Tchumi, T. Blunier, R. Meyer, and B. Stauffer. 1999. Holocene carbon-cycle dynamics based on CO2 trapped in the ice at Taylor Dome, Antarctica. Nature 398:121-126.

IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 1990. Scientific Assessment of Climate Change—Report of Working Group I, J. T. Houghton, G. J. Jenkins, and J. J. Ephraums, eds. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.

IPCC. 1992. Climate Change 1992—The Supplementary Report to the IPCC Scientific Assessment, J. T. Houghton, B. A. Callander, and S. K. Varney, eds. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.

IPCC. 1996. Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group 1 to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, J. T. Houghton, L. G. Meira Filho, B. A. Callander, N. Harris, A. Kattenberg, and K. Maskell, eds. Cambridge, U. K.: Cambridge University Press.

IPCC. 2001. Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, J. T. Houghton, Y. Ding, D. J. Griggs, M. Noguer, P. J. van der Linden, X. Dai, K. Maskell, and C. A. Johnson, eds. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.


Jackman, C. H., E. L. Fleming, S. Chandra, D. B. Considine, and J. E. Rosenfield. 1996. Past, present and future modeled ozone trends with comparisons to observed trends. Journal of Geophysical Research 101:28753-28767.

Jackman, C. H., R. D. McPeters, G. J. Labow, E. L. Fleming, C. J. Praderas, and J. M. Russell. 2001. Northern Hemisphere atmospheric effects due to the July 2000 solar proton event. Geophysical Research Letters 28(15):2883-2886, DOI: 10.1029/ 2001GL013221.

Jacobson, M. Z. 2001. Global direct radiative forcing due to multicomponent anthropogenic and natural aerosols. Journal of Geophysical Research 106:1551-1568.

Jacobson, M. Z. 2002. Control of fossil-fuel particulate black carbon and organic matter, possibly the most effective method of slowing global warming. Journal of Geophysical Research 107(D19):4410, DOI: 10.1029/JD001376.

Jacobson, M. Z., R. P. Turco, E. J. Jensen, and O. B. Toon. 1994. Modeling coagulation among particles of different composition and size. Atmospheric Environment 28A:1327-1338.

Jirikowic, J. L., and P. E. Damon. 1994. The medieval solar activity maximum. Climatic Change 26:309-316.

Johnson, D. W., S. Osborne, R. Wood, K. Suhre, R. Johnson, S. Businger, P. K. Quinn, A. Wiedensohler, P. A. Durkee, L. M. Russell, M. O. Andreae, C. O’Dowd, K. Noone, B. Bandy, J. Rudolph, and S. Rapsomanikis. 2000. An overview of the Lagrangian experiments undertaken during the North Atlantic Regional Aerosol Characterization Experiment (ACE-2). Tellus 52B:290-320.

Jones, J. B., Jr., E. H. Stanley, and P. J. Mulholland. 2003. Long-term decline in carbon dioxide supersaturation in rivers across the contiguous United States. Geophysical Research Letters 30(10):1495, DOI:10.1029/2003GL017056.

Jones, P. D., and M. E. Mann. 2004. Climate over past millennia. Reviews of Geophysics 42:RG2002.

Jones, P. D., T. J. Osborn, K. R. Briffa, C. K. Folland, E. B. Horton, L. V. Alexander, D. E. Parker, and N. A. Rayner. 2001. Adjusting for sampling density in grid box land and ocean surface temperature time series. Journal of Geophysical Research 106:3371-3380.

Joshi, M., K. Shine, M. Ponater, N. Stuber, R. Sausen, and L. Li. 2003. A comparison of climate response to different radiative forcings in three general circulation models: Towards an improved metric of climate change. Climate Dynamics 20(7-8):843-854.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Kabat, P., M. Claussen, P. A. Dirmeyer, J. H. C. Gash, L. Bravo de Guenni, M. Meybeck, R. Pielke Sr., C. J. Vörösmarty, R. W. A. Hutjes, and S. Lütkemeier, eds. 2004. Vegetation, Water, Humans and the Climate—A New Perspective on an Interactive System. Berlin: Springer Verlag.

Kalnay, E., and M. Cai. 2003. Impact of urbanization and land-use change on climate. Nature 423:528-531.

Kalnay, E., M. Kanamitsu, R. Kistler, W. Collins, D. Deaven, L. Gandin, M. Iredell, S. Saha, G. White, J. Woolen, Y. Zhu, M. Chelliah, W. Ebisuzaki, W. Higgins, J. Janowiak, K. C. Mo, C. Ropelewski, J. Wang, A. Leetma, R. Reynolds, R. Jenne, and D. Joseph. 1996. The NCEP/NCAR 40-year reanalysis project. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 77:437-471.

Kaminski T., W. Knorr, P. J. Rayner, and M. Heimann. 2002. Assimilating atmospheric data into a terrestrial biosphere model: A case study of the seasonal cycle. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 16(4):1066, DOI: 10.1029/2001GB001463.

Karl, T. R., V. E. Derr, D. R. Easterling, C. K. Folland, D. J. Hoffman, S. Levitus, N. Nicholls, D. E. Parker, and G. W. Withee. 1995. Critical issues for long-term climate monitoring. Climatic Change 31:185-221.

Karoly, D. J., K. Braganza, P. A. Stott, J. M. Arblaster, G. A. Meehl, A. J. Broccoli, and K. W. Dixon. 2003. Detection of a human influence on North American climate. Science 302:1200-1203.

Kasibhatla, P., A. Arellano, J. A. Logan, P. I. Palmer, and P. Novelli. 2002. Top-down estimate of a large source of atmospheric carbon monoxide associated with fuel combustion in Asia. Geophysical Research Letters 29(19):1900, DOI: 10.1029/2002GL015581.

Kasting, J. F. 1993. Earth’s early atmosphere. Science 259:920-928.

Kasting, J. F., and D. Catling. 2003. Evolution of a habitable planet. Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 41:429-463.

Katz, M. E., B. S. Cramer, G. S. Mountain, S. Katz, and K. G. Miller. 2001. Uncorking the bottle: What triggered the Paleocene/Eocene thermal maximum methane release? Paleoceanography 16:549-562.

Kaufman, Y. J., and R. S. Fraser. 1997. The effect of smoke particles on clouds and climate forcing. Science 277:1636-1639.

Kaufman, Y. J., D. Tanré, B. N. Holben, S. Mattoo, L. A. Remer, T. F. Eck, J. Vaughan, and B. Chatenet. 2002. Aerosol radiative impact on spectral solar flux at the surface, derived from principal plane sky measurements. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 59:635-646.

Kaya, Y. 1990. Impact of carbon dioxide emission control on GNP growth: Interpretation of proposed scenarios. Paper presented to the IPCC Energy and Industry Subgroup, Response Strategies Working Group, Paris.

Keigwin, L. D., and E. A. Boyle. 2000. Detecting Holocene changes in thermohaline circulation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97(4):1343-1346.

Kellogg, W. W., and S. H. Schneider. 1974. Climate stabilization: For better or for worse? Science 186:1163-1172.

Kent, D. V., B. S. Cramer, L. Lance, D. Wang, J. D. Wright, and R. Van der Voo. 2003. A case for a comet impact trigger for the Paleocene/Eocene thermal maximum and carbon isotope excursion. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 211:13-26.

Khain, A. P., D. Rosenfeld, and A. Pokrovsky, A. 2001. Simulating convective clouds with sustained supercooled liquid water down to −37.5°C using a spectral microphysics model. Geophysical Research Letters 28:3887-3890.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Khain, A., A. Pokrovsky, M. Punsky, A. Seifert, and V. Phillips. 2004. Simulation of effects of atmospheric aerosols on deep turbulent convective clouds using a spectral microphysics mixed-phase cumulus cloud model. Part 1: Model description and possible applications. Journal of Atmospheric Sciences. 61(24):2963-2983.

Khalil, M. A. K., and M. J. Shearer. 1993. Sources of methane: An overview. In Atmospheric Methane, Sources, Sinks and Role in Global Change, M. A. K. Khalil, ed. Berlin: Springer Verlag.

Kiehl, J. T., and B. P. Briegleb. 1993. The relative roles of sulfate aerosols and greenhouse gases in climate forcing. Science 260:311-314.

Kiehl, J. T., and V. Ramanathan. 1982. Radiative heating due to increased CO2: The role of H2O continuum absorption. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 39: 2923-2926.

Kiehl, J. T., and K. E. Trenberth, 1997. Earth’s annual mean energy budget. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 78:197-208.

Kiehl, J. T., J. J. Hack, M. H. Zhang, and R. D. Cess. 1995. Sensitivity of a GCM climate to enhanced shortwave cloud absorption. Journal of Climate 8:2200-2212.

Kiehl, J. T., J. J. Hack, and J. W. Hurrell. 1998. The energy budget of the NCAR community climate model CCM3. Journal of Climate 11:1151-1178.

Kim, B. G., S. E. Schwartz, M. A. Miller, and Q. L. Min. 2003. Effective radius of cloud droplets by ground-based remote sensing: Relationship to aerosol. Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres. 108(D23), DOI: 10.1029/2003JD0003721.

Kirchner, I., G.L. Stenchikov, H.-F. Graf, A. Robock, and J.C. Antuna. 1999. Climate model simulation of winter warming and summer cooling following the 1991 Mount Pinatubo volcanic eruption, Journal of Geophysical Research 104(D16):19039-19055.

Kitoh, A., and S. Murakami. 2002. Tropical Pacific climate at the mid-Holocene and the Last Glacial Maximum simulated by a coupled ocean-atmosphere general circulation model. Paleoceanography 17:1-13.

Klein Goldewijk, K. 2001. Estimating global land use change over the past 300 years: The HYDE database. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 15(2):417-434.

Knaff, J. A., and C. W. Landsea. 1997. An El Niño-Southern Oscillation CLImatology and PERsistence (CLIPER) Forecasting Scheme. Weather and Forecasting 12:633-652.

Knutti, R., T. F. Stocker, F. Joos, and G. K. Plattner. 2002. Constraints on radiative forcing and future climate change from observations and climate model ensembles. Nature 416(6882):719-723.

Koch, D. 2001. Transport and direct radiative forcing of carbonaceous and sulfate aerosols in the GISS GCM. Journal of Geophysical Research 106(D17):20311-20332, DOI: 10.1029/2001JD900038.

Koch, D., D. Jacob, I. Tegen, D. Rind, and M. Chin. 1999. Tropospheric sulfur simulation and sulfate direct radiative forcing in the Goddard Institute for Space Studies general circulation model. Journal of Geophysical Research 104:23799-23822.

Kodera K. 2002. Solar cycle modulation of the North Atlantic Oscillation: Implication in the spatial structure of the NAO. Geophysical Research Letters 29(8), DOI: 10.1029/ 2001GL014557.

Koren, I., Y. J. Kaufman, L. A. Remer, and J. V. Martins. 2004. Measurement of the effect of Amazon smoke on inhibition of cloud formation. Science 303:1342-1345.

Krakauer, N. Y., and J. T. Randerson. 2003. Do volcanic eruptions enhance or diminish net primary production? Evidence from tree rings. Biogeochemical Cycles 17(4):1118, DOI: 10.1029/2003GB002076.

Kristjánsson, J. E. 2002. Studies of the aerosol indirect effect from sulfate and black carbon aerosols, Journal of Geophysical Research 107(D15):4246, DOI: 10.1029/ 2001JD000887.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Kristjánsson, J. E., A. Staple, and J. Kristiansen. 2002. A new look at possible connections between solar activity, clouds and climate, Geophysical Research Letters 29(23):2107, DOI: 10.1029/2002GL015646.

Krüger O., and H. Graßl. 2002. The indirect aerosol effect over Europe. Geophysical Research Letters 29(19)311-314, DOI: 10.1029/2001GL014081.

Krüger, O., and H. Graßl. 2004. Albedo reduction by absorbing aerosols over China. Geophysical Research Letters 31(2):L02108, DOI: 10.1029/2003GL019111.

Kukla, G., and J. Gavin. 2004. Milankovitch climate reinforcements. Global and Planetary Change 40:27-48.

Kump, L. R., S. L. Brantley, and M. A. Arthur. 2000. Chemical weathering, atmospheric CO2, and climate. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 28:611-667.

Kvenvolden, K. A. 2002. Methane hydrate in the global organic carbon cycle. Terra Nova 14:302-306.

Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. 1997. Document FCCC/CP/1997/L.7/Add.1. Available at http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.html. Accessed December 2, 2004.


Labitzke, K., and K. Matthes. 2003. Eleven-year solar cycle variations in the atmosphere: Observations, mechanisms and models. Holocene 13:311-317.

Lacis, A. A., D. J. Wuebbles, and J. A. Logan. 1990. Radiative forcing by changes in the vertical distribution of ozone. Journal of Geophysical Research 95:9971-9981.

Lal, D. 1988. Theoretically expected variations in the terrestrial cosmic-ray production rates of isotopes. Pp. 216-233 in Solar-Terrestrial Relationships and the Earth Environment in the Last Millennia, G. C. Castagnoli, ed. Amsterdam: North-Holland Physics Publishing.

Lambin, E. F., H. J. Geist, and E. Lepers. 2003. Dynamics of land-use and land-cover change in tropical regions. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 28:205-241.

Lashof, D. A. 2000. The use of global warming potentials in the Kyoto Protocol. Climatic Change 44:423-425.

Laskar, J. 1990. The chaotic motion of the solar system: A numerical estimate of the size of the chaotic zones. Icarus 88:266-291.

Laurance, W. F., M. A. Cochrane, S. Bergen, P. M. Fearnside, P. Delamônica, C. Barber, S. D’Angelo, and T. Fernandes. 2001. The future of the Brazilian Amazon. Science 291(5503):438-439, DOI: 10.1126/science.291.5503.438

Lavorel, S., M. D. Flannigan, E. F. Lambin, and M. Scholes. 2005. Regional vulnerability to fire: Feedbacks, nonlinearities, and interactions. Bioscience (submitted).

Lawrence, M. G., P. Joeckel, and R. von Kuhlmann. 2001. What does the global mean OH concentrations tell us? Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 1:37-49.

Lean, J. L. 2000. Evolution of the Sun’s spectral irradiance since the Maunder Minimum. Geophysical Research Letters 27:2425-2428.

Lean, J. L. 2001. Solar irradiance and climate forcing in the near future. Geophysical Research Letters 28:4119-4122.

Lean, J., J. Beer, and R. Bradley. 1995. Reconstruction of solar irradiance since 1610: Implications for climate change. Geophysical Research Letters 22:3195-3198.

Lean, J. L., G. J. Rottman, H. L. Kyle, T. N. Woods, J. R. Hickey, and L. C. Puga. 1997. Detection and parameterization of variations in solar mid and near ultraviolet radiation (200 to 400 nm). Journal of Geophysical Research 102:29939-29956.

Lean, J., Y.-M. Wang, and N. R. Sheeley, Jr. 2002. The effect of increasing solar activity on the Sun’s total and open magnetic flux during multiple cycles: Implications for solar forcing of climate. Geophysical Research Letters 29, DOI: 10.1029/2002GL015880.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Leggett, J., W. J. Pepper, and R. J. Swart. 1992. Emissions Scenarios for IPCC: An Update. Pp. 69-95 in Climate Change 1992. The Supplementary Report to the IPCC Scientific Assessment, J. T. Houghton, B. A. Callander, and S. K. Varney, eds. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.

Lelieveld, J., and P. J. Crutzen. 1992. Indirect chemical effects of methane on climate warming. Nature 355:339-342.

Lelieveld, J., P. J. Crutzen, and C. Brühl. 1993. Climate effects of atmospheric methane. Chemosphere 26:739-768.

Lelieveld, J., P. Crutzen, and F. J. Dentener. 1998. Changing concentration, lifetime and climate forcing of atmospheric methane. Tellus 50B:128-150.

Levitus, S. J. I. Antonov, T. P. Boyer, and C. Stephens, 2000. Warming of the world ocean. Science 287:2225-2229.

Levitus, S. J. I. Antonov, J. Wang, T. L. Delworth, K. W. Dixon, and A. J. Broccoli, 2001. Anthropogenic warming of earth’s climate system. Science 292:267-270.

Li, Q. B., D. J. Jacob, R. Park, Y. X. Wang, C. L. Heald, R. Hudman, R. M. Yantosca, R. V. Martin, and M. J. Evans. 2004. Outflow pathways for North American pollution in summer: A global 3-D model analysis of MODIS and MOPITT observations. Journal of Geophysical Research (submitted).

Liepert, B. G. 2002. Observed reductions in surface solar radiation in the United States and worldwide from 1961 to 1990. Geophysical Research Letters 29(12), DOI: 10.1029/ 2002GL014910.

Liepert, B., J. Feichter, U. Lohmann, and E. Roeckner. 2004. Can aerosols spin down the water cycle in a warmer and moister world? Geophysical Research Letters 31, DOI: 10.1029/2003GL019060.

Liston, G. E., J. P. McFadden, M. Sturm, and R. A. Pielke, Sr. 2002. Modelled changes in arctic tundra snow, energy and moisture fluxes due to increased shrubs. Global Change Biology 8:17-32.

Liu, H. S., R. Kolenkiewicz, and C. Wade. 2003. Insolation pulsation theory for atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations. Recent Research Developments in Atmospheric Sciences 3:57-79.

Liu, Y., and P. H. Daum. 2002. Indirect warming effect from dispersion forcing. Nature 419:580-581.

Logan, J. A. 1999. An analysis of ozonesonde data for the troposphere: Recommendations for testing 3-D models, and development of a gridded climatology for tropospheric ozone. Journal of Geophysical Research 104:16115-16149.

Lohmann, U. 2002. A glaciation indirect aerosol effect caused by soot aerosols. Geophysical Research Letters 29(4) DOI: 10.1029/2001GL014357.

Lohmann, U., and J. Feichter. 2001. Can the direct and semi-direct aerosol effect compete with the indirect effect on a global scale? Geophysical Research Letters 28:159-161.

Lohmann, U., and J. Feichter. 2004. Global indirect aerosol effects: A review. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions 4:7561-7614,

Lohmann, U., and B. Kärcher. 2002. First interactive simulations of cirrus clouds formed by homogeneous freezing in the ECHAM GCM. Journal of Geophysical Research 107:4105, DOI: 10.1029/2001JD000767.

Lohmann, U., J. Feichter, C. C. Chuang, and J. E. Penner. 1999. Predicting the number of cloud droplets in the ECHAM GCM. Journal of Geophysical Research 104:9169-9198.

Lohmann, U., J. Feichter, J. E. Penner, and W. R. Leaitch. 2000. Indirect effect of sulfate and carbonaceous aerosols: A mechanistic treatment. Journal of Geophysical Research 105:12193-12206.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Loveland, T. R., B. C. Reed, J. F. Brown, D. O. Ohlen, J. Zhu, L. Yang, and J. W. Merchant. 2000. Development of a global land cover characteristics database and IGBP DISCover from 1-km AVHRR Data. International Journal of Remote Sensing 21(6/7):1303-1330.

Loveland, T. R., T. L. Sohl, S. V. Stehman, A. L. Gallant, K. L. Sayler, and D. E. Napton. 2002. A strategy for estimating the rates of recent United States land-cover changes. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 68(10):1091-1099.

Lutz, W. 1996. The Future Population of the World: What Can We Assume Today? Revised Edition. London, U.K.: Earthscan.

Lutz, W., W. C. Sanderson, and S. Scherbov. 2004. The End of World Population Growth in the 21st Century. London, U.K.: Earthscan.


Maddison, A. 1995. Monitoring the World Economy 1820-1992. OECD Development Centre Studies. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.

Magny, M., and C. Bégeot. 2004. Hydrological changes in the European midlatitudes associated with freshwater outbursts from Lake Agassiz during the Younger Dryas event and the early Holocene. Quaternary Research 61(2):181-192.

Mahowald, N. M., and C. Luo. 2003. A less dusty future? Geophysical Research Letters 30(17):1903, DOI: 10.1029/2003GL017880.

Mahowald, N. M., R. G. Prinn, and P. J. Rasch. 1997. Deducing CCl3F emissions using an inverse method and chemical transport models with assimilated winds. Journal of Geophysical Research 102:28153-28168.

Manabe, S., and A. J. Broccoli. 1985. The influence of continental ice sheets on the climate of an ice age. Journal of Geophysical Research 90(D1):2167-2190.

Manabe, S., and R. F. Strickler. 1964. Thermal equilibrium of the atmosphere with a convective adjustment. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 21(4):361-385.

Manabe, S., and R. Wetherald. 1967. Thermal equilibrium of the atmosphere with a given distribution of relative humidity. Journal of Atmospheric Science 24:241-259.

Manabe, S., and Wetherald, R. T. 1975. The effects of doubling the CO2-concentration on the climate of a general circulation model. Journal of Atmospheric Science 32:3-15.

Mann, M. E., and P. D. Jones. 2003. Global surface temperatures over the past two millennia. Geophysical Research Letters 30:1820, DOI: 10.1029/2003GL017814.

Mann, M. E., R. S. Bradley, and M. K. Hughes. 1998. Global-scale temperature patterns and climate forcing over the past six centuries. Nature 392:779-787.

Mann, M. E., C. M. Ammann, R. S. Bradley, K. R. Briffa, T. J. Crowley, M. K. Hughes, P. D. Jones, M. Oppenheimer, T. J. Osborn, J. T. Overpeck, S. Rutherford, K. E. Trenberth, and T. M. L. Wigley. 2003. On past temperatures and anomalous late 20th century warmth. Eos 84:256-258.

Mann, M. E., M. A. Cane, S. E. Zebiak, and A. Clement. 2005. Volcanic and solar forcing of the tropical Pacific over the past 1000 years. Journal of Climate 18:447-456.

Manne, A. S., and R. G. Richels. 2001. An alternative approach to establishing trade-offs among greenhouse gases. Nature 410(6829):675-677.

Manne, A.S., R. Mendelsohn, and R. Richels. 1995. MERGE—A model for evaluating regional and global effects of GHG reduction policies. Energy Policy 23(1):17-34.

Marland, G., R. A. Pielke, Sr., M. Apps, R. Avissar, R. A. Betts, K. J. Davis, P. C. Frumhoff, S. T. Jackson, L. Joyce, P. Kauppi, J. Katzenberger, K. G. MacDicken, R. Neilson, J. O. Niles, D. S. Niyogi, R. J. Norby, N. Pena, N. Sampson, and Y. Xue. 2003. The climatic impacts of land surface change and carbon management, and the implications for climate-change mitigation policy. Climate Policy 3:149-157.

Marley, N., J. Gaffney, C. Baird, C. Blazer, P. Drayton, and J. Frederick. 2001. An empirical method for the determination of the complex refractive index of size-fractionated atmospheric aerosols for radiative transfer calculations. Aerosol Science and Technology: 34:535-549.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Marotzke, J. 2000. Abrupt climate change and the thermohaline circulation: Mechanisms and predictability. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97:1347-1350.

Marotzke, J., and B. A. Klinger. 2000. The dynamics of equatorially asymmetric thermohaline circulations. Journal of Physical Oceanography 30(5):955-970.

Marshall, C. H., R. A. Pielke Sr., and L. T. Steyaert. 2003. Wetlands: Crop freezes and land-use change in Florida. Nature 426:29-30.

Marshall, C. H., R. A. Pielke Sr., and L. T. Steyeart. 2004a. Has the conversion of natural wetlands in agricultural land increased the incidence and severity of damaging freezes in south Florida? Monthly Weather Review 132(9):2243−2258, DOI: 10.1175/1520-0493(2004)132.

Marshall, C. H., R. A. Pielke Sr., L. T. Steyaert, and D. A. Willard. 2004b. The impact of anthropogenic land-cover change on the Florida peninsula sea breezes and warm season sensible weather. Monthly Weather Review 132:28-52.

Martin, R. V., K. Chance, D. J. Jacob, T. P. Kurosu, R. J. D. Spurr, E. Bucsela, J. F. Gleason, P. I. Palmer, I. Bey, A. M. Fiore, Q. Li, R. M. Yantosca, and R. B. A. Koelemeijer. 2002. An improved retrieval of tropospheric nitrogen dioxide from GOME. Journal of Geophysical Research 107(D20):4437, DOI: 10.1029/2001JD001027, 2002.

Martin, S. T., H. M. Hung, R. J. Park, D. J. Jacob, R. J. D. Spurr, K. V. Chance, and M. Chin. 2004. Effects of the physical state of tropospheric ammonium-sulfate-nitrate particles on global aerosol direct radiative forcing. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 4:183-214.

Matsui, T., H. Masunaga, R. A. Pielke Sr., and W-K. Tao. 2004. Impact of aerosols and atmospheric thermodynamics on cloud properties within the climate system. Geophysical Research Letters 31, L06109, DOI:10.1029/2003GL019287.

Matsuoka, Y., T. Morita, and M. Kainuma. 2001. Integrated assessment model of climate change: The AIM Approach. Pp. 339-361 in Present and Future of Modeling Global Environmental Change. Tokyo, Japan: Terra Scientific Publishing Company.

Matthes, F. 1939. Report of Committee on Glaciers. Transactions, American Geophysical Union 20:518-523.

Matthews, E. 1983. Global vegetation and land use: New high-resolution data bases for climate studies. Journal of Climate and Applied Meteorology 22:474-487.

McCormack, J. P., L. L. Hood, and R. D. McPeters. 1997. Approximate separation of volcanic and 11-year signals in the SBUV-SBUV/2 total ozone record over the 1979-1995 period. Geophysical Research Letters 24:2729.

McFadden, J. P., G. E. Liston, M. Sturm, R. A. Pielke Sr., and F. S. Chapin III. 2001. Interactions of shrubs and snow in Arctic tundra: Measurements and models. Pp. 317-325 in Soil-Vegetation-Atmosphere Transfer Schemes and Large-Scale Hydrological Models, A. J. Dolman, A. J. Hall, M. L. Kavvas, T. Oki, and J. W. Pomeroy, eds. International Association of Hydrological Sciences Publication No. 270. Wallingford, Oxfordshire, U.K.: IAHS Press.

McFarquhar, G., and A. Heymsfield. 2001. Parameterizations of INDOEX microphysical measurements and calculations of cloud susceptibility: Applications for climate studies. Journal of Geophysical Research 106(D22):28675-28698.

McGraw, R. 1997. Description of aerosol dynamics by the quadrature method of moments. Aerosol Science and Technology 27:255-265.

Mears, C. A., M. Schabel, and F. J. Wentz. 2003. A reanalysis of the MSU Channel 2 tropospheric temperature record. Journal of Climate 16:3650-3664.

Menon, S., A. D. Del Genio, D. Koch, and G. Tselioudis. 2002a. GCM simulations of the aerosol indirect effect: sensitivity to cloud parameterization and aerosol burden, Journal of Atmospheric Science 59:692-713.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Menon, S., J. E. Hansen, L. Nazarenko, and Y. Luo. 2002b. Climate effects of black carbon aerosols in China and India. Science 297:2250-2253.

Messner, S., and M. Strubegger. 1995. User’s Guide for MESSAGE III, WP-95-69. Laxenburg, Austria: International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis.

Mickley, L. J., P. P. Murti, D. J. Jacob, J. A. Logan, D. Rind, and D. Koch. 1999. Radiative forcing from tropospheric ozone calculated with a unified chemistry-climate model. Journal of Geophysical Research 104:30153-30172.

Mickley, L. J., D. J. Jacob, and D. Rind. 2001. Uncertainty in preindustrial abundance of tropospheric ozone: Implications for radiative forcing calculations. Journal of Geophysical Research 106:3389-3399.

Mickley, L. J., D. J. Jacob, B. D. Field, and D. Rind. 2004. Climate response to the increase in tropospheric ozone since preindustrial times: A comparison between ozone and equivalent CO2 forcings. Journal of Geophysical Research 109:D05106, DOI: 1029/ 2003JD003653.

Milkov, A. V. 2004. Global estimates of hydrate-bound gas in marine sediments: How much is really out there? Earth Sciences Review 66(3-4):183-197.

Ming, Y., and L. M. Russell. 2002. Thermodynamic equilibrium of organic-electrolyte mixtures in aerosol particles. American Institute of Chemical Engineers Journal 48:1331-1348.

Ming, Y., and L. M. Russell. 2004. Organic aerosol effects on fog droplet spectra. Journal of Geophysical Research 109(D10):206, DOI: 10.1029/2003JD004427.

Moller, F. 1963. On the influence of changes in CO2 concentration in air on the radiation balance of Earth’s surface and on climate. Journal of Geophysical Research 68:3877-3886.

Monson, R. K., and R. Fall. 1989. Isoprene emission from aspen leaves. Plant Physiology 90:267-274.

Morgan, J. P., T. J. Reston, and C. R. Ranero. 2004. Contemporaneous mass extinctions, continental flood basalts, and “impact signals”: Are mantle plume-induced lithospheric gas explosions the causal link? Earth and Planetary Science Letters 217:263-284.

Mori, S., and M. Takahashi. 1999. An integrated assessment model for the evaluation of new energy technologies and food productivity. International Journal of Global Energy Issues 11(1-4):1-18.

Morita, T., Y. Matsuoka, I. Penna, and M. Kainuma. 1994. Global Carbon Dioxide Emission Scenarios and Their Basic Assumptions: 1994 Survey. CGER-1011-94. Tsukuba, Japan: Center for Global Environmental Research, National Institute for Environmental Studies.

Morrical, B. D., D. P. Fergenson, and K. A. Prather. 1998. Coupling two-step laser desorption/ionization with aerosol time-of-flight mass spectrometry for the analysis of individual organic aerosol particles. Journal of the American Society of Mass Spectrometry 9:1068-1073.

Moy, C. M., G. O. Seltzer, D. T. Rodbell, and D. M. Anderson. 2002. Variability of El Niño/ Southern Oscillation activity at millennial timescales during the Holocene epoch. Nature 420:162-165.

Murphy, J. M. 1995. Transient response of the Hadley Centre coupled ocean-atmosphere model to increasing carbon dioxide. Part I: Control climate and flux adjustment. Journal of Climate 8:36-56.

Murphy, D. M., D. S. Thomson, M. Kaluzhny, J. J. Marti, and R. J. Weber. 1997. Aerosol characteristics at Idaho Hill during the OH Photochemistry Experiment. Journal of Geophysical Research 102(D5):6325-6330, DOI: 10.1029/96JD02552.

Myhre, G., and A. Myhre. 2003. Uncertainties in radiative forcing due to surface albedo changes caused by land-use changes. Journal of Climate 16:1511-1524.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Myhre, G., and F. Stordal. 1997. Role of spatial and temporal variations in the computation of radiative forcing and GWP. Journal of Geophysical Research 102:11181-11200.


Nakajima, T., A. Higurashi, K. Kawamoto, and J. E. Penner. 2001. A possible correlation between satellite-derived cloud and aerosol microphysical parameters. Geophysical Research Letters 28:1171-1174.

Nakićenović, N. 1996. Freeing energy from carbon. Daedalus 125(3):95-112.

Nakićenović, N. A. Grübler, and A. McDonald (eds.) 1998. P. 299 in Global Energy Perspectives. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.

Nakićenović, N., J. Alcamo, G. Davis, B. deVries, J. Fenhann, S. Gaffin, K. Gregory, A. Grübler, T. Y. Jung, T. Kram, E. Lebre LaRovere, L. Michaelis, S. Mori, T. Morita, W. Pepper, H. Pitcher, L. Price, K. Riahi, A. Roehrl, H.-H. Rogner, A. Sankovski, M. Schlesinger, P. Shukla, S. Smith, R. Swart, S. van Rooijen, N. Victor, and Z. Dadi. 2000. IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios. Available online at http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc/emission/, accessed July 15, 2004.

Napton, D. E., T. L. Sohl, R. F. Auch, and T. R. Loveland. 2003. Land use and land cover change in the north central Appalachians Ecoregion. Pennsylvania Geographer XLI(1):1-22 (in press).

Narisma, G. T., A. J. Pitman, J. Eastman, I. G. Watterson, R. Pielke Sr., and A. Beltran-Przekurat. 2003. The role of biospheric feedbacks in the simulation of the impact of historical land cover change on the Australian January climate. Geophysical Research Letters 30(22):2168, DOI: 10.1029/2003GL018261.

NARSTO (North American Research Strategy for Tropospheric Ozone). 2003. Particulate Matter Science for Policy Makers: A NARSTO Assessment. Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) Report 1007735. Palo Alto, Calif.: EPRI.

NAST (National Assessment Synthesis Team). 2001. Climate Change Impacts on the United States: The Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change. Report for the U.S. Global Change Research Program. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.

Neff, U., S. J. Burns, A. Mangini, M. Mudelsee, D. Fleitmann, and A. Matter. 2001. Strong coherence between solar variability and the monsoon in Oman between 9 and 6 kyr ago. Nature 411:290-293.

Nenes, A., and J. H. Seinfeld. 2003. Parameterization of cloud droplet formation in global climate models. Journal of Geophysical Research 108(D14):4415, DOI: 10.1029/ 2002JD002911.

Nerem, R. S., and G. T. Mitchum. 2001. Observation of sea level change from satellite altimetry. In Sea Level Rise, B. C. Douglas, M. S. Kearney, and S. P. Leartherman, eds. San Diego, Calif.: Academic Press.

Nesbitt, S. W., R. Zhang, and R. E. Orville. 2000. Seasonal and global NOx production by lightning estimated from the Optical Transient Detector (OTD). Tellus B 52:1206-1215.

Niggemann, S., A. Mangini, M. Mudelsee, D. K. Richter, and G. Wurth. 2003. Sub-Milankovitch climate cycles in Holocene stalagmites from Sauerland, Germany. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 216(4):539-547.

Niyogi, D., H. I. Chang, V. K. Sexana, T. Holt, K. Alapaty, F. L. Booker, F. Chen,K. J. Davies, B. Holben, T. Matsui, T. Meyers, W. C. Oechel, R. A. Pielke, R. Wells, K. Wilson, and X. Yongkang. 2004. Direct observations of the effects of aerosol loading on net ecosystem CO2 exchanges over different landscapes. Geophysical Research Letters 31(l20506), DOI: 10.1029/2004GL020915.

Nober, F. J., H.-F. Graf, and D. Rosenfeld. 2003. Sensitivity of the global circulation to the suppression of precipitation by anthropogenic aerosols. Global Planetary Change 37:57-80.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Noone, K. J., J. A. Ogren, A. Hallberg, J. Heintzenberg, J. Ström, H. C. Hansson, B. Svenningsson, A. Wiedensohler, S. Fuzzi, M. C. Facchini, B. G. Arends, and A. Berner. 1992. Changes in aerosol size and phase distributions due to physical and chemical processes in fog. Tellus 44B(5):489-504.

Nordhaus, W. D. 1993. Optimal greenhouse-gas reductions and tax policy in the DICE model. AEA Papers and Proceedings 83(2).

Nordhaus, W. D., and J. Boyer. 2000. Warming the World: Economic Models of Global Warming. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.

Noren, A. J., P. R. Bierman, E. J. Steig, A. Lini, and J. Southon. 2002. Millennial-scale storminess variability in the northeastern Unites States during the Holocene epoch. Nature 419:821-824.

Novakov, T., V. Ramanathan, J. E. Hansen, T. W. Kirchstetter, Mki. Sato, J. E. Sinton, and J. A. Satahye. 2003. Large historical changes of fossil-fuel black carbon aerosols. Geophysical Research Letters 30(6):1324, DOI: 10.1029/2002GL016345.

Noyes, R. W. 1982. The Sun, Our Star. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.

NRC (National Research Council). 1979. Carbon Dioxide and Climate: A Scientific Assessment. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

NRC. 1988. Toward an Understanding of Global Change: Initial Priorities for U.S. Contributions to the International Geosphere−Biosphere Program. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

NRC. 1999. Adequacy of Climate Observing Systems. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

NRC. 2000. Reconciling Observations of Global Temperature Change. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

NRC. 2001. Climate Change Science: An Analysis of Some Key Questions. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

NRC. 2002. Abrupt Climate Change: Inevitable Surprises. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

NRC. 2003. Understanding Climate Change Feedbacks. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press.

NRC. 2004. Air Quality Management in the United States. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press.


O’Brien, J. J. 2001. Ph.D. thesis, The effects of climate on the growth and physiology of tropical rainforest canopy trees. Florida International University, Miami.

Ogren, J. A., and R. J. Charlson. 1983. Elemental carbon in the atmosphere: Cycle and lifetime. Tellus 35B:241-254.

Ohmura, A., E. Dutton, B. Forgan, C. Fröhlich, H. Gilgen, H. Hegner, A. Heimo, G. König-Langlo, B. McArthur, G. Müller, R. Philipona, P. Pinker, C. H. Whitlock, K. Dehne, and M. Wild. 1998. Baseline Surface Radiation Network (BSRN/WCRP), a new precision radiometry for climate research. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 79:2115-2136.

Ohring, G., B. Wielicki, R. Spencer, W. Emery, and R. V. Datla, eds. 2004. Satellite Instrument Calibration for Measuring Global Climate Change. U. S. Department of Commerce. National Institute of Standards and Technology. NISTIR 7047.

Olivier, J. G. J, A. F. Bouwman, C. W. M. van der Maas, J. J. M. Berdowski, C. Veldt, J. P. J. Bloos, A. J. H. Visschedijk, P. Y. J. Zanfeld, and J. L. Haverlag. 1996. Description of EDGAR Version 2.0: A Set of Global Emission Inventories of Greenhouse Gas Gases and Ozone-Depleting Substances for all Anthropogenic and Most Natural Sources on a per Country Basis and on a 1 × 1 grid. Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid and Milieu (RIVM) Report 771060 002. Bilthoven, The Netherlands: RIVM.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

O’Neill, B. C. 2000. The jury is still out on global warming potentials. Climatic Change 44:427-443.


Pak, B. C., and M. J. Prather. 2001. CO2 source inversions using satellite observations of the upper troposphere. Geophysical Research Letters 28:4571-4574.

Palmer, P. I., D. J. Jacob, L. J. Mickley, D. R. Blake, G. W. Sachse, H. E. Fuelberg, and C. M. Kiley. 2003. Eastern Asian emissions of anthropogenic halocarbons deduced from aircraft concentration data. Journal of Geophysical Research 108(D24):4753, DOI: 10. 1029/2003JD00359.

Pandis, S. N., L. M. Russell, and J. H. Seinfeld. 1994. The relationship between the DMS flux and the CCN concentration in remote marine regions. Journal of Geophysical Research 99:16945-16957.

Pawlowska, H., and J-L Brenguier. 2000. Microphysical properties of stratocumulus clouds during ACE-2. Tellus 52(2):868-887.

Peng, Y., and U. Lohmann. 2003. Sensitivity study of the spectral dispersion of the cloud droplet size distribution on the indirect aerosol effect. Geophysical Research Letters 30, DOI: 10.1029/2003GL017192.

Penner, J. E., D. H. Lister, D. J. Griggs, D. Docken, and M. MacFarland, eds. 1999. Aviation and the Global Atmosphere, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Special Report. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.

Penner, J. E., S. Y. Zhang, and C. C. Chuang. 2003. Soot and smoke aerosol may not warm climate. Journal of Geophysical Research 108, DOI: 10.1029/2003JD003409

Pepper, W. J., W. Barbour, A. Sankovski, and B. Braaz. 1998. No-policy greenhouse gas emission scenarios: Revisiting IPCC 1992. Environmental Science and Policy 1:289-312.

Perry, C. A., and K. J. Hsu. 2000. Geophysical, archaeological, and historical evidence support a solar-output model for climate change. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97:12433-12438.

Peterson, L. C., G. H. Haug, K. A. Hughen, and U. Rohl. 2000. Rapid changes in the hydrologic cycle of the tropical Atlantic during the last glacial. Science 290:1947-1951.

Petron, G., C. Grainer, B. Khattatov, J. F. Lamarque, V. Yudin, J. F.Müller, and J. Gille. 2002. Inverse modeling of carbon monoxide surface emissions using CMDL network observations. Journal of Geophysical Research 107(D24):4761, DOI:10.1029/ 2001JD001305.

Peylin, P., D. Baker, J. Sarmiento, P. Ciais, P. Bousquet. 2002. Influence of transport uncertainty on annual mean and seasonal inversions of atmospheric CO2 data. Journal of Geophysical Research 107:D19(4385), DOI: 10.1029/2001JD000857.

Pielke, R. A., Jr. 2001. Room for doubt. Nature 410:151.

Pielke, R. A., Sr. 2003. Heat storage within the Earth system. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 84:331-335

Pielke, R. A., Sr., and T. N. Chase. 2003. A Proposed New Metric for Quantifying the Climatic Effects of Human-Caused Alterations to the Global Water Cycle. Presented at the Symposium on Observing and Understanding the Variability of Water in Weather and Climate, 83rd American Meteorological Society Annual Meeting, Long Beach, Calif., February 9-13, 2003.

Pielke, R. A., Sr., and T. N. Chase. 2004. Technical comment: Contributions of anthropogenic and natural forcing to recent tropopause height changes. Science 303:1771b.

Pielke, R. A., Sr., T. N. Chase, T. G. F. Kittel, J. Knaff, and J. Eastman. 2001. Analysis of 200 mbar zonal wind for the period 1958-1997. Journal of Geophysical Research 106(D21):27287-27290.

Pielke R. A., Sr., G. Marland, R. A. Betts, T. N. Chase, J. L. Eastman, J. O. Niles, D. Niyogi, and S. Running. 2002. The influence of land-use change and landscape dynamics on the climate system—Relevance to climate change policy beyond the radiative effect of greenhouse gases. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series A 360:1705-1719.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Piexoto, J. P. and A. H. Oort, 1992: Physics of Climate. New York: American Institute of Physics, 520pp.

Pitman, A. J. 2003. Review: The evolution of, and revolution in, land surface schemes designed for climate models. International Journal of Climatology 23:479-510.

Platnick, S., P. A. Durkee, K. Nielsen, J. P. Taylor, S. C. Tsay, M. D. King, R. J. Ferek, P. V. Hobbs, and J. W. Rottman. 2000. The role of background cloud microphysics in the radiative formation of ship tracks. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 57(16):2607-2624.

Plutzar, C., A. Grubler, V. Stojanovic, L. Riedl, and W. Pospischil. 2000. A GIS-based approach for modeling the spatial and temporal development of night-time lights. Pp. 389-394 in Angewandte Geographische Informationsverarbeitung XII, Beiträge zum AGIT-Symposium Salzburg, J. Strobl, T. Blaschke and G. Griesebner, eds. Heidelberg: Wichmann Verlag.

Pollack, J. B., D. Rind, A. Lacis, J. E. Hansen, M. Sato, and R. Ruedy. 1993. GCM simulations of volcanic aerosol forcing. Part 1: Climate changes induced by steady-state perturbations. Journal of Climate 6(9):1719-1742.

Poore, R. Z., H. J. Dowsett, and S. Verardo. 2003. Millennial- to century-scale variability in Gulf of Mexico Holocene climate records. Paleoceanography 180:2611-2613.

Porter, S. C., and G. H. Denton. 1967. Chronology of neoglaciation in the North American Cordillera. American Journal of Science 265:177-210.

Price, C., J. Penner, and M. Prather. 1997. NOx from lightning: 1. Global distribution based on lightning physics. Journal of Geophysical Research 102(D5):5929-5941.


Quinn, P. K., and D. J. Coffman. 1998. Local closure during the First Aerosol Characterization Experiment (ACE 1): Aerosol mass concentration and scattering and backscattering coefficients. Journal of Geophysical Research 103:15575-15596.


Rabin, R. M., and D. W. Martin. 1995. Satellite observations of shallow cumulus coverage over the central United States: An exploration of land use impact on cloud cover. Journal of Geophysical Research—Atmospheres 101(D3):7149-7155.

Raddatz, R. L. 2003. Aridity and the potential physiological response of C3 crops to doubled atmospheric CO2: A simple demonstration of the sensitivity of the Canadian prairies. Boundary-Layer Meteorology 107:483-496.

Rahmstorf, S., D. Archer, D. S. Ebel, O. Eugster, J. Jouzel, D. Maraun, G. A. Schmidt, J. Severinghaus, A. J. Weaver, and J. Zachos. 2004. Cosmic rays, carbon dioxide, and climate. EOS, Transactions, American Geophysical Union 85:38, 41.

Ramachandran, S., V. Ramaswamy, G. L. Stenchikov, and A. Robock. 2000. Radiative impacts of the Mt. Pinatubo volcanic eruption: Lower stratospheric response. Journal of Geophysical Research 105:24409-24429.

Ramanathan, V., R. J. Cicerone, H. B. Singh, and J. T. Kiehl. 1985. Trace gas trends and their potential role in climate change. Journal of Geophysical Research 90:5547-5566.

Ramanathan, V., L. Callis, R. Cess, J. Hansen, I. Isaksen, W. Kuhn, A. Lacis, F. Luther, J. Mahlman, R. Reck, and M. Schlesinger. 1987. Climate-chemical interactions and effects of changing atmospheric trace gases. World Meteorological Organization Report 14. Reviews of Geophysics 25:1441-1482.

Ramanathan, V., E. F. Harrison, and B. R. Barkstrom. 1989. Climate and the Earth’s radiation budget. Physics Today 42(5):22-33.

Ramanathan, V., B. Subasilar, G. J. Zhang, W. Conant, R. D. Cess, J. T. Kiehl, H. Grassl, and L. Shi. 1995. Warm pool heat budget and shortwave cloud forcing: A missing physics? Science 267:499-503.

Ramanathan, V., P. J. Crutzen, J. T. Kiehl, and D. Rosenfeld. 2001a. Aerosols, climate and the hydrological cycle. Science 294:2119-2124.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Ramanathan, V., P. J. Crutzen, J. Leleiveld, D. Althausen, J. Anderson, M. O. Andreae, W. Cantrell, G. Cass, C. E. Chung, A. D. Clarke, W. D. Collins, J. A. Coakley, F. Dulac, J. Heintzenberg, A. J. Heymsfield, B. Holben, J. Hudson, A. Jayaraman, J. T. Kiehl, T. N. Krishnamurti, D. Lubin, A. P. Mitra, G. MacFarquhar, T. Novakov, J. A. Ogren, I. A. Podgorny, K. Prather, J. M. Prospero, K. Priestley, P. K. Quinn, K. Rajeev, P. Rasch, S. Rupert, R. Sadourney, S. K. Satheesh, P. Sheridan, G. E. Shaw, and F. P. J. Valero. 2001b. The Indian Ocean Experiment: An integrated assessment of the climate forcing and effects of the great Indo-Asian haze. Journal of Geophysical Research 106(D22):28371-28399.

Ramankutty, N., and J. A. Foley. 1999. Estimating historical changes in global land cover: Croplands from 1700 to 1992. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 13:997-1027.

Ramaswamy, V., and C-T. Chen. 1997. Climate forcing-response relationships for greenhouse and shortwave radiative perturbations. Geophysical Research Letters 24:667-670.

Ramaswamy, V., and M. D. Schwarzkopf, 2002. Effects of ozone and well-mixed gases on annual-mean stratospheric temperature trends. Geophysical Research Letters, 29(22): 2064, DOI: 10.1029/2002GL015141.

Ramaswamy, V., M-L. Chanin, J. Angell, J. Barnett, D. Seidel, M. Gelman, P. Keckhut, Y. Koshlekov, K. Labitzke, J-J. Lin, A. O’Neill, J. Nash, W. Randel, R. Rood, K. Shine, M. Shiotani, and R. Swinbank 2001. Stratospheric temperature trends: Observations and model simulations. Reviews of Geophysics, 39:71-122.

Ramaswamy, V., S. Ramachandran, G. Stenchikov, and A. Robock. 2004. A model study of the effect of Pinatubo volcanic aerosols on stratospheric temperatures. In Frontiers in the Science of Climate Modeling, J. T. Kiehl and V. Ramanathan, eds. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.

Randel, D. L., T. H. Vonder Haar, M. A. Ringerud, G. L. Stephens, T. J. Greenwald, and C. L. Combs. 1996. A new global water vapor dataset. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 77:1233-1246.

Randles, C. A., L. M. Russell, and V. Ramaswamy. 2004. Hygroscopic and optical properties of organic sea-salt aerosol and consequences for climate forcing. Geophysical Research Letters 31(L16108), DOI: 10.1029/2004GL020628.

Raper, S. C. B., J. M. Gregory, and R. J. Stouffer. 2001. The role of climate sensitivity and ocean heat uptake on AOGCM transient temperature response. Journal of Climate 15:124-130.

Rasch, P. J., and J. E. Kristjánsson. 1998. A comparison of the CCM3 model climate using diagnosed and predicted consensate parameterizations. Journal of Climate 11:1587-1614.

Raymo, M. E. 1998. Glacial puzzles. Science 281:1467-1468.

Rayner, P. J., and D. M. O’Brien. 2001. The utility of remotely sensed CO2 concentration data in surface source inversions. Geophysical Research Letters 28:175-178.

Redemann, J., R. P. Turco, K. N. Liou, P. B. Russell, R. W. Bergstrom, B. Schmid, J. M. Livingston, P. V. Hobbs, W. S. Hartley, S. Ismail, R. A. Ferrare, and E. V. Browell. 2000. Retrieving the vertical structure of the effective aerosol complex index of refraction from a combination of aerosol in situ and remote sensing measurements during TARFOX. Journal of Geophysical Research 105(D8):9949-9970.

Rial, J. A., R. A. Pielke Sr., M. Beniston, M. Claussen, J. Canadell, P. Cox, H. Held, N. De Noblet-Ducoudré, R. Prinn, J. F. Reynolds, and J. D. Salas. 2004. Nonlinearities, feedbacks and critical thresholds within the Earth’s climate system. Climatic Change 65:11-38.

Rind, D., J. Lean, and R. Healy. 1999. Simulated time-dependent climate response to solar radiative forcing since 1600. Journal of Geophysical Research 104:1973-1990.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Robertson, A. D., J. T. Overpeck, E. Mosley-Thompson, G. A. Zielinski, J. L. Lean, D. Koch, J. E. Penner, I. Tegen, D. Rind, and R. Healy. 1998. Hypothesized climate forcing time series for the last 500 years (abstract). Supplement to EOS, Transactions American Geophysical Union 79:833-834.

Robock, A. 2000. Volcanic eruptions and climate. Reviews of Geophysics 38:191-219.

Robock, A. 2002. Volcanic eruptions. Pp. 738-744 in Encyclopedia of Global Environmental Change, Volume 1: The Earth System: Physical and chemical dimensions of global environmental change, M. C. MacCracken and J. S. Perry eds. Chichester: John Wiley and Sonts, Ltd.

Robock, A., and M. P. Free. 1995. Ice cores as an index of global volcanism from 1850 to the present. Journal of Geophysical Research 100:11549-11567.

Robock, A., and M. P. Free. 1996. The volcanic record in ice cores for the past 2000 years. Pp. 533-546 in Climatic Variations and Forcing Mechanisms of the Last 2000 Years, P. D. Jones, R. S. Bradley, and J. Jouzel, eds. Berlin: Springer Verlag.

Roderick, M. L., and G. D. Farquhar. 2002. The cause of decreased pan evaporation over the past 50 years. Science 298:1410-1411

Roehrl, R. A., and K. Riahi, 2000. Greenhouse gas emissions mitigation and the role of technology dynamics and path dependency—A cost assessment. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 63(2-3).

Rosenfeld, D. 1999. Dense smoke turns off normal tropical rainfall. Geophysical Research Letters 26:3105.

Rosenfeld, D. 2000. Suppression of rain and snow by urban and industrial air pollution. Science 287:1793-1796.

Rosenfeld, D., and G. Feingold. 2003. Explanation of discrepancies among satellite observations of the aerosol indirect effects. Geophysical Research Letters 30(14):1776, DOI: 10.1029/2003GL017684.

Rosenfeld, D., and W. L. Woodley. 2000. Convective clouds with sustained highly supercooled liquid water down to −37.5°C. Nature 405:440-442.

Rosenlof, K. H., S. J. Oltmans, D. Kley, J. M. Russell III, E.-W. Chiou, W. P. Chu, D. G. Johnson, K. K. Kelly, H. A. Michelsen, G. E. Nedoluha, E. E. Remsberg, G. C. Toon, and M. P. McCormick. 2001. Stratospheric water vapor increases of the past half-century. Geophysical Research Letters 28:1195-1198.

Rotstayn, L. D., and Y. G. Liu. 2003. Sensitivity of the first indirect aerosol effect to an increase of cloud droplet spectral dispersion with droplet number concentration. Journal of Climate 16(21):3476-3481.

Royer, D. L., R. A. Berner, I. P. Montañez, N. J. Tabor, and D. J. Beerling. 2004. CO2 as a primary driver of Phanerozoic climate. GSA Today 14(3):4-10.

Ruddiman, W. F. 2001. Earth’s Climate, Past and Future. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. 465 pp.

Ruddiman, W. F. 2003. The anthropogenic greenhouse era began thousands of years ago. Climatic Change 61:261-293.

Running, S. W., R. Nemani, F. Heinsch, M. Zhao, M. Reeves, and H. Hashimoto. 2004. A continuous satellite-derived measure of global terrestrial primary productivity: Future science and applications. Bioscience 54(6):547-560.

Russell, L. M. 2003. Aerosol organic-mass-to-organic-carbon ratio measurements. Environmental Science and Technology 37(13):2982-2987.

Russell, L. M., and J. H. Seinfeld. 1998. Size- and composition-resolved externally mixed aerosol model. Aerosol Science and Technology 28(5):403-416.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Russell, L. M., J. H. Seinfeld, R. C. Flagan, R. J. Ferek, D. A. Hegg, P. V. Hobbs, W. Wobrock, A. I. Flossmann, C. D. O’Dowd, K. E. Nielsen, and P. A. Durkee. 1999. Aerosol dynamics in ship tracks. Journal of Geophysical Research—Atmospheres 104(D24):31077-31095.

Russell, L. M., K. J. Noone, R. J. Ferek, R. A. Pockalny, R. C. Flagan, and J. H. Seinfeld. 2000. Combustion organic aerosol as cloud condensation nuclei in ship tracks. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 57(16):2591-2606.

Russell, L. M., S. F. Maria, and S. Myneni. 2002. Mapping organic coatings on atmospheric particles. Geophysical Research Letters 29, DOI: 10.1029/2002GL014874.

Russell, P. B., J. M. Livingston, P. Hignett, S. Kinne, J. Wong, A. Chien, R. Bergstrom, P. Durkee, and P. V. Hobbs. 1999. Aerosol-induced radiative flux changes off the United States mid-Atlantic coast: Comparison of values calculated from sunphotometer and in situ data with those measured by airborne pyranometer. Journal of Geophysical Research—Atmospheres 104(D2):2289-2307.

Ruzmaikin, A. 1999. Can El Niño amplify the solar forcing of climate? Geophysical Research Letters 26:2255-2258.

Ruzmaikin, A., and J. Feynman. 2002. Solar influence on a major mode of atmospheric variability. Geophysical Research Letters 107(D14).

Rye, R., P. H. Kuo, and H. D. Holland. 1995. Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations before 2.2 billion years ago. Nature 378:603-605.


Sagan, C., and C. Chyba. 1997. The early faint Sun paradox: Organic shielding of ultravioletlabile greenhouse gases. Science 276:1217-1221.

Sagan, C., and G. Mullen. 1972. Earth and Mars—Evolution of Atmospheres and Surface Temperatures. Science 177:52.

Salby, M., and P. Callaghan. 2000. Connection between the solar cycle and the QBO: The missing link. Journal of Climate 13:2652-2662.

Sanadze, G. A. 1969. Light-dependent excretion of molecular isoprene. Progress in Photosynthesis Research 2:701-706.

Santer, B. D., K. E. Taylor, J. E. Penner, T. M. L. Wigley, U. Cubasch, and P. D. Jones. 1995. Towards the detection and attribution of an anthropogenic effect on climate. Climate Dynamics 12:77-100.

Santer, B. D., K. E. Taylor, T. M. L. Wigley, P. D. Jones, D. J. Karoly, J. F. B. Mitchell, A. H. Oort, J. E. Penner, V. Ramaswamy, M. D. Schwarzkopf, R. S. Stouffer, and S. F. B. Tett. 1996. A search for human influences on the thermal structure in the atmosphere. Nature 382:39-46.

Santer, B. D., T. M. L. Wigley, D. J. Gaffen, L. Bengtsson, C. Doutriaux, J. S. Boyle, M. Esch, J. J. Hnilo, P. D. Jones, G. A. Meehl, E. Roeckner, K. E. Taylor, and M. F. Wehner. 2000. Interpreting differential temperature trends at the surface and in the lower troposphere. Science 287:1227-1232.

Santer, B. D., T. M. L. Wigley, G. A. Meehl, M. F. Wehner, C. Mears, M. Schabel, F. J. Wentz, C. Ammann, J. Arblaster, T. Bettge, W. M. Washington, K. E. Taylor, J. S. Boyle, W. Brüggemann, and C. Doutriaux. 2003a. Influence of satellite data uncertainties on the detection of externally forced climate change. Science 300:1280-1284.

Santer, B. D., M. F. Wehner, T. M. L. Wigley, R. Sausen, G. A. Meehl, K. E. Taylor, C. Ammann, J. Arblaster, W. M. Washington, J. S. Boyle, and W. Brüggemann. 2003b. Contributions of anthropogenic and natural forcing to recent tropopause height changes. Science 301:479-483.

Sarewitz, D., R. A. Pielke Jr., and R. Byerly Jr., eds. 2000. Prediction: Science, decision making and the future of nature. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Sassen K., P. J. DeMott, J. M. Prospero, and M. R. Poellot. 2003. Saharan dust storms and indirect aerosol effects on clouds: CRYSTAL-FACE results. Geophysical Research Letters 30(12):1633, DOI: 10.1029/2003GL017371.

Satheesh, S. K., and V. Ramanathan. 2000. Large differences in tropical aerosol forcing at the top of the atmosphere and Earth’s surface. Nature 405(6782):60-63.

Schaaf, C. B., A. H. Strahler, F. Gao, W. Lucht, X. Li, X. Zhang, Y. Jin, E. Tsvetsinskaya, J.-P. Muller, P. Lewis, M. Barnsley, G. Roberts, C. Doll, S. Liang, J. L. Privette, and D. Roy. 2002. Global Albedo, BRDF and Nadir BRDF-adjusted reflectance products from MODIS. Proceedings of the International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS’02), Toronto, Canada, June 24-28.

Schauer, J. J., M. J. Kleeman, G. R. Cass, and B. R. T. Simoneit. 1999. Measurement of emissions from air pollution sources. 2. C1-C29 organic compounds from medium duty diesel trucks. Environmental Science and Technology 33:1578-1587.

Schimel, D. S., J. I. House, K. A. Hibbard, P. Bousquet, P. Ciais, P. Peylin, B. H. Braswell, M. J. Apps, D. Baker, A. Bondeau, J. Canadell, G. Churkina, W. Cramer, A. S. Denning, C. B. Field, P. Friedlingstein, C. Goodale, M. Heimann, R. A. Houghton, J. M. Melillo, B. Moore III, D. Murdiyarso, I. Noble, S. W. Pacala, I. C. Prentice, M. R. Raupach, P. J. Rayner, R. J. Scholes, W. L. Steffen, and C. Wirth. 2001. Recent patterns and mechanisms of carbon exchange by terrestrial ecosystems. Nature 414:169-172.

Schipper, L. 1996. Lifestyles and the environment: The case for energy. Daedalus 125:113.

Schmidt, G. A., and D. T. Shindell. 2003. Atmospheric composition, radiative forcing, and climate change as a consequence of a massive methane release from gas hydrates. Paleoceanography 18(1):1004, DOI: 10.1029/2002PA000757.

Schneider, S. H., and R. E. Dickinson. 1974. Climate modeling. Review of Geophysics and Space Physics 12:447-493.

Schneider, S. H., and C. Mass. 1975. Volcanic dust, sunspots and temperature trends. Science 190:741-746.

Schwartz, S. E. 1993. Does fossil fuel combustion lead to global warming? Energy International Journal 18:1229-1248.

Schwartz, S. E., Harshvardhan, and C. M. Benkovitz. 2002. Influence of anthropogenic aerosol on cloud optical depth and albedo shown by satellite measurements and chemical transport modeling. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99(4):1784-1789.

Schwarzkopf, M. D., and V. Ramaswamy. 2002. Effects of changes in well-mixed gases and ozone on stratospheric seasonal temperatures. Geophysical Research Letters, 29(24):2184, DOI: 10.1029/2002GL015759.

Seinfeld, J. H., and S. N. Pandis. 1998. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: From Air Pollution to Climate Change. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Self, S., T. Thordarson, and L. Keszthelyi. 1997. Emplacement of continental basalt lava flows. Pp. 381-410 in Large Igneous Provinces: Continental, Oceanic, and Planetary Flood Volcanism, J. J. Mahoney and M. F. Coffin, eds. Geophysical Monograph 100. Washington, D.C.: American Geophysical Union.

Sellers, P. J., R. E. Dickinson, D. A. Randall, A. K. Betts, F. G. Hall, J. A. Berry, G. J. Collatz, A. S. Denning, H. A. Mooney, C. A. Nobre, N. Sato, C. B. Field, and A. Henderson-Sellers. 1997. Modeling the exchanges of energy, water, and carbon between continents and the atmosphere. Science 275(5299):502-509.

Sexton, D. M. H., H. Grubb, K. P. Shine, and C. K. Folland. 2003. Design and analysis of climate model experiments for the efficient estimation of anthropogenic signals. Journal of Climate 16:1320-1336.

Shaviv, N. J. 2003. Toward a solution of the early faint Sun paradox: A lower cosmic ray flux from a stronger solar wind. Journal of Geophysical Research 108(A12), DOI: 10.1029/ 2003JA009997.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Shaviv, N. J., and J. Veizer. 2003. Celestial driver of Phanerozoic climate? GSA Today 13(7):4-10.

Shell, K. M., R. Frouin, S. Nakamoto, and R. C. J. Somerville. 2003. Atmospheric response to solar radiation absorbed by phytoplankton. Journal of Geophysical Research 108(D15):4445.

Sherwood, S. 2002. A microphysical connection among biomass burning, cumulus clouds, and stratospheric moisture. Science 295:1272-1275.

Shindell, D. T., and G. Faluvegi. 2002. An exploration of ozone changes and their radiative forcing prior to the chlorofluorocarbon era. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2:363-374.

Shindell D. T., D. Rind, N. Balachandran, J. Lean, and P. Lonergan. 1999. Solar cycle variability, ozone, and climate. Science 284(5412): 305-308.

Shindell, D. T., G. A. Schmidt, R. L. Miller, and D. Rind. 2001a. Northern hemisphere winter climate response to greenhouse gas, ozone, solar, and volcanic forcing. Journal of Geophysical Research 106(D7):7193-7210.

Shindell, D. T., G. A. Schmidt, M. E. Mann, D. Rind, and A. Waple. 2001b. Solar forcing of regional climate change during the Maunder Minimum. Science 294:2149-2152.

Shindell, D. T., G. A. Schmidt, R. L. Miller, and M. E. Mann. 2003. Volcanic and solar forcing of climate during the preindustrial era. Journal of Climate 16:4094-4107.

Shindell, D. T., G. A. Schmidt, M. E. Mann, and G. Faluvegi. 2004. Dynamic winter climate response to large tropical volcanic eruptions since 1600. Journal of Geophysical Research 109D05104, DOI:10.1029/2003JD004151.

Shine, K. P., J. Cook, E. J. Highwood, and M. M. Joshi. 2003. An alternative to radiative forcing for estimating the relative importance of climate change mechanisms. Geophysical Research Letters 30(20):2047, DOI: 10.1029/ 2003GL018141.

Shukla, J., and Y. Mintz. 1982. Influence of land-surface evapotranspiration on the Earth’s climate. Science 215:1498-1501.

Smith, L. C., G. M. MacDonald, A. A. Velichko, D. W. Beilman, O. K. Borisova, K. E. Frey, R. V. Kremenetski, and Y. Sheng. 2004. Siberian peatlands a net carbon sink and global methane source since the early Holocene. Science 303:353-356.

Smith, S. J., and T. M. L. Wigley. 2000a. Global warming potentials. 1: Climatic implications of emissions reductions. Climatic Change 44:445-457.

Smith, S. J., and T. M. L. Wigley. 2000b. Global warming potentials. 2: Accuracy. Climatic Change 44:459-469.

Snyder, P. K., J. A. Foley, M. H. Hitchman, and C. Delire. 2004. Analyzing the effects of complete tropical forest removal on the regional climate using a detailed three-dimensional energy budget: An application to Africa. Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres 109(D21):D21102, DOI: 10.1029/2003JD004462

Soden, B. J., and V. Ramaswamy. 1998. Variations in atmosphere-ocean solar absorption under clear skies: A comparison of observations and models. Geophysical Research Letters 25(12):2149-2152.

Soden, B. J., R. T. Wetherald, G. Stenchikov, and A. Robock. 2002. Global cooling after the eruption of Mount Pinatubo: A test of climate feedback by water vapor. Science 296(5568):727-730.

Sohl, T. L, A. L. Gallant, and T. R. Loveland. 2004. The characteristics and interpretability of land surface change and implications on project design. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 70:439-450.

Sollazzo, M. J., L. M. Russell, D. Percival, S. Osborne, R. Wood, and D. W. Johnson. 2000. Entrainment rates during ACE 2 Lagrangian experiments calculated from aircraft measurements. Tellus 52B:335-347.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Soubottina, T. 2004. Beyond Economic Growth: An Introduction to Sustainable Development, 2nd ed. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.

Spessa, A., S. P. Harrison, I. C. Prentice, W. Cramer, N. Mahowald. 2003. Confronting a burning question: The role of eire on Earth. Eos Trans. American Geophysical Union. 84(3):23, 10.1029/2003EO030005.

Srinivisan, K., and V. Shastri. 2004. A Set of Population Projections of India and the Larger States Based on 2001 Census Results. Population Foundation of India. Available on-line at http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/genrep/bkpap2020/25_bg2020.doc. Accessed June 21, 2004.

Stajner, I., L. P. Riishøjgaard, and R. B. Rood. 2001. The GEOS ozone data assimilation system: Specification of error statistics. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 127:1069-1094.

Stanhill, G., and S. Cohen. 2001. Global dimming: A review of the evidence for a widespread and significant reduction in global radiation with discussion of its probable causes and possible agricultural consequences. Agriculture Forest Meteorolology 107:255-278.

Staudt, A. C., D. J. Jacob, F. Ravetta, J. A. Logan, D. Bachiochi, T. N. Krishnamurti, S. T Sandholm, B. A. Ridley, H. B. Singh, and R. W. Talbot. 2003. Sources and chemistry of nitrogen oxides over the tropical Pacific. Journal of Geophysical Research 108:8239, DOI: 10.1029/2002JD002139.

Steffen, W, A. Sanderson, P. D. Tyson, J. Jäger, P. A. Matson, B. Moore III, F. Oldfield, K. Richardson, H. J. Schellnhuber, B. L. Turner II, and R. J. Wasson. 2004. Global Change and the Earth System: A Planet Under Pressure. Executive Summary. Stockholm: International Geosphere-Biosphere Program.

Steiger, S. M., and R. E. Orville. 2003. Cloud-to-ground lightning enhancement over southern Louisiana. Geophysical Research Letters 29, DOI: 10.1029/2003GL017923.

Stenchikov, G. L., I. Kirchner, A. Robock, H.-F. Graf, J.-C. Antuña, R. G. Grainger, A. Lambert, and L. Thomason. 1998. Radiative forcing from the 1991 Mount Pinatubo volcanic eruption. Journal of Geophysical Research 103:13837-13857.

Stenchikov, G. L., A. Robock, V. Ramaswamy, M. D. Schwarzkopf, K. Hamilton, and S. Ramachandran. 2002. Arctic Oscillation response to the 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption: Effects of volcanic aerosols and ozone depletion. Journal of Geophysical Research 107, DOI: 10.1029/2002JD002090.

Steyaert, L. T., F. G. Hall, and T. R. Loveland. 1997. Land cover mapping, fire disturbance-regeneration, and multiresolution land cover scaling studies in the BOREAS forest ecosystem with multiresolution 1-km AVHRR. Journal of Geophysical Research 102:29581-29598.

Stott, P. A., S. F. B. Tett, G. S. Jones, M. R. Allen, J. F. B. Mitchell, and G. J. Jenkins. 2000. External control of 20th century temperature by natural and anthropogenic forcings. Science 290:2133-2137.

Stott, P. A., S. F. B. Tett, G. S. Jones, M. R. Allen, W. J. Ingram, and J. F. B. Mitchell. 2001. Attribution of twentieth century temperature change to natural and anthropogenic causes. Climate Dynamics 17:1-21.

Strahler, A., D. Muchoney, J. Borak, and M. Friedl. 1999. MODIS land cover product algorithm theoretical basis document (ATBD) version 5.0. Available on-line at http://modisland.gsfc.nasa.gov/products/products.asp?ProdFamID=10. Accessed December 9, 2004.

Ström, J., and S. Ohlsson. 1998. In situ measurements of enhanced crystal number densities in cirrus clouds caused by aircraft exhaust. Journal of Geophysical Research 103(D10):11355-11362, DOI: 10.1029/98JD00807.

Stuber, N., M. Ponater, and R. Sausen. 2001. Is the climate sensitivity to ozone perturbations enhanced by stratospheric water vapor feedback? Geophysical Research Letters 28(15), DOI: 10.1029/2001GL013000. issn: 0094-8276.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Stuiver, M. 1965. Carbon-14 content of 18th- and 19th-century wood variations correlated with sunspot activity. Science 149:533-34.

Suntharalingam, P., D. J. Jacob, P. I. Palmer, J. A. Logan, R. M. Yantosca, Y. Xiao, M. J. Evans, D. G. Streets, S. L. Vay, and G. W. Sachse. 2004. Improved quantification of Chinese carbon fluxes using CO2/CO correlations in Asian outflow. Journal of Geophysical Research 109(18):D18S18, DOI: 10.1029/2003JD004362.

Svensmark, H., and E. Friis-Christensen. 1997. Variation of cosmic ray flux and global cloud coverage—A missing link in solar-climate relationships. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics 59:1225-1232.


Tan, W. W., M. A. Geller, S. Pawson, and A. da Silva. 2004. A case study of excessive subtropical transport in the stratosphere of a data assimilation system. Journal of Geophysical Research 109:D11102, DOI:10.1029/2003JD004057.

Taylor, J. P., and A. McHaffie. 1994. Measurements of cloud susceptibility. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 51:1298-1306.

Teller, J., and D. Leverington. 2004. Glacial Lake Agassiz: A 5000-year history of change and its relationship to the 18O record of Greenland. Geological Society of America Bulletin 116:729-742.

Tett, S. F. B., J. F. B. Mitchell, D. E. Parker, and M. R. Allen. 1996. Human influence on the atmospheric vertical temperature structure: Direction and observations. Science 274:1170-1173.

Tett, S. F. B., P. A. Scott, M. R. Allen, W. J. Ingram, and J. F. B. Mitchell. 1999. Causes of twentieth-century temperature change near the Earth’s surface. Nature 399:569-572.

Thompson, L. G., E. Mosley-Thompson, M. E. Davis, K. A. Henderson, H. H. Brecher, V. S. Zagorodnov, T. A. Mashiotta, P.-N. Lin, V. N. Mikhalenko, D. R. Hardy, and J. Beer. 2002. Kilimanjaro ice core records: Evidence of Holocene climate change in tropical Africa. Science 298:589-593.

Thordarson, T., S. Self, D. J. Miller, G. Larsen, and E. G. Vilmundardottir. 2003. Sulphur release from lava eruptions in the Veidivotn, Grimsvotn and Katla volcanic systems, Iceland. Pp. 103-121 in Volcanic Degassing, C. Oppenheimer, D. M. Pyle, and J. Barclay, eds. Special Publications 213. London: Geological Society of London.

Tie, X., R. Zhang, G. Brasseur, and W. Lei. 2002. Global NOx production by lightning. Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry 43:61-74.

Toth, F., G.-Y. Cao, and E. Hizsnyik. 2003. Regional Population Projections for China: Interim Report IR-03-042. Laxenburg, Austria: International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA). Available on-line at http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Publications/Documents/IR-03-042.pdf. Accessed June 21, 2004.

Townshend, J. R. G., and C. O. Justice. 2002. Towards operational monitoring of terrestrial systems by moderate resolution remote sensing. Remote Sensing of Environment 83:351-359.

Travis, D. J., A. M. Carleton, and R. Lauritsen. 2002. An unintended contrail experiment. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 83(4):500.

Trenberth, K. E. 2004. Rural land-use change and climate. Nature 427:213.

Tripati, A. K., and H. Elderfield. 2004. Abrupt hydrographic changes in the equatorial Pacific and subtropical Atlantic from foraminiferal Mg/Ca indicate greenhouse origin for the thermal maximum at the Paleocene-Eocene boundary. Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 5:1-ll.

Tsonis, A. A. 2001. The impact of nonlinear dynamics in the atmospheric sciences. International Journal of Bifurcation and Chaos 11:881-902.

Twomey, S. A. 1959. The nuclei of natural cloud formation. Part II: The supersaturation in natural clouds and the variation of cloud droplet concentrations. Geofisica Pura e Applicata 43:227-242.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Udelhofen, P. M., and R. D. Cess. 2001. Cloud cover variations over the United States: An influence of cosmic rays or solar variability? Geophysical Research Letters 28:2617-2620.

UN (United Nations). 2002. United Nations World Population Prospects: The 2002 Revision. New York: United Nations.

USCCSP (U.S. Climate Change Science Program). 2003. Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program. Washington, D.C.

U.S. Census Bureau. 2002. State Population Projections. Available on-line at http://www.census.gov/population/www/projections/stproj.html. Accessed June 21, 2004.


Van Aardenne, J. A., F. J. Dentener, J. G. J. Olivier, C. G. M. Klein Goldewijk, and J. Lelieveld. 2001. A 1° × 1° resolution data set of historical anthropogenic trace gas emissions for the period 1890-1990. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 15(4):909-928.

Van den Hurk, B. J. J. M., P. Viterbo, and S. O. Los. 2003. Impact of leaf area index seasonality on the annual land surface evaporation in a global circulation model. Journal of Geophysical Research—Atmospheres 108(D6):4191.

Vinnikov, K. Y. and N. C. Grody. 2003: Global warming trend of mean tropospheric temperature observed by satellites. Science 302:269-272.

Vose, R. S., T. R. Karl, D. R. Easterling, C. N. Williams, and M. J. Menne. 2004. Impact of land-use change on climate. Nature 427:213-214.


Wang J., S. A. Christopher, J. S. Reid, H. Maring, D. Savoie, B. N. Holben, J. M. Livingston, P. B. Russell, and S.-K. Yang. 2003. GOES 8 retrieval of dust aerosol optical thickness over the Atlantic Ocean during PRIDE. Journal of Geophysical Research 108(D19):8595, DOI: 10.1029/2002JD002494.

Wang, J. S., J. A. Logan, M. B. McElroy, B. N. Duncan, I. A. Megretskaia, and R. M. Yantosca. 2004. A 3-D model analysis of the slowdown and interannual variability in the methane growth rate from 1988 to 1997. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 19, DOI: 10.1029/2003GB002180.

Wang, Y., and D. J. Jacob. 1998. Anthropogenic forcing on tropospheric ozone and OH since preindustrial times. Journal of Geophysical Research 103:31123-31135.

Wang, Y., D. J. Jacob, and J. A. Logan. 1998. Global simulation of tropospheric O3-NOx-hydrocarbon chemistry. 1. Model formulation. Journal of Geophysical Research 103(D9):10713-10726.

Waple, A. M., M. E. Mann, and R. S. Bradley. 2002. Long-term patterns of solar irradiance forcing in model experiments and proxy based surface temperature reconstructions. Climate Dynamics 18:563-578.

Warren, D. R., and J. H. Seinfeld. 1985. Simulation of aerosol size distribution evolution in systems with simultaneous nucleation, condensation, and coagulation. Aerosol Science and Technology 4(1):31-43.

Weaver, C. P., and R. Avissar. 2001. Atmospheric disturbances caused by human modification of the landscape. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 82:269-281.

Webber, W. R., and P. R. Higbie. 2003. Production of cosmogenic Be nuclei in the Earth’s atmosphere by cosmic rays: Its dependence on solar modulation and the interstellar cosmic ray spectrum. Journal of Geophysical Research 108, DOI: 10.1029/ 2003JA009863.

Whitworth III, T., S. B. Rutz, R. D. Pillsbury, M. I. Moore, B. A. Warren, and W. D. Nowlin Jr. 1999. On the deep western-boundary current in the Southwest Pacific Basin. Progress in Oceanography 43(1):1-54.

Wigley, T. M. L. 1991. Could reducing fossil-fuel emissions cause global warming? Nature 349:503-506.

Wigley, T. M. L. 1998. The Kyoto Protocol: CO2, CH4 and climate implications. Geophysical Research Letters 25(13):2285-2288.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×

Wigley, T. M. L., and S. C. B. Raper. 2001. Interpretation of high projections for global-mean warming. Science 293:451-454, DOI: 10.1126/science.1061604.

Wigley, T. M. L., B. D. Santer, and K. E. Taylor. 2000. Correlation approaches to detection. Geophysical Research Letters 27(18):2973-2976.

Willis J. K., D. Roemmich, and B. Cornuelle, 2003. Combining altimetric height with broadscale profile data to estimate steric height, heat storage, subsurface temperature, and sea-surface temperature variability. Journal of Geophysical Research 108(C9):3292, DOI: 10.1029/2002JC001755.

Willis, J. K., D. Roemmich, and B. Cornuelle. 2004. Interannual variability in upper-ocean heat content, temperature, and thermosteric expansion on global scales. Journal of Geophysical Research 109(C12036), DOI:10.1029/2003JC002260.

Willson, R. C., and A. Mordvinov. 2003. Secular total irradiance trends during solar cycles 21-23. Geophysical Research Letters 30:1029-1032.

WMO (World Meteorological Organization). 1985. Atmospheric Ozone: Assessment of Our Understanding of the Processes Controlling its Present Distribution and Change. 3 vol. WMO Report No. 16. Geneva.

WMO. 2003. Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2002, Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project—Report No. 47, 498 pp., Geneva.

Wofsy, S. C., and R. C. Harriss. 2002. The North American Carbon Program (NACP). Report of the NACP Committee of the U.S. Interagency Carbon Cycle Science Program. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Global Change Research Program.

Workshop on GHG Stabilization Scenarios. 2004. Tsukuba, Japan, January 22-23.

World Bank. 2004. World Development Indicators 2004. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.

World Energy Outlook. 2004. Available on-line at http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/. Accessed September 2004.

Wu, Z.-X., and R. E. Newell. 1998. Influence of sea surface temperature on air temperature in the tropic. Climate Dynamics 14:275-290.

Wuchterl, G., and R. S. Klessen. 2001. The first million years of the Sun: A calculation of the formation and early evolution of a solar mass star. Astrophysical Journal 560:L185-L188.

Wunsch, C. 2004. Quantitative estimate of the Milankovitch-forced contribution to observed Quaternary climate change. Quaternary Science Reviews 23:1001-1012.


Xiao, Y., D. J. Jacob, J. S. Wang, J. A. Logan, P. I. Palmer, P. Suntharalingam, R. M. Yantosca, G. W. Sachse, D. R. Blake, and D. G. Streets. 2004. Constraints on Asian and European sources of methane from CH4-C2H6-CO correlations in Asian outflow. Journal of Geophysical Research 109:D15S16, DOI: 10.1029/2003JD004475.


Yamamoto, G., and M. Tanaka. 1972. Increase of global albedo due to air pollution. Journal of Atmospheric Science 29:1405-1412.

Yoder, J. A., J. K. Moore, and R. N. Swift. 2001. Putting together the big picture: Remote-sensing observations of ocean color. Oceanography 14(4):33-40.


Zielinski, G. A. 2000. Use of paleo-records in determining variability within the volcanism-climate system. Quaternary Science Reviews 19:417-438.

Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 159
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 160
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 161
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 162
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 163
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 164
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 165
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 166
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 167
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 168
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 169
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 170
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 171
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 172
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 173
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 174
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 175
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 176
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 177
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 178
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 179
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 180
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 181
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 182
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 183
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 184
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 185
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 186
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 187
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 188
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 189
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2005. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11175.
×
Page 190
Next: Appendix A: Biographical Sketches of Committee Members and Staff »
Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties Get This Book
×
Buy Paperback | $50.00 Buy Ebook | $40.99
MyNAP members save 10% online.
Login or Register to save!
Download Free PDF

Changes in climate are driven by natural and human-induced perturbations of the Earth's energy balance. These climate drivers or "forcings" include variations in greenhouse gases, aerosols, land use, and the amount of energy Earth receives from the Sun. Although climate throughout Earth's history has varied from "snowball" conditions with global ice cover to "hothouse" conditions when glaciers all but disappeared, the climate over the past 10,000 years has been remarkably stable and favorable to human civilization. Increasing evidence points to a large human impact on global climate over the past century. The report reviews current knowledge of climate forcings and recommends critical research needed to improve understanding. Whereas emphasis to date has been on how these climate forcings affect global mean temperature, the report finds that regional variation and climate impacts other than temperature deserve increased attention.

  1. ×

    Welcome to OpenBook!

    You're looking at OpenBook, NAP.edu's online reading room since 1999. Based on feedback from you, our users, we've made some improvements that make it easier than ever to read thousands of publications on our website.

    Do you want to take a quick tour of the OpenBook's features?

    No Thanks Take a Tour »
  2. ×

    Show this book's table of contents, where you can jump to any chapter by name.

    « Back Next »
  3. ×

    ...or use these buttons to go back to the previous chapter or skip to the next one.

    « Back Next »
  4. ×

    Jump up to the previous page or down to the next one. Also, you can type in a page number and press Enter to go directly to that page in the book.

    « Back Next »
  5. ×

    Switch between the Original Pages, where you can read the report as it appeared in print, and Text Pages for the web version, where you can highlight and search the text.

    « Back Next »
  6. ×

    To search the entire text of this book, type in your search term here and press Enter.

    « Back Next »
  7. ×

    Share a link to this book page on your preferred social network or via email.

    « Back Next »
  8. ×

    View our suggested citation for this chapter.

    « Back Next »
  9. ×

    Ready to take your reading offline? Click here to buy this book in print or download it as a free PDF, if available.

    « Back Next »
Stay Connected!